EUROPE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND CRUSADES—KINGSHIP IN FRANCE—PAPAL
AGGRANDIZEMENT—ABÉLARD—ARNOLD OF BRESCIA—BERNARD.
During the fifty years (1096-1146) which had elapsed since the exodus of
the first crusaders a new generation had grown up in Europe. Vast
changes had taken place everywhere, in every grade of society, in
popular habits, and in conditions of thought. The crisis of the Dark
Ages had passed; new light was breaking upon problems of government, the
relation of classes, and even upon religious doctrine and discipline.
These changes were largely due to the crusade itself and to the
continuous intercourse between the East and the West which it
inaugurated. The full development of these new sentiments and movements
was due to the influence of subsequent crusades. We may, therefore,
reserve their consideration until we shall have completed the story of
these various expeditions, the tramp of which was yet to resound for a
hundred and fifty years. Two results were, however, so intimately
connected with the close of the first and the projection of the second
crusade as to call for notice in passing. These were the strengthening
of the kingship in France and the increased prestige of the Papacy.
The kingship in France during this period became consolidated and
rapidly advanced. So many of the more potent and adventurous barons
being engaged in foreign parts, the crown had little competition, and
feudal privileges were steadily merged in the royal prerogatives. In the
words of Michelet, “Ponderous feudalism had begun to move, and to uproot
itself from the soil. It went and came, and lived upon the beaten
highway of the crusade between France and Jerusalem.” France under Louis
IV. (the Fat) (1108-37) became a nation, and was less jealous of
restless chieftains at home than of the newly risen kingdom of the
Normans in England, the long rivalry with which may be dated from this
reign. When the German emperor, Henry V., in 1124 prepared to invade
France, the counts of Flanders, Brittany, Aquitaine, and Anjou rallied
against him under the lead of the French king, whose authority they had
previously menaced.
The gathering of the forces of the Frankish peoples under a single
sceptre marks a new era in the history of Europe. We shall observe
especially its influence upon the organization of the coming crusades,
whose leaders were no longer feudal chieftains, like Godfrey, Raymond,
Bohemond, and Tancred, but royal personages supported by the compact
power of the new nationality.
The chief advantage from the first crusade fell to the Papacy, which
gathered to itself the prestige of the power it had evoked; and rightly,
if great prevision ever merits the fruit of the policy it dares to
inaugurate. Paschal II., who followed Urban II. in the papal chair
(1099-1118), was too weak to uphold the daring projects of his
predecessor; but Calixtus II. (1119-24) and Innocent II. (1130-43)
showed the genuine Hildebrandian spirit. Although the Concordat of Worms
(1123) modified somewhat the claims of the Papacy as against the German
empire, the church steadily compacted its power about thrones and
people.
The authority of the Papacy was especially augmented in this period by
its temporary success against a movement whose ultimate triumph was
destined to cost the Roman Church its dominance of Christendom, viz.,
the impulse towards liberal thought. The standard-bearer of this
essential Protestantism was Abélard. This astute reasoner placed the
human judgment, when guided by correct scholarship, above all
traditional authority. The popularity of his teaching was a serious
menace to the doctrines of the church, so far as these rested upon the
dictation of the popes. The consternation of ecclesiastics was voiced by
Bernard, the Abbot of Clairvaux, who declared in his appeal to Pope
Innocent II.: “These books of Abélard are flying abroad over all the
world; they no longer shun the light; they find their way into castles
and cities; they pass from land to land, from one people to another. A
new gospel is promulgated, a new faith is preached. Disputations are
held on virtue and vice not according to Christian morality, on the
sacraments of the church not according to the rule of faith, on the
mystery of the Trinity not with simplicity and soberness. This huge
Goliath, with his armor-bearer, Arnold of Brescia, defies the armies of
the Lord to battle.”
The Goliath fell, but by no pebble from the sling of a David. Bernard
was justly reputed the greatest mind of the age. He hesitated to enter
into a learned controversy with Abélard, but smote him with a
thunderbolt of excommunication, which he secured from the hands of the
occupant of the Vatican throne.
Another movement against the papal power was even more threatening and,
during the period we are describing, caused the throne of Peter to
tremble. As Abélard assailed the current thought, so Arnold of Brescia
proposed to revolutionize the secular power of the Papacy. He denied its
right to temporal dominion in Italy, to dominate as it was doing the
councils of other kingdoms, to interfere with judicial functions or to
conduct military operations. He would sweep away all this outward estate
as unbecoming the representative of Jesus of Nazareth. The clergy must
be reduced to apostolic poverty; their glory should be only their good
works; their maintenance the voluntary offerings, or at most the
tithings, of the people. Even the empire of Germany and the French
kingdom should be converted into republics.
Arnold’s views made rapid headway. Brescia declared itself a republic.
The Swiss valleys were full of liberal sympathizers. A commonwealth
sprang up in Rome, which announced to the Pope its recognition of only
his spiritual headship. The people defeated and slew one Pope, who was
clad in armor and marched at the head of his soldiers; another they
expelled.
It was while the papal territory in Italy was thus occupied by the
adherents of Arnold that the second crusade was inaugurated.
Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, was its chief inspirer, both in counsel
with the leaders of Europe and with his voice as its popular herald.
High above generals and scholars, beyond kings, emperors, and popes,
this man stands in the gaze of history. His repute for wisdom and
sanctity was extended by miracles accredited to his converse with
Heaven. Believed to be above earthly ambition, he commanded and rebuked
with a celestial authority. Papal electors came to consult the monk
before they announced their judgment as to who should be Pope, and when
on the throne the Pope consulted the monk before he ventured to set the
seal of his infallibility to his own utterances. Bernard’s humility may
have been great Godward, but it was not of the sort to lead him to
decline the solemn sovereignty of men’s minds and wills. When Henry I.
of England hesitated to acknowledge Innocent II., Bernard’s choice for
Pope, on the ground that he was not the rightful occupant of the holy
see, the monk exclaimed, “Answer thou for thy other sins; let this be on
my head.” When Lothaire of Germany demanded of the Holy Father the
renewal of the right of imperial investitures, the saint threw his spell
about the emperor and left him submissive at the feet of the pontiff.
When Louis VII. of France, in his rage against Thibaut, Count of
Champagne, carried devastation through the count’s domains and burned
the church of Vitry, with thirteen hundred of its citizens who had there
taken refuge against his vengeance, Bernard openly rebuked the king, and
with such effect that the monarch proposed, as a self-inflicted penance,
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to wipe out his guilt in the blood of
Moslems.
In this purpose of Louis VII. originated the second crusade.
THE SECOND CRUSADE.