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[Illustration: THE AURORA BOREALIS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.]
A
CATECHISM
OF
FAMILIAR THINGS;
THEIR HISTORY, AND THE EVENTS WHICH LED TO
THEIR DISCOVERY.
_WITH A SHORT EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL_
NATURAL PHENOMENA.
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
Enlarged and Revised Edition.
NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, AND ST. LOUIS:
BENZIGER BROTHERS
PRINTERS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE.
COPYRIGHT, 1881, BY BENZIGER BROTHERS.
PREFACE.
This book, a reprint of a successful English publication, has been so
enlarged as to be to all intents and purposes new. It has been
carefully revised by a Reverend gentleman, who for some time filled
the chair of Physics and Chemistry in one of our colleges.
Recent inventions and improvements are described in a simple, popular
style, so as to be easily understood by all, and short notices are
given of prominent inventors and scientists. The paragraphs relating
to doctrinal matters conform in every respect to the teachings of the
Church.
A feature which will commend the book to every teacher is the
definitions of difficult words and terms, following the paragraphs in
which such words occur.
Technical language is avoided as much as possible, so as to enable
young pupils to become familiarly acquainted with the various
phenomena of nature, the leading characteristics and general history
of the objects of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and the
fundamental truths of the arts and sciences.
The illustrations are of a superior order, and a very complete Index,
which will be appreciated by every teacher, supplements the book. In a
word, no pains have been spared to enhance the value of the work, and
render it an important auxiliary in the dissemination of useful and
entertaining knowledge.
The publishers beg to acknowledge their obligations to the Sisters of
Mercy, Loretto, Pa., to whose kindness they are indebted for many
valuable suggestions.
In the hope that the book may be found suited to the accomplishment of
its aim, it is respectfully submitted to schools and instructors of
youth, who are the best judges of its merits.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I. Dew, Water, Rain, Snow, Hail, Atmosphere, Wind, Lightning,
Thunder, Electricity, Twilight, and the Aurora
Borealis
II. Corn, Barley, Pearl Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Tea,
Coffee, and Chocolate
III. Calico, Cotton, Cloth, Wool, Baize, Linen, Flax, Hemp,
Diaper, Holland, Canvas, and Flannel
IV. Cocoa, Toddy, Cherries, Bark, Cork, Cochineal, Cloves,
Cinnamon, and Cassia
V. Bombazine, Crape, Camlet, Cambric, Lace, Silk, Velvet,
and Mohair
VI. Currants, Raisins, Figs, Rice, Sugar, Sugar Candy, &c.,
Sago, Millet, Ginger, Nutmeg, Mace, Pimento or Allspice,
Pepper, and Cayenne Pepper
VII. Glass, Mirrors, Earthenware, Porcelain, Needles, Pins,
Paper, Printing, Parchment, and Vellum
VIII. Capers, Almonds, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Limes, Olives,
Oils, Melons, Tamarinds, and Dates
IX. Hats, Stockings, Shoes, Gloves, Leather, Furs, and Ink
X. Asbestus, Salt, Coal, Iron, Copper, Brass, Zinc, and Lapis
Calaminaris
XI. Yams, Mangoes, Bread-Fruit, Shea or Butter Tree, Cow
Tree, Water Tree, Licorice, Manna, Opium, Tobacco,
and Gum
XII. Spectacles, Mariner's Compass, Barometer, Thermometer,
Watches, Clocks, Telescope, Microscope, Gunpowder,
Steam Engine, and Electro-Magnetic Telegraph
XIII. Soap, Candles, Tallow Tree, Spermaceti, Wax, Mahogany,
India Rubber or Caoutchouc, Sponge, Coral,
Lime, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Gas, Hydrogen,
Chalk, and Marble
XIV. Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Platina, Sulphur, Gems or
Precious Stones--as Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds,
Turquois, Pearls, Mother-of-Pearl, and Ivory
XV. Starch, Arrow-root, Tapioca, Isinglass, Caviare, the
Vine, Wine, Gin, Rum, Brandy, Vinegar, Indigo,
Gamboge, Logwood, Tar, Pitch, Camphor, Musk,
Myrrh, Frankincense, and Turpentine
XVI. Bricks, Mortar, Granite, Slate, Limestone, or Calcareous
Rocks, Steel, Earths, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes
XVII. Architecture, Sculpture, Use of Money, and Navigation
XVIII. Music, Painting, Poetry, Astronomy, Arts and
Sciences, Art of Writing, and Chemistry
XIX. Attraction, Tides, Gravity, Artesian Wells, Air,
Aneroid Barometer, Ear-Trumpet, Stethoscope,
Audiphone, Telephone, Phonograph, Microphone,
Megaphone, Tasimeter, Bathometer, Anemometer,
Chronometer
XX. Light, Lime Light, Magnesium Light, Electric Light,
Rainbow, Prism, Spectrum, Colors, Photography,
Camera Obscura, Stereoscope, Kaleidoscope
XXI. Electricity, Electric Currents, Electric Battery, Electrotyping,
Stereotyping, Telegraph, Ocean Cable,
Lightning Rod, The Gulf Stream, The Mt. Cenis
Tunnel, The Suez Canal, Suspension Bridges, Eminent
Americans
A CATECHISM
OF
FAMILIAR THINGS.
CHAPTER I.
DEW, WATER, RAIN, SNOW, HAIL, ATMOSPHERE, WIND, LIGHTNING,
THUNDER, ELECTRICITY, TWILIGHT, AND THE AURORA BOREALIS.
What is Dew?
Moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of cold. During
the day, the powerful heat of the sun causes to arise from the earth
and water a moist vapor, which, after the sun sinks below the horizon,
is condensed by the cold, and falls in the form of dew. Dews are more
copious in the Spring and Autumn than at any other season; in warm
countries than in cold ones: because of the sudden changes of
temperature. Egypt abounds in dews all the summer; for the air being
too hot to condense the vapors in the day-time, they never gather into
clouds and form rain.
_Horizon_, the line which bounds the view on all sides, so
that the earth and sky appear to meet. A Greek word, from
the verb signifying to mark boundaries.
_Temperature_, degree of heat or cold.
_Condense_, to cause the particles of a body to approach or
unite more closely.
What are its uses?
It cools and refreshes the vegetable creation, and prevents it from
being destroyed by the heat of the sun. All hot countries where there
is little or no rain are therefore blessed with this provision by the
all-bountiful Creator, to render them luxuriant and inhabitable; and
the dews which fall are so copious, that the earth is as deeply soaked
with them during the night as if a heavy rain had fallen. For this
reason also it is, that we so often read in the Bible of the "dew of
Heaven" being promised to the Israelites as a signal favor.
_Luxuriant_, fertile, flourishing.
_Signal_, remarkable, eminent.
From what does the vapor originate?
Vapor is water, combined with a still greater quantity of
caloric,--that is, an imponderable and subtile form of matter, which
causes the sensation of heat; and which, driving asunder the particles
of the water, renders it aëriform.
_Imponderable_, without sensible weight.
_Subtile_, thin, not dense, or compact.
_Particle_, a small portion of matter.
_Aëriform_, having the form of air.
What is Water?
The fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface of our
globe, and which is necessary for the life and health of the animal
and vegetable creation; for without water there would be neither rain
nor dew, and everything would perish. It is likewise a necessary
beverage for man and the inferior animals.
_Beverage_, drink, liquor for drinking.
In how many states do we find Water?
In four: 1st, solid, as in ice, snow, hail, &c.; 2d, fluid, as in its
common form; 3d, aëriform, as in steam; and 4th, in a state of union
with other matter. Its most simple state is that of ice, which is
water deprived of a certain portion of its caloric: crystallization
then takes place, and the water becomes solid and is called ice.
_Crystallization_, the process by which the parts of a solid
body, separated by solution or fusion, are again brought
into the solid form. If the process is slow, the figure
assumed is regular and bounded by plane and smooth surfaces.
_Solution_, the diffusion of a solid through some liquid.
_Fusion_, melting, or rendering fluid by heat.
From what cause is the Water deprived of its caloric?
From the coldness of the atmosphere: underneath the poles of our globe
it is mostly solid; there it is similar to the hardest rocks, and may
be cut with a chisel, like stone or marble. This great solidity is
occasioned by the low temperature of the surrounding air; and in very
cold countries ice may be ground so fine as to be blown away by the
wind, and will still be ice.
_Poles_, the extremities or ends of the axis, an imaginary
line, supposed to be drawn through the centre of the earth;
or when applied to the heavens, the two points directly over
them.
Is ice the only instance of Water existing in a state of solidity?
No; it is found in a solid state in many minerals, as in marble, &c.,
and is then called _water of Crystallization_. It is essential, in
many cases, to their solidity and transparency.
_Essential_, necessary.
_Transparency_, clearness, the power of transmitting light.
Does Nature decompose Water in any of her operations?
Yes: every living vegetable has the power of decomposing water, by a
secret process peculiar to itself. Fish, too, and all cold-blooded
amphibious animals are gifted with the same power.
_Decomposing_, separating a mixed body into its several
parts.
_Amphibious_, able to live both in water and out of it.
Of what use is this power to vegetables?
The water which they decompose affords them nourishment for the
support of their vital juices, and enables them, by combining the
fluid gases which compose it with those of the air and the soil, to
form their different products; while the superfluous gas is abundantly
given out by their leaves, to refresh the spent air, and render it
wholesome for the animals that breathe it.
_Vital_, belonging to life, necessary to existence.
_Superfluous_, unnecessary, not wanted.
What is Rain?
The condensed aqueous vapors raised in the atmosphere by the sun and
wind, converted into clouds, which fall in rain, snow, hail, or mist:
their falling is occasioned by their own weight in a collision
produced by contrary currents of wind, from the clouds passing into a
colder part of the air, or by electricity. If the vapors are more
copious, and rise a little higher, they form a mist or fog, which is
visible to the eye; higher still they produce rain. Hence we may
account for the changes of the weather: why a cold summer is always a
wet one--a warm, a dry one.
_Aqueous_, watery; consisting of water.
_Collision_, a striking together, a clash, a meeting.
_Electricity_, a natural agent existing in all bodies (see
page 18).
What seasons are more liable to rain than others?
The Spring and Autumn are generally the most rainy seasons, the vapors
_rise_ more plentifully in Spring; and in the Autumn, as the sun
recedes from us and the cold increases, the vapors, which lingered
above us during the summer heats, _fall_ more easily.
_Recede_, to fall back, to retreat.
What is Snow?
Rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere, which causes it to fall to
the earth in white flakes. Snow fertilizes the ground by defending the
roots of plants from the intenser cold of the air and the piercing
winds.
_Congealed_, turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a
solid state; hardened.
_Fertilize_, to render fruitful.
_Intenser_, raised to a higher degree, more powerful.
What is Hail?
Drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air. Hail assumes
various figures according to the degrees of heat or cold through which
it passes, being sometimes round, flat, &c.
What is the Atmosphere?
The mass of aëriform fluid which encompasses the earth on all sides:
it extends about fifty miles above its surface. Air is the elastic
fluid of which it is composed.
_Elastic_, having the power of springing back, or recovering
its former figure after the removal of any external pressure
which has altered that figure. When the force which
compresses the air is removed, it expands and resumes its
former state.
What are the uses of air?
It is necessary to the well-being of man, since without it neither he
nor any animal or vegetable could exist. If it were not for
atmospheric air, we should be unable to converse with each other; we
should know nothing of sound or smell; or of the pleasures which arise
from the variegated prospects which surround us: it is to the presence
of air and carbonic acid that water owes its agreeable taste. Boiling
deprives it of the greater part of these, and renders it insipid.
_Variegated_, diversified, changed; adorned with different
colors.
_Insipid_, tasteless.
What is Wind?
Air in motion with any degree of velocity.
What is Lightning?
The effect of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning is
simply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds to the
earth, from the earth to the clouds, or from one cloud to another.
Lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed objects, as
high hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c.
What is Thunder?
The report which accompanies the electrical union of the clouds: or
the echoes of the report between them and the earth. Thunder is caused
by a sudden discharge of electrical matter collected in the air, by
which vibrations are produced, which give rise to the sound.
What is Electricity?
One of those agents passing through the earth and all substances,
without giving any outward signs of its presence, when at rest; yet
when active, often producing violent and destructive effects. It is
_supposed_ to be a highly elastic fluid, capable of moving through
matter. Clouds owe their form and existence, probably, to it; and it
passes through all substances, but more easily through metals, water,
the human body, &c., which are called conductors, than through air,
glass, and silk, which are called _non_-conductors. When bodies are
not surrounded with non-conductors, the electricity escapes quickly
into the earth.
To what part of bodies is Electricity confined?
To their surfaces, as the outside may be electric, and the inside in a
state of neutrality. The heat produced by an electric shock is very
powerful, but is only accompanied by light when the fluid is
obstructed in its passage. The production and condensation of vapor is
a great source of the atmospheric electricity.
_Condensation_, the act of making any body dense or compact;
that is, of bringing its parts into closer union.
In what other sense is the term Electricity employed?
This term is also employed to designate that important branch of
knowledge which relates to the properties shown by certain bodies when
rubbed against, or otherwise brought in contact with, each other, to
attract substances, and emit sparks of fire.
_Designate_, to point out by some particular token.
_Emit_, to send forth, to throw out.
[Illustration: CUTTING AND GATHERING ICE, ON THE HUDSON RIVER, NEW
YORK.]
Whence is the word derived?
From _electron_, the Greek word for amber, a yellow transparent
substance, remarkable for its electrical power when rubbed: amber is
of a resinous nature, and is collected from the sea-shore, or dug from
the earth, in many parts of the world. It is employed in the
manufacture of beads and other toys, on account of its transparency;
is of some use in medicine, and in the making of varnishes.
_Transparent_, clear, capable of being seen through.
_Resinous_, containing resin, a gummy vegetable juice.
Name a few substances possessing this remarkable property.
Silks of all kinds; the hair and fur of animals, paper, sulphur, and
some other minerals; most of the precious stones; the paste of which
false gems are made; and many other substances used by us in the
common affairs of life, are susceptible of electrical excitement;
among domestic animals the cat furnishes a remarkable instance. When
dry and warm, the back of almost any full-grown cat (the darker its
color the better) can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in the
direction of the hair, a process which is accompanied with a slight
snapping noise, and in the dark by flashes of pale blue light. When a
piece of glass is rubbed with silk, or a stick of red sealing-wax with
woollen cloth, each substance acquires the property of attracting and
repelling feathers, straws, threads of cotton, and other light
substances; the substances just mentioned as highly electric are,
however, merely specimens. All objects, without exception, most
probably are capable of being electrically excited; but some require
more complicated contrivances to produce it than others.
_Electric_, having the properties of electricity.
_Susceptible_, disposed to admit easily.
_Repelling_, the act of driving back.
_Complicated_, formed by the union of several parts in one.
Is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain large
supplies of electric power at pleasure?
Yes; the electrical machine. It is made of different forms and sizes:
for common purposes those of the simplest form are the best. A common
form of the machine consists of a circular plate of glass, which can
be turned about a horizontal axis by means of a suitable handle. This
plate turns between two supports, and near its upper and lower edges
are two pairs of cushions, usually made of leather, stuffed with
horse-hair and coated with a mixture of zinc, tin, and mercury, called
an _amalgam_. These cushions are the rubbers for producing friction,
and are connected with the earth by means of a metal chain or rod. Two
large hollow cylinders of brass with globular ends, each supported by
two glass pillars, constitute the reservoir for receiving the
electricity. They are called the _prime conductors_, and are supplied
with U-shaped rods of metal, furnished with points along their sides,
called _combs_, for the purpose of receiving the electricity from the
glass plate, the arms of the U being held upon either side. The other
ends of the conductors are connected by a rod from the middle of which
projects another rod terminating in a knob, for delivering the spark.
On turning the plate, a faint snapping sound is heard, and when the
room is darkened, a spark is seen to be thrown out from the knob
projecting from the _prime conductors_.
Many curious and interesting experiments may be performed by means of
the machine, illustrating the general properties of electricity. For
instance: a person standing on an insulated bench, that is, a bench
with glass legs, or having the legs resting on glass, and having one
hand on the conductor, can send sparks, with the other hand, to
everything and everybody about. This illustrates communication of
electricity by contact. A wooden head, covered with long hairs, when
placed on the conductor, illustrates electrical repulsion, by the
hairs standing on end.
If the hand is held to the knob, sparks will pass from it in rapid
succession, causing in the hand a sensation of pain. This is called an
_electric shock_, and is caused by the electric fluid occasioning a
sudden motion by the contraction of the muscles through which it
passes. The force of the shock is in proportion to the power of the
machine.
What are the Muscles?
Bundles of thin fleshy fibres, or threads, fastened to the bones of
animals, the contraction and expansion of which move the bones or
perform the organic functions of life.
_Organic_, relating to organs or natural instruments by
which some process is carried on.
_Functions_, employments or offices of any part of the body.
_Contraction_, drawing in or shortening.
_Expansion_, extending or spreading out.
What is Twilight?
The light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the sun; and
again between its setting and the last remains of day. Without
twilight, the sun's light would appear at its rising, and disappear at
its setting, instantaneously; and we should experience a sudden
transition from the brightest sunshine to the profoundest obscurity.
The duration of twilight is different in different climates; and in
the same places it varies at different periods of the year.
_Instantaneously_, done in an instant, in a moment's time.
_Obscurity_, darkness, want of light.
How is it produced?
By the sun's refraction--that is, the variation of the rays of light
from their direct course, occasioned by the difference of density in
the atmosphere.
_Variation_, change.
_Density_, closeness of parts, compactness.
What is the poetical name for the morning Twilight?
Aurora, the goddess of the morning, and harbinger of the rising sun:
whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white horses in a
rose-colored chariot, unfolding with her rosy fingers the portals of
the East, pouring reviving dew upon the earth, and re-animating plants
and flowers.
_Harbinger_, a forerunner.
_Portals_, gates, doors of entrance.
_Reanimating_, invigorating with new life.
What remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabitants of the polar
regions?
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, a luminous appearance in the
northern parts of the heavens, seen mostly during winter, or in frosty
weather, and clear evenings; it assumes a variety of forms and hues,
especially in the polar regions, where it appears in its perfection,
and proves a great solace to the inhabitants amidst the gloom of their
long winter's night, which lasts from one to six months, while the
summer's day which succeeds it lasts in like manner for the same
period of time.
Of what nature is the Aurora Borealis?
It is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place in the
higher regions of the atmosphere. It is somehow connected with the
magnetic poles of the earth; and generally appears in form of a
luminous arch, from east to west, but never from north to south.
_Phenomenon_, an extraordinary appearance. The word is from
a Greek one, signifying, to show or appear.
_Magnetic_, belonging to the magnet, or loadstone.
_Luminous_, bright, shining.
In what country is it seen constantly from October to Christmas?
In Siberia, where it is remarkably bright. On the western coast of
Hudson's Bay, the sun no sooner disappears, than the Aurora Borealis
diffuses a thousand different lights and colors with such dazzling
beauty, that even the full moon cannot eclipse it.