HATS, STOCKINGS, SHOES, GLOVES, LEATHER, FURS, AND INK.
Of what are Hats made?
Of felt and wool. Dress hats for men's wear, were formerly made of
beaver-fur, but the increasing scarcity of this article led to the
introduction of silk plush as a substitute, and the result is that
beaver is entirely superseded, and plush is used altogether. They
possess many advantages over the beaver hat, as they are light,
glossy, and durable. Hats are also made of straw, plaited and sewed
together.
When did Hats come into general use?
The first mention made of hats is about the time of the Saxons, but
they were not worn except by the rich. Hats for men were invented at
Paris, by a Swiss, in 1404. About the year 1510, they were first
manufactured in London, by Spaniards. Before that time both men and
women in England commonly wore close, knitted, woollen caps. They
appear to have become more common in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It
is related, that when Charles the Second made his public entry into
Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, surmounted with a
plume or tuft of feathers; from which entry, or at least during his
reign, the use of hats and caps is to be dated; and from that time
they took the place of chaperons and hoods, that had been worn before
in France.
Where is Rouen?
In the province of Lower Seine, in France; it was formerly the capital
of Normandy.
Describe the Castor, or Beaver, and its habits.
The Beaver has a broad, flat tail, covered with scales, serving as a
rudder to direct its motion in the water; the toes of its hind feet
are furnished with membranes, after the manner of water-fowl; the fore
feet supply the place of hands, like those of the squirrel. The
Beaver has two kinds of hair, of a light brown color, one long and
coarse, the other short and silky. The teeth resemble those of a rat
or squirrel, but are longer, and admirably adapted for cutting timber
or stripping off the bark from trees.
_Membranes_, thin, flexible, expanded skins, connecting the
toes of water-fowl and amphibious animals, and thus enabling
them to swim with greater ease.
Where do Beavers usually fix their habitations?
Their houses are always situated in the water; they are composed of
clay, which they make into a kind of mortar with their paws: these
huts are of an oval figure, divided into three apartments raised one
above the other, and erected on piles driven into the mud. Each beaver
has his peculiar cell assigned him, the floor of which he strews with
leaves or small branches of the pine tree. The whole building is
generally capable of containing eight or ten inhabitants.
On what does the Beaver feed?
Its food consists of fruit and plants; and in winter, of the wood of
the ash and other trees. The hunters and trappers in America formerly
killed vast numbers for their skins, which were in great demand, as
they were used in making hats, but as the only use they are now put to
is for trimming, and for men's gloves and collars, the demand has
fallen off.
Of what are stockings made?
Of cotton, silk, or wool, woven or knitted. Anciently, the only
stockings in use were made of cloth, or stuff sewed together; but
since the invention of knitting and weaving stockings of silk, &c.,
the use of cloth has been discontinued.
From what country is it supposed that the invention of silk knitted
stockings originally came?
From Spain, in 1589. The art of weaving stockings in a frame was
invented by William Lee, M.A., of St. John's College, Cambridge,
England.
Explain the signification of M.A.
Master of Arts, a degree of honor conferred by the Universities.
What are Shoes?
A covering for the foot, now usually made of leather. In different
ages and countries, shoes have been made of various materials, as raw
skins, rushes, broom, paper, silk, wool, iron, silver, and gold.
What nation wore Shoes made of the bark of the papyrus?
The Egyptians. The Turks always take off their shoes, and leave them
at the door, when they enter Mosques or dwelling-houses. The same
custom also prevails in other Eastern nations.
What is a Mosque?
A Mahomedan church or temple.
What is meant by Mahomedan?
Belonging to the religion of Mahomed, the warrior and prophet of
Arabia and Turkey, who was its founder. He was born at Mecca, a city
of Arabia, in 571; and died in 631, at Medina, a city situated between
Arabia Felix and Arabia Deserta. His creed maintains that there is but
one God, and that Mahomed is his Prophet; it enjoins the observance of
prayers, washings, almsgiving, fasting, sobriety, pilgrimage to Mecca,
&c.
What do the appellations of Felix and Deserta signify?
Arabia, a country of Asia, lying on the borders of the Red Sea, is
divided into Petræa, Deserta, and Felix; Petræa, signifying the Stony;
Deserta, the Desert; and Felix, the fortunate or fruitful.
What is Leather?
The skins of various animals, as oxen, cows, calves, &c., dressed and
prepared for use.
How is the Leather prepared?
By tanning; that is, steeping the skins in an infusion of tan, by
which they are rendered firm, durable, and, in a great degree,
impervious to water.
_Infusion_, a liquor made by steeping anything in water, or
other liquids, without boiling.
What is Tan?
The bark of the oak-tree, &c., ground by a mill into a coarse powder.
What is Lime?[5]
A white, soft, friable, earthy substance, prepared from marble, chalk,
and other lime-stones, or from shells, by burning in a kiln.
[Footnote 5: For a further account of it, see Chapters XIII. & XVI.]
_Friable_, easily powdered.
For what is it used?
Its greatest use is in the composition of mortar for building; it is
also much used by tanners, skinners, &c., in the preparation of
leather; by soap-boilers in the manufacture of soap; and by
sugar-bakers for refining sugar.
What is a Kiln?
A fabric of brick or stone, formed for admitting heat in order to dry
or burn materials placed in it.
Of what are Gloves made?
Of leather, silk, thread, cotton, worsted, &c.
What skins are generally used for Gloves?
Those of the chamois, kid, lamb, dog, doe, and many other animals.
What are Furs, and how are they prepared?
Furs are the skins of wild animals, dressed with the hair on, and used
as apparel, either for warmth, ornament, or distinction of rank or
dignity.
Name a few of the principal furs in use.
The fur of the ermine, an animal inhabiting the cold regions of Europe
and America, is highly valued, and much used for ornamental purposes.
In summer, the upper part of the body is of a yellowish-brown color;
the under parts white, slightly tinged with yellow. It is then called
a _stoat_. In winter, the fur is closer and finer, and is of a snowy
white color; the tip of the tail is black throughout the year. In
Europe the fur is much used for ornamenting the state robes of
sovereigns and nobles. The sable is another animal much prized for its
rich fur; it is a native of Northern Europe and America. The skins of
the marten, found in North America, as well as in Northern Asia and
the mountains of Kamtschatka; and also of the bear, fox, raccoon,
badger, lynx, musk-rat, rabbit, hare, and squirrel, which are all
procured in North America, are valuable. One of the most valuable
descriptions of fur is that of the seal.
How is it procured?
By hunting the animals, which is the employment both of natives and
settlers from other countries; the hunters sell the skins for money,
to a company established for the purpose of trading in furs, or more
frequently exchange them for clothes, arms, and other articles. The
Alaska Commercial Company of San Francisco is granted by the United
States Government the exclusive privilege of catching the fur seal.
What is Alum?
A kind of mineral, of a strong, sharp taste. It dissolves both in cold
and boiling water, but best in the latter. It is of some use in
medicine; a principal ingredient in dyeing and coloring, neither of
which can be well performed without it, as it sets and brightens the
colors, and prevents them from washing out. It is also extremely
useful in many arts and manufactures.
Are there not different sorts of this material?
The principal kinds are native alums: _viz._ those prepared and
perfected underground by the spontaneous operations of nature; as the
roch, commonly called rock alum, from Rocha, in Syria, whence it is
brought.
_Spontaneous_, unassisted by art.
_Orientals_, inhabitants of the Eastern parts of the world.
What is Ink?
A liquor used in writing on paper or parchment, made of copperas,
galls; and gum arabic[6] mixed together. There are likewise several
plants that may serve for the making of ink, as oak-bark, red roses,
log-wood, &c. It is also made from an infusion of oak galls and iron
filings: there are also many other ways, as well as materials,
employed in the making of this useful article. Ink is the name applied
to all liquids used in writing, of whatever color they may be, as red,
blue, &c., though black is the most used for common purposes. The ink
of the ancients seems to have been of a thick, oily nature, unlike the
modern ink; it consisted of nothing more than a species of soot, or
ivory black, mixed with one fourth of gum.
[Footnote 6: See Chapter XI.]
What is Copperas?
A kind of vitriol. Copperas is the name given to green vitriol, which
is a preparation from iron. The blue vitriol is a sulphate of copper,
and the white vitriol a sulphate of zinc.
For what is Vitriol used?
In the making of glass, to color it; in many arts and manufactures;
and in medicine.
What are Galls?
Excrescences formed on a kind of oak tree in certain warm climates;
perforations are made by an insect into the bark of the tree, whence
issues a liquid which hardens by exposure. They are used in dyeing,
making ink, and other compositions. There are two sorts of oak galls
in our shops, brought from the Levant, and the southern parts of
Europe.
What does the word Levant signify?
A country to the eastward. It is applied to the countries of Turkey,
Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, &c., which are washed by the eastern
part of the Mediterranean.
Is the Ink used in Printing the same as writing Ink?
No; it is more of the nature of paint, being thicker and more
glutinous: it chiefly consists of a mixture of oil and lamp-black, or
some other ingredient, according to the color required; and is
remarkable for the ease with which it adheres to paper that is
moistened.
_Glutinous_, gummy, resembling glue.
What is Indian, or Chinese Ink?
An admirable composition, not liquid like our ink, but solid, and made
into cakes somewhat like the mineral colors we use in painting. It is
made into all sorts of figures, usually long, and about an inch thick;
sometimes gilt with the figures of birds, flowers, &c. To use this
ink, it must be rubbed with water, on stone or earthenware, till it
produces a beautiful, liquid, shining black. It is used in drawing,
&c., and is brought from China. It is composed of lamp-black and size,
or animal glue, or gum, to which perfumes and other substances are
sometimes added.