MUSIC, PAINTING, POETRY, ASTRONOMY, ARTS AND SCIENCES, ART OF
WRITING, AND CHEMISTRY.
What are the earliest accounts of Musical Instruments on record?
The earliest accounts of music which we possess are to be found in the
Bible, in which the state of the world before the flood is noticed.
Jubal is said to have been "the father of them that play upon the harp
and organ;" but it is not to be supposed that these instruments at all
resembled the harp and organ of modern times. Musical instruments, in
the times of David and Solomon, were used in religious services; and
music was certainly employed by the Jews on many other occasions, as
at funerals and weddings, at harvest home, and at festivals of all
kinds.
_Modern_, opposed to ancient, pertaining to the present
time, or time not long past.
_Festival_, a rejoicing, a feast, a season dedicated to
mirth.
What nation was particularly celebrated for musical talents?
The ancient Egyptians; who were so celebrated for their talents in
music, that the distinguished philosophers of Greece braved many
dangers, in order to study the science in Egypt; and this, at a period
when the Egyptians were far from being in the same high state of
civilization as their forefathers had been in earlier times. The
history and monuments of ancient Egypt have many accounts and
representations of musical instruments, and remains of these have
lately been discovered, so that we have ocular demonstration both of
their existence and form.
_Civilization_, freedom from barbarity, polish, politeness,
possession of knowledge and the arts of life.
_Ocular_, known or seen by the eye.
_Demonstration_, the act of proving with certainty.
In how many divisions may musical instruments be arranged?
There are three kinds, namely, _wind_ instruments, as the trumpet, and
the organ;--_stringed_ instruments, as the harp or lyre, violin, &c.;
and instruments of _concussion_, in which the sound is produced by
striking a sonorous body, as for instance the drum, bells, &c.
Which of these three kinds was the first invented?
It is impossible, at the present day, to decide which; but it is most
probable that instruments with strings were the last invented of the
three kinds; and it is most likely, that of those in which sound is
produced by the application of wind, the trumpet or horn was first
used. This instrument, in its rudest form, was ready fashioned to the
hand of man; the horn of a ram or of an ox, or some of the larger
kinds of sea-shells, were soon discovered to possess the power of
producing sound, by being blown into through a small hole at the
pointed end.
What improvement in this instrument would naturally follow?
Mankind having discovered the property possessed by a hollow tube of
producing a certain sound, soon found that the note varied according
to the length and capacity of the tube. A much greater improvement
soon after took place; it was discovered that one tube answered the
purpose of many by boring holes in the course of its length, and
producing various musical sounds by stopping with the fingers certain
of these holes. Most of our modern wind instruments are but
improvements on the ancient inventions.
_Tube_, a pipe; a long hollow body.
Was not Vocal Music used before the invention of Instrumental?
_Vocal_ music, namely, that produced by the human voice, (so called to
distinguish it from _instrumental_, that produced by instruments,) was
undoubtedly the first: for man had not only the various tones of his
own voice to make his observations on, before any art or instrument
was found out; but the various natural strains of birds to give him a
lesson in improving it, and in modulating the sounds of which it is
capable.
_Modulating_, forming sound to a certain key.
To what circumstance did an ancient poet ascribe the invention of
stringed instruments?
To the observation of the winds whistling in the hollow reeds. As for
other kinds of instruments, there were so many occasions for cords or
strings, that men were not long in observing their various sounds,
which might give rise to stringed instruments. Those of concussion, as
drums and cymbals, might result from the observation of the naturally
hollow noise made by concave bodies when struck.
What are the most ancient stringed instruments?
The most ancient instruments of this kind, whose form is known, are
those of the ancient Egyptians; among these the harp stands
pre-eminent. One of the most celebrated representations of an Egyptian
harp was drawn from a painting discovered in one of the caverns in
the mountains of Egyptian Thebes, by some travellers: it is called the
Theban harp, and has thirteen strings; its form is extremely elegant.
This harp is supposed to be one of the kind in use before and at the
time of Sesostris. Remains of Egyptian harps of a more simple
construction, with only four strings, have likewise been discovered.
Among the monuments of ancient Rome, there are representations of
stringed instruments resembling the harp, but not equal in beauty of
form to the famous Egyptian harp already mentioned.
_Pre-eminent_, surpassing others.
Who was Sesostris?
A King of Egypt, who is said to have reigned some ages before the
siege of Troy. He appears to have been celebrated for his conquests,
and for the number of edifices he erected to perpetuate his fame.
_Perpetuate_, to preserve from extinction; to continue the
memory of a person or event.
Where was Troy?
Troy, anciently called Ilium, was the capital of Troas, in Asia. It
became famous for the ten years' siege it sustained against the
Greeks; the history of this event is commemorated in the poems of
Homer and Virgil.
Is not the harp an instrument of high antiquity in Great Britain?
Yes: it was a favorite instrument with the ancient Saxons in Great
Britain. The celebrated Alfred entered the Danish camp disguised as a
harper, because the harpers passed through the midst of the enemy
unmolested on account of their calling. The same deception was
likewise practised by several Danish chiefs, in the camp of Athelstan,
the Saxon. The bards, or harpers of old, were the historians of the
time; they handed down from generation to generation the history of
remarkable events, and of the deeds and lineage of their celebrated
chiefs and princes. The harpers of Britain were formerly admitted to
the banquets of kings and nobles: their employment was to sing or
recite the achievements of their patrons, accompanying themselves on
the harp. No nations have been more famous for their harps and harpers
than the Welsh and Irish.
_Recite_, to repeat or chant in a particular tone or manner.
_Achievement_, a great or heroic deed.
_Patron_, benefactor, one who bestows favors.
What instrument was famous among the ancient Greeks?
The Lyre: the invention, or rather discovery, of this instrument is
ascribed by them to their most celebrated deities. It is supposed to
have originated from the discovery of a dead tortoise, the flesh of
which had dried and wasted, so that nothing was left within the shell
but sinews and cartilages: these, tightened and contracted, on account
of their dryness, were rendered sonorous. Some one, Mercury or Apollo,
they affirm, in walking along, happening to strike his foot against
the tortoise, was greatly pleased with the sound it produced: thus was
suggested to him the first idea of a lyre, which he afterwards
constructed in the form of a tortoise, and strung with the dried
sinews of dead animals. The stringed instruments already described
were made to give out musical sounds, by causing a vibratory motion in
their strings by means of the fingers.
_Sinew_, a tendon; that which unites a muscle to a bone.
_Cartilage_, a gristly, smooth, solid substance, softer than
bone.
_Vibratory_, shaking.
Who was Mercury?
The heathen god of eloquence, letters, &c., and the messenger of the
other gods.
Who was Apollo?
The god of music, poetry, medicine, and the fine arts.
[Illustration: PICKING COTTON.]
[Illustration: GATHERING TEA.]
What is a Tortoise?
A well-known animal, with a thick shelly covering, belonging to the
order of reptiles; there are two species, the sea and the land
tortoise; the first named is called a turtle, and affords delicious
food; land tortoises live to a very great age. It is only one sort
which furnishes the beautiful shell so much prized. Tortoises are
found in many parts of the world. The turtles on the Brazilian shore
are said to be so large as to be enough to dine fourscore men: and in
the Indian sea, the shells serve the natives for boats.
Of what are the strings of the Lyre, &c., composed?
Sometimes of either brass or silver wire, &c., but most commonly of
catgut.
What is Catgut?
The intestines of sheep or lambs, dried or twisted, either singly or
several together. Catgut is also used by watch-makers, cutlers, and
other artificers, in their different trades. Great quantities are
imported from France and Italy.
Are there no other kind of Instruments besides those already
described?
Yes, music and musical instruments have progressively improved; and it
would be a needless task to enumerate the numbers of instruments of
each kind now in use; many, as for instance the organ, the piano,
musical boxes, &c., are exceedingly complex and ingenious in their
construction, as well as remarkable for the sweetness of their various
sounds; some, as the two first-named, are played with the fingers, and
produce any melody or combination of sound at the will of the
performer; others, as the musical-box, barrel-organ, &c., produce a
particular melody, or a certain number of melodies, by means of
machinery. In the use of the last-named the performer is not at all
indebted to his own musical skill, as he has only to turn the handle
which sets the machinery in motion, and the musical box, or
barrel-organ, will continue playing till it has finished the tunes to
which it is set.
Upon what principle do these last-mentioned instruments perform?
The barrel-organ and musical box both play on nearly the same
principle, though the former is turned by a handle, and the latter
only requires a certain spring to be touched, in order to set it off
or to stop it. Their machinery consists of a barrel pricked with brass
pins; when the barrel revolves, these ping lift a series of steel
springs of different lengths and thicknesses, and the vibration of
these springs when released, produces the different notes.
What is Painting?
The art of representing objects in nature, or scenes in human life,
with fidelity and expression, either in oil or water colors, &c.
_Fidelity_, truth, faithfulness.
_Oil Colors_, those colors which are mixed up with oil, as
the others are with water.
Is not this art of great antiquity?
There is not the slightest doubt of it; but to name the country where
it was first practised, or the circumstances attending its origin, is
beyond the power of the historian. About a century after the call of
Abraham, Greek and Egyptian tradition tells us of a colony planted at
Sicyon, by an Egyptian, who brought with him the knowledge of painting
and sculpture, and founded the earliest and purest school of Greek
art. The walls of Babylon were adorned with paintings of different
kinds of animals, hunting expeditions, combats, &c. Allusions to this
custom of the Babylonians, of decorating their walls with paintings,
are found in the Bible.
_Tradition_, a history or account delivered from mouth to
mouth without written memorials; communication from age to
age.
_Allusion_, reference.
_Decorating_, ornamenting.
_Sicyon_, a kingdom of Peloponnesus, in ancient Greece.
Were the Egyptians acquainted with this art?
It is now little doubted that, although painting and sculpture existed
in Egypt, and were probably at their highest condition, eighteen
centuries before the Christian era, yet, at a still earlier period,
these arts were known in the kingdom of Ethiopia; and it is considered
likely, that the course of civilization descended from Ethiopia to
Egypt. There is, however, no record of any Egyptian painter in the
annals of the art; and it does not appear that it ever flourished in
that country, or that other nations were much indebted to Egypt for
their knowledge of it.
_Era_, age, period.
_Ethiopia_, the ancient name of the kingdoms of Nubia and
Abyssinia, in Africa.
_Annal_, record, history.
_Exploit_, action, achievement, deed of valor.
Have we any notice of this art among the Hebrews?
There is no allusion made to the existence of painting among this
people, and no proof that it was cultivated among them: it is supposed
that the neglect of this art arose from their not being permitted to
represent any object by painting.
What progress did the generality of the Eastern nations make in this
art?
The art of painting among the Phenicians, Persians, and other Eastern
nations, advanced but slowly. The Chinese appear, until a very recent
period, to have contented themselves with only so much knowledge of
the art as might enable them to decorate their beautiful porcelain and
other wares; their taste is very peculiar, and though the pencilling
of their birds and flowers is delicate, yet their figures of men and
animals are distorted, and out of proportion; and of perspective they
seem to have but little idea. Latterly, however, a change has taken
place in Chinese art, and proofs have been given of an attempt to
imitate European skill. The Japanese figures approach more nearly to
beauty of style than Chinese productions of a similar kind.
_Distorted_, having a bad figure.
_Perspective_, the science by which things are represented
in a picture according to their appearance to the eye.
Who are the Japanese?
The inhabitants of Japan, an empire of Eastern Asia, composed of
several large islands. They are so similar in feature, and in many of
their customs and ceremonies, to the Chinese, as to be regarded by
some, as the same race of men. The Japanese language is so very
peculiar, that it is rarely understood by the people of other
nations. Their religion is idolatrous; their government a monarchy,
controlled by the priesthood. The people are very ingenious, and the
arts and sciences are held in great esteem by them. In all respects,
Japan is an important and interesting empire.
_Monarchy_, a government in which the power is vested in a
king or emperor.
By what nations was the art of painting practised with great success?
By the Greeks and Romans. Greece produced many distinguished painters,
among whom Apelles was one of the most celebrated; he was a native of
Cos, an island in the Archipelago, rather north of Rhodes; he
flourished in the time of Alexander the Great, and witnessed both the
glory and the decay of ancient art: the leading features of his style
were beauty and grace. But painting was not at any period so
completely national in Greece, as sculpture, its sister art; the names
of one hundred and sixty-nine eminent sculptors are recorded, while
only fifteen painters are mentioned. Zeuxis, of Heraclea, was another
famous Greek painter, who flourished 400 years before Christ. The
Romans were not without considerable masters in this art, in the
latter times of the republic, and under the first emperors.
What nation is supposed to have known and practised this art even
before the foundation of Rome?
The Etruscans, inhabitants of Etruria, whose acquaintance with the
arts has excited great astonishment among those who have most deeply
searched into their history, and traced their progress by means of the
beautiful specimens of their works still extant. Their early works
were not superior to those of other nations; but either from their
intercourse with Greece, or the original genius of the people, they
had attained considerable eminence in the arts of painting, sculpture,
&c., before Rome was founded. Pliny speaks of some beautiful pictures
at Ardea and Lanuvium, which were older than Rome: and another author
also says that before Rome was built, sculpture and painting existed
among them.
Where was Etruria situated?
In Italy, on the west of the Tiber, which separated it from the
territory of ancient Rome, to which it was afterwards annexed by
conquest. Etruria was the ancient name of Tuscany.
_Annexed_, united.
Was not the art greatly obscured for some centuries?
The irruption of Barbarians into Italy and Southern Europe, proved
fatal to painting, and almost reduced it to its primitive state; it
was not until after a long period that it was fully restored. The
first certain signs of its revival took place about the year 1066,
when Greek artists were sent for to adorn several of the cities of
Italy. Cimabue, a native of Florence, in the thirteenth century,
caught the inspiration of the Greek artists, and soon equalled their
works. He was both a painter and an architect.
_Irruption_, inroad, invasion.
To what did this revolution in its history give rise?
It caused it to be distinguished into ancient and modern. The ancient
painting comprehends the Greek and Roman: the modern has formed
several schools, each of which has its peculiar character and merit.
The first masters who revived the art were greatly surpassed by their
scholars, who carried it to the greatest state of perfection, and
advanced it not only by their own noble works, but also by those of
their pupils.
Who were the principal masters of the Italian school?
Raphael and the celebrated Michael Angelo Buonarotti; the former is
regarded as the prince of modern painters, and is often styled "the
divine Raphael;" he was born at Urbino, in 1483. Michael Angelo was
born at Florence, in 1564, and united the professions of painter,
sculptor, architect, poet, and musician. Besides these there were many
other illustrious Italian painters, the principal of whom were
Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Correggio, the three Caracci, Guido,
Parmegiano, Salvator Rosa, &c.
Was not Raphael also reckoned as excellent an architect as he was a
painter?
He was not only esteemed the best painter in the world, but also the
best architect; he was at least so admired for skill and taste in
architecture, that Leo the Tenth charged him with the building of St.
Peter's Church at Rome.
Who was Leo the Tenth?
A great Pope, who was an ardent lover and patron of learning and the
arts. He was born at Florence, in 1475, and died in 1521.
Give me a list of some of the most celebrated painters besides those
already mentioned.
The great painters of the _German_ school were Albert Durer, Holbein,
Kneller and Mengs, with several others.
Of the _Dutch_ school, were Rembrandt, Gerard Dow, Mieris, Ostade,
Polemberg, Berghem, and Wouvermans.
Of the _Flemish_, Rubens, Teniers, Jordaens, and Vandyck.
The admired painters of the _French_ school, were Claude, Poussin, Le
Brun, and many others.
The _Spaniards_ also have had their Murillo, Velasquez, &c.
The _English_, Hogarth, Wright, Reynolds, Wilson, Northcote,
Gainsborough, Morland, Barry, and others.
The _Americans_, Washington Allston, Benjamin West, Gilbert Stuart,
John Singleton Copley, John Trumbull, G. Stuart Newton, Thomas Cole,
Henry Inman, and a number of others; besides many now living, or but
recently deceased.
Upon what materials did the ancients paint their works?
Principally upon wood; the boards or tables were prepared with a thin
ground of chalk and size of some kind. Linen cloth or canvas was also
employed, but there is no evidence of its use before the reign of
Nero. Parchment, ivory and plaster were the other materials.
_Evidence_, testimony, record.
Who was Nero?
One of the Roman Emperors, a monster of cruelty, extravagance, and
debauchery; he raised a dreadful persecution against the Christians,
in which St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified. At last,
being deserted by his army and the senate, he destroyed himself, after
a reign of fourteen years.
_Debauchery_, wickedness.
What is Poetry?
The glowing language of impassioned feeling, generally found in
measured lines, and often in rhyme. Most ancient people had their
poets.
_Glowing_, warm, energetic.
_Impassioned_, full of passion, animated.
_Rhyme_, the correspondence of the last sound of one verse
to the last sound or syllable of another.
Name a few of the ancient poets.
David was an inspired poet of the Hebrews: Homer, one of the earliest
poets of the Greeks: Ossian, an ancient poet of the Scots: Taliesen,
an ancient poet of the Welsh: and Odin, an early poet of the
Scandinavians.
Who were the Scandinavians?
The inhabitants of Scandinavia, the ancient name of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway.
What people are regarded as the Fathers of Poetry?
The Greeks. Homer was the first and the prince of poets; he celebrated
the siege of Troy in the Iliad and Odyssey, two epic poems which have
never been surpassed. In the same kind of composition he was followed,
nine hundred years after, by Virgil, in the Eneid; by Tasso, after
another fifteen hundred years, in the 'Jerusalem Delivered.' The
Greeks also boasted of their Pindar and Anacreon in lyric poetry; and
of Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles, and Eschylus, in dramatic
poetry.
Did the Romans possess any distinguished Poets?
Yes; among the epic poets were Ovid and Tibullus; among dramatists,
Plautus and Terence; of didactic and philosophic poets, Lucretius,
Virgil, Horace, and Silius Italicus. All these were so many miracles
of human genius; and their works afford the models of their respective
species of composition. Most of the works of the ancients have in
sentiment, if not in spirit, been translated into English.
_Miracles_, wonders.
_Genius_, natural talent.
_Respective_, particular.
_Sentiment_, thought, meaning.
Did not the same revolution which undermined the Greek and Roman
empires, and destroyed learning, the arts and sciences, and the taste
for elegance and luxury, also prove fatal to Poetry?
It did; the hordes of barbarians who overran Europe wiped out
civilization in their progress, and literature, art, and science fled
before the wild conquerors to find a refuge in the monastery and the
convent. Here knowledge was fostered with the love and ardor which
religion alone can impart. Finally, when the rude barbarians were
converted, it was to the religious Orders that the world turned for
the establishment of schools, and it is to the Church alone, in the
person of her popes, her bishops, and her monks that we are indebted
for the preservation of learning, and its revival in the fifteenth
century.
What celebrated Poets marked this revival?
In Italy, Dante, Ariosto, Petrarch and Tasso. These were followed, in
France, by Racine, Corneille, Boileau, Voltaire, La Fontaine and
Delille; in England, by Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden,
Pope, Thomson, Young, Collins, Gray, Byron, Coleridge, &c; in
Scotland, by Sir Walter Scott; in Ireland, by Thomas Moore; in
Germany, Klopstock, Goethe and Schiller.
Name some of the distinguished poets of our own country.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, James Russell
Lowell, John G. Whittier, Fitz-Greene Halleck, and many others whose
meritorious works will be impartially judged by a future age.
_Impartially_, justly, without prejudice.
Name the different kinds of Poetry.
Epic, or historical; dramatic, or representative,--from drama, the
name of all compositions adapted to recitation on the stage--in which
are displayed, for instruction and amusement, all the passions,
feelings, errors, and virtues of the human race in real life; lyric
poetry, or that suited to music, as songs, odes, &c; didactic, or
instructive; elegiac, or sentimental, and affecting; satirical, or
censorious; epigrammatic, or witty and ludicrous; and pastoral, or
descriptive of country life.
_Historical_, relating to history.
_Lyric_, pertaining to a lyre.
_Didactic_, doctrinal; relating to doctrines or opinions.
_Elegiac_, relating to elegy; mournful, sorrowful.
_Elegy_, a mournful song: a funeral composition; a short
poem without points or affected elegance.
_Satirical_, severe in language; relating to satire.
_Satire_, a poem in which wickedness or folly is censured.
_Epigrammatic_, relating to epigram,--a short poem ending in
a particular point or meaning, understood but not expressed.
_Pastoral_, from _pastor_, a shepherd; relating to rural
employments and those belonging to shepherds.
What is Astronomy?
The science which treats of the heavenly bodies, their arrangement,
magnitudes, distances and motions. The term Astronomy is derived from
two Greek words, signifying the _law_ of the _stars_; _astron_ being
the Greek for star.
What can you say of its origin?
Its origin has been ascribed to several persons, as well as to
different nations and ages. Belus, King of Assyria; Atlas, King of
Mauritania; and Uranus, King of the countries situated on the shores
of the Atlantic Ocean, are all recorded as the persons to whom the
world is indebted for this noble science. Its origin is generally
fixed in Chaldea. Some choose, however, to attribute it to the
Hebrews; others to the Egyptians,--from whom, they say, it passed to
the Greeks.
What country is meant by Mauritania?
Mauritania is the name formerly given to a country in the northern
part of Africa. Chaldea is the ancient name for Babylonia, now called
Irak Arabi, a district of Asiatic Turkey.
By whom were the heavenly bodies first divided into Constellations or
groups?
By the ancients. The phenomena of the heavens were studied in very
early ages by several nations of the East. The Chaldeans, the Indians,
the Chinese and the Egyptians have all left evidence of the industry
and ingenuity with which their observations were conducted.
_Phenomena_, appearances.
_Ingenuity_, skilfulness.
What progress did they make in Astronomy?
They built observatories,--invented instruments for observing and
measuring with correctness,--separated the stars into different groups
or constellations, for the more easily finding any particular
star,--gave particular names to most of the moving stars or planets,
and noted the periods which each took to move through its apparent
path in the heavens; and in many other ways the ancients helped to lay
the foundations of that mass of astronomical knowledge which men of
later ages have brought to more maturity.
_Constellation_, a cluster of fixed stars; an assemblage of
stars.
_Observatory_, a place so built as to command a view of the
heavens.
Who first taught the true system of the Universe?
Pythagoras, one of the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity.
He is thought to have been a native of Samos, an island in the
Archipelago; he flourished about 500 years before Christ, in the time
of Tarquin, the last King of Rome. Pythagoras was the first among the
Europeans who taught that the Earth and Planets turn round the Sun,
which stands immovable in the centre;--that the diurnal motion of the
Sun and Fixed Stars is not real, but apparent,--arising from the
Earth's motion round its own axis, &c. After the time of Pythagoras,
Astronomy sunk into neglect.
_Philosopher_, one who studies philosophy.
_Philosophy_, all knowledge, whether natural or moral. The
term is derived from the Greek, _philos_, lover, and
_sophia_, wisdom.
By whom was it revived?
By the family of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, who founded a school
of astronomy at Alexandria, which produced several eminent
astronomers, particularly one named Hipparchus. The Saracens, on their
conquest of Egypt, became possessed of the knowledge of Astronomy,
which they carried with them out of Africa into Spain; and thus, after
a long exile, it was introduced afresh into Europe.
Did not Astronomy from this time make great progress?
Yes; it made considerable advances, being cultivated by the greatest
geniuses, and patronized by the greatest princes. The system of the
Ptolemies, called the Ptolemaic, had hitherto been used, with some
slight alterations; but Copernicus, an eminent astronomer, born at
Thorn, in Polish Prussia, in 1473, adopted the system which had been
taught by Pythagoras in Greece, five or six hundred years before the
time of Ptolemy. About the same time with Copernicus flourished Tycho
Brahe, born in Denmark, 1546.
_Geniuses_, men gifted with superior mental faculties.
_Mental_, belonging to the mind.
_Faculties_, powers of doing anything, whether menial or
bodily; abilities; powers of the mind.
What next greatly forwarded this interesting science?
The introduction of telescopes by Galileo, who by their means
discovered the small stars or satellites which attend the planet
Jupiter; the various appearances of Saturn; the mountains in the Moon;
the spots on the Sun; and its revolution on its axis.
_Satellites_, attendants.
What celebrated Astronomer arose in England?
The immortal Sir Isaac Newton, born in 1642, at Woolsthorpe, in
Lincolnshire, who has, perhaps, contributed more to the advancement of
this science than any one who had before existed. Dr. William
Herschel, a native of Hanover, in Germany, born in 1738, likewise
made many useful discoveries in Astronomy: it was he who first
discovered the seventh primary planet, which he named, in honor of
King George the Third, the Georgium Sidus. George the Third took him
under his especial patronage, and constituted him his astronomer, with
a handsome pension. He resided at Slough, near Windsor, where he died,
in 1822.
_Patronage_, support, favor.
_Constituted_, appointed to any particular office or rank.
_Pension_, yearly allowance of money.
What other circumstance contributed to the advancement of Astronomy?
The increasing perfection of our astronomical instruments,--by means
of which, the most important and interesting discoveries with regard
to the heavens have been made. It is now supposed that the myriads of
the heavenly bodies are all distinct worlds; it is certain, from
observations made by the aid of the telescope, that the moon has its
mountains, valleys, and caverns. One of the greatest astronomers of
our day was the eminent Father Secci.
What are generally meant by the Arts?
Systems of rules designed to facilitate the performance of certain
actions; in this sense, it stands opposed to science. The terms _art_
and _science_ are often incorrectly used. Science relates to
principles, and art to practice. The word art is derived from a Greek
word signifying utility, profit. Arts are divided into liberal and
mechanical.
What are the Liberal Arts?
The liberal arts are those that are noble and ingenious, or which are
worthy of being cultivated without any immediate regard to the
pecuniary profit arising from them. They are Poetry, Music, Painting,
Sculpture, Architecture, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Astronomy, and
Navigation. The arts which relate more especially to the sight and
hearing are also called Fine Arts.
_Pecuniary_, relating to money.
_Military_, belonging to soldiers, or to arms.
What do the Fine Arts usually include?
All those which are more or less addressed to the sentiment of taste,
and whose object is pleasure; these are more especially Music,
Painting, Sculpture, and Poetry.
What are the Mechanical Arts?
Those in which the hand and body are more concerned than the mind, and
which are chiefly cultivated for the sake of the profit attending
them. To this class belong those which furnish us with the necessaries
of life, and which are commonly called trades, as carpentry, weaving,
printing, &c. There are also many other arts, as the art of writing,
&c.
When was the art of Writing invented?
It is supposed that the art was invented before the Deluge: it was
certainly practised long before the time of Moses. There were,
doubtless, many steps taken in slow succession before the invention of
alphabetic writing. Perhaps the earliest method might have been that
which is still employed among the untutored tribes of North American
Indians, who record events by picture-painting of the rudest
description. Picture-painting was afterwards gradually converted into
the hieroglyphical system, which is still the only kind of writing
among the Chinese. It is not known who invented the alphabetic system
of writing.
_Deluge_, a flood: the term used in particular to denote
that mighty flood of water with which God swept away the
first nations of the earth for their wickedness.
_Alphabetic_, from alphabet, the series of written signs of
language called letters. The word is formed from _alpha_,
_beta_, the names of the first two letters of the Greek
alphabet.
_Untutored_, ignorant, unlearned.
Were not the Egyptians quite early acquainted with this art?
Yes, they were acquainted with two or three kinds of writing, as well
as the one in which symbolical characters were employed, which was not
used for common purposes. On the contrary, such symbols had something
of a sacred character about them, being unknown to the common people,
and only to be deciphered by the priests. Obelisks and pyramids were
the great national records; and on these the hieroglyphics were
constantly used, because unintelligible to the people, until expounded
by those who had the exclusive office of explaining them.
_Symbolical_, having the nature of signs or symbols--that
is, representations of different things.
_Deciphered_, read, understood, made out.
_Unintelligible_, that cannot be understood.
_Expounded_, explained, interpreted.
Were Hieroglyphics employed before or after Alphabetic Writing?
They were undoubtedly employed at first from necessity, not from
choice or refinement; and would never have been thought of, if
alphabetical characters had been known. This style of writing must be
reckoned as a rude improvement upon picture-writing, which had
previously been used. Hieroglyphics were employed by the Egyptian
priests in after times, as a kind of sacred writing, peculiar to
themselves, and serving to give an air of mystery to their learning
and religion, though fallen into disuse for other purposes.
What materials were employed by ancient nations in Writing?
The Eastern nations used tables of stone, brass, and wood, so that the
characters were engraved instead of being written in the usual manner.
The instrument used in writing on wood, was made of metal, and called
a _style_. For stone, brass, &c., a chisel was employed. When the bark
and leaves of trees, skins, and other materials of a more pliant
nature, superseded the above-named tables, the chisel and the style,
or stylus, gave way to the reed and cane, and afterwards to the quill,
the _hair_ pencil (as now used by the Chinese,) and the convenient
lead pencil.
_Engraved_, inscribed with the graver, a tool used in
engraving on stone, &c.
_Pliant_, yielding, easily bent.
Have not the various nations among whom this useful art has been
cultivated, adopted different ways of arranging their written
characters?
Yes. The Hebrews, Chaldeans, Syrians, Arabians, and Egyptians, begin
each line on the right side, and write towards the left. The Greeks,
Latins, and all European nations, write from left to right. The
natives of China, Japan, Cochin China, Corea, &c., write from the top
to the bottom of the page.
Where are Cochin China, and Corea?
Cochin China is a country situated in Eastern Asia. Corea is a
peninsula of Asia, subject to China.
What is meant by Science?
A clear and certain knowledge of anything founded on self-evident
principles, or demonstration. The term is, however, more particularly
applied to a systematic arrangement of the principles relating to any
branch of knowledge, and is employed in this sense in opposition to
art: thus the theoretical knowledge of chemistry is ranked as a
science, but the practical part is called an art; thus it is sometimes
spoken of as a science, sometimes as an art.
_Practical_, relating to action, not merely speculative.
What is Chemistry?
A science which enables us to discover the peculiar properties of
natural bodies, either in their simple or compound state, and the
elementary or first principles of which they are composed, by the
processes of analysis and combination. Chemistry treats of those
changes in natural bodies which are not accompanied by _sensible_
motions.
_Compound_, mixed.
_Analysis_, a separation of a compound body into the several
parts of which it consists.
Is not the knowledge of Chemistry very ancient?
Chemistry, as far as it regards the separating of metals from foreign
matters in the ore, smelting and refining them, is of the highest
antiquity; it is even supposed to have been understood and practised
in the antediluvian world.
_Antediluvian_, before the flood.
What nation appears to have excelled in Chemistry in early times?
The Egyptians were no mean proficients in many chemical operations,
especially in the arts of working metals, softening ivory, vitrifying
flints, and imitating precious stones. Chemistry, however, experienced
the common fate of all the arts, at the decline of the Eastern empire.
_Proficients_, those who have made great progress in any art
or science.
By whom was it revived?
After having long lain buried, the famous Roger Bacon revived it; and
from his time to the present day it has gradually progressed to a
state of perfection. In former times, the art of chemistry consisted
only in the knowledge of working metals, &c.; but in latter ages, its
bounds have been greatly enlarged. The knowledge of Chemistry leads to
many interesting and important discoveries, and the arts and
manufactures are greatly indebted to its aid; indeed, it is requisite
to be a good chemist, in order to attain to perfection in many of
them.
_Requisite_, necessary.
By what other name has Chemistry been known?
It was sometimes called _Alchemy_; by which is properly understood a
refined and mysterious species of chemistry, formerly much practised.
What were its objects?
The discovery of the art of converting metals into gold, including the
search after the "Philosopher's Stone," by which this change was to be
effected; and the discovery of a panacea or medicine for the cure of
all diseases.
What was the Philosopher's Stone?
A substance, for numbers of years eagerly sought for, which was to
convert metals, such as lead, copper, &c. into gold. This unknown
substance was called the Philosopher's Stone, probably on account of
the number of learned men who engaged in the search after it.
[Illustration: UNITED STATES SIGNAL STATION, PIKE'S PEAK, COLORADO.]
Was this search successful?
No; but the delusion lasted several centuries, notwithstanding the
failures, losses, and disappointments of those engaged in it. Indeed,
so severe and ruinous were these, in many instances, that laws were
passed to forbid the study. In Germany, many of the alchemists who had
the unfortunate reputation of possessing this wonderful stone were
imprisoned and furnished with apparatus till they should purchase
their liberty by making an ounce of gold.
_Delusion_, an error arising from false views.
_Apparatus_, a complete set of instruments or tools, by
which anything is made, or any operation performed.
Was any gold ever produced by this method?
Not a particle; the story of a stone having the property of converting
the baser metals into gold being merely an absurd fable: yet, although
the pursuits of Alchemy were the most preposterous that can be
conceived, the ardor with which they were followed, and the amazing
number of experiments made in consequence, led to the discovery of
many facts to which Chemistry is highly indebted.
_Preposterous_, absurd, foolish; contrary to nature or
reason.
You inform me that Chemistry enables us to discover the properties of
bodies by means of _analysis_ and _combination_: what do these terms
imply?
If a chemist wishes to examine the properties of a compound body, he
proceeds by analysis--that is, by a separation of the substance to be
examined into its constituent parts. The chemical examination of
bodies is generally effected by producing a change in the _nature_ or
_state_ of the body under examination. This change is frequently
brought about by the addition of some _other_ substance which forms a
combination with a part of the substance examined, and leaves the
remainder in a detached state.
By what _means_ do Chemists effect a change in the qualities or states
of natural bodies?
It is generally effected by means of _heat_, which has a tendency to
separate the particles of bodies from each other; or by the _mixture_
or _combination_ of some other matter with the matter intended to be
examined. The mixture of two or more compounds often produces a
decomposition by means of chemical _affinity_, a property which
different species of matter have to unite with each other; and which
is sometimes called _elective affinity_. Thus it may be observed,
chemists have not only the power of decomposing natural bodies, but of
producing by combination various other substances, such as are not
found in the kingdom of nature.
What do you mean by _decomposition_?
In chemical language, it means the separation of a compound body into
its simple elements.
Give me an example.
Water may be decomposed, and reduced into oxygen and hydrogen,--both
of them simple substances incapable of further decomposition.
Is not the work of decomposition perpetually going forward?
Yes; and _combustion_ is one of the great agents in this work. By it
animal and vegetable substances are converted into water and carbonic
acid, by the union of their hydrogen and carbon with the oxygen of the
air. These, in time, are again absorbed by vegetables, and again
decomposed to set the oxygen at liberty to produce fresh combustions.
Of what use are the two remaining substances, Hydrogen and Carbon?
These are appropriated by the vegetative organs to their growth and
nourishment, while the oxygen with which the carbon was combined is
abundantly given off to purify the air and render it fit for the
respiration of animals.
Give me an idea of the mode in which Chemists ascertain the _affinity_
of bodies, by relating an experiment.
Dissolve a tea-spoonful of sugar of lead in water, and pour the clear
solution into a decanter or large glass bottle. Then take a small
piece of zinc, and twist round it some brass or copper wire, so as to
let the ends of the wire depend from it in any agreeable form. Suspend
the zinc and wire in the solution which has been prepared; in a short
time, metallic lead will deposit itself on the zinc and along the
wire. This is a beautiful illustration of chemical affinity; the acid,
which constitutes a part of the sugar of lead, has a stronger affinity
for the zinc than for the lead, and, consequently, will combine with
the zinc, and form a compound which remains in solution, while the
lead is precipitated on the zinc and wire in the form of a brilliant
tree of metal.
_Affinity_, in chemistry, that attraction which takes place
between the elements of bodies, and forms compounds.
What does the word Nature signify?
In the above sense, the system of the universe; the creation, the
works of God. By the kingdom of nature is meant the world and all
things in it: nature is divided into three kingdoms, the animal,
vegetable, and mineral.
What are the different states of natural bodies?
All bodies are either solid, liquid, or aeriform. By solid bodies are
meant those whose parts unite so firmly as to resist the impression or
penetration of other bodies; by liquid, those substances whose parts
do not unite firmly, but have free motion among themselves; by
aeriform, fluid substances, having the form or nature of air. Liquid
substances are nothing more than solids converted into liquids by
heat, a certain increase of which would convert the liquids into
vapor.
What other name is given to Liquids?
They are likewise called fluids: we call the air, also, a fluid,
because it flows like a fluid, and light substances will float in it.
What is the cause of bodies floating on liquids?
It is an established law of nature, that all substances which weigh
less than an equal bulk of any liquid, will float on the surface of
this liquid. Thus a cork will float on water, while a stone sinks to
the bottom. The cork will not float in the air, though lighter than
water; and the stone is not heavier than the _whole_ of the water, but
more so than a portion of water of its _own bulk_,--and thus it sinks
in it. Stones also differ in their weight or gravity: for instance,
some of the asbestus kind are _lighter_ than water. Iron, brass,
indeed, nearly all substances, except gold and platina, will float
upon mercury, because they are lighter than this liquid.
What is the cause of bodies being either solid, liquid, or aeriform?
When the principle of _attraction_ prevails, it causes them to become
solid; when caloric prevails, they become aeriform. Fluidity is,
apparently, a medium between the two.
How is the state of Solidity in bodies accounted for?
The particles of all bodies are subject to two opposite powers,
_repulsion_ and _attraction_; between which they remain in
equilibrium. While the _attractive_ force remains strongest, the body
remains in a state of solidity; but if heat destroys this force, the
particles lose their cohesion, and the body ceases to be solid.
_Cohesion_, act of sticking together, union of the
constituent parts of a body.
Which is supposed to be the most natural state of all bodies?
Solidity; for by the _combination_ of caloric with them we can reduce
most substances to the fluid state; while the greatest number of
_liquid_ substances take a _solid_ form by the loss of caloric. Thus,
water congeals and forms ice; and even the gases show this disposition
to become solid, when they lose their _elasticity_ by forming some
_combination_.
Explain the terms _Repulsion_ and _Attraction_.
Repulsion is a peculiar property in the particles of matter, which
gives them a constant tendency to recede from each other. Attraction
is an unknown force, which causes bodies or their particles to
approach each other. The particles of all bodies possess this
property, which causes them to adhere, and preserves the various
substances around us from falling in pieces.
What different kinds of Attraction can you mention?
Attraction may be distinguished into that which takes place between
bodies at sensible distances, and that which manifests itself between
the _particles_ of matter at insensible distances.
Give an example of the first kind of attraction.
One of the most familiar instances of attraction at sensible distances
is seen in the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. When a stone is
lifted up in the hand, the earth's attraction, which previously caused
it to remain at its surface, is overcome; but, as soon as the hand is
withdrawn, the stone falls to the earth. The force which causes this
is called the _attraction of gravitation_, or simply _gravitation_.
How is the second kind of attraction, or that between the particles of
bodies, subdivided?
Into the _attraction of aggregation_, or _cohesion_; and _chemical
attraction_, or _affinity_. The former takes place between particles
which are _similar_, and the latter between those which are
_dissimilar_. All the operations of chemistry are founded upon the
force of affinity which Nature has established between the particles
of different kinds of matter, and which enables the chemist to produce
_new_ compounds differing more or less from the substances by whose
union they were formed.
Is it, then, necessary for chemists to understand the relative nature
of all substances?
Yes; because the basis of this science consists in an _analytical_
examination of the works of Nature; an investigation of the properties
and uses of all substances we are acquainted with; and the study of
the effects of _heat_ and _mixture_, in order that we may find out
their general and subordinate laws.
_Analytical_, relating to analysis.
_Investigation_, act of searching, or tracing out.
_Subordinate_, inferior in nature, dignity or power.
Relate a few more of the advantages obtained by a knowledge of
Chemistry.
Many of the wonderful operations of Nature, and the changes which take
place in substances around us, are, by its means, revealed to us. In
every manufacture, art, or walk of life, the chemist possesses an
advantage over his unskilled neighbor. It is necessary to the farmer
and gardener, as it explains the growth of plants, the use of manures,
and their proper application: and indispensable to the physician, that
he may understand the animal economy, and the _effects_ which certain
_causes_ chemically produce; and the nature of animal, vegetable, and
mineral poisons. The study is, therefore, an invaluable branch in the
education of youth: it is useful, not only in the active, but the
_moral_ life, by laying the foundation of an ardent and inquiring
mind. Even an everyday walk in the fields can be productive of
instruction, by a knowledge of it;--and let us always remember, that
"Knowledge is Power."
_Indispensable_, necessary, not to be done without.