WALKER'S CAMPAIGN IN NICARAGUA.
1855-1856.
KINNEY'S EXPEDITION—WILLIAM WALKER JOINS THE
DEMOCRATS—FAILURE OF HIS EXPEDITION TO RIVAS—CHOLERA
DECIMATES THE LEGITIMISTS AT MANAGUA—DEATH OF MUÑOZ—WALKER'S
VICTORIES AT LA VÍRGEN AND GRANADA—EXECUTION OF MINISTER
MAYORGA—WALKER'S CONVENTION WITH CORRAL—PROVISIONAL
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZED—PRESIDENT PATRICIO RIVAS—COMMANDER OF
THE FORCES, WALKER—MINISTER OF WAR CORRAL PUT TO DEATH FOR
TREASON—RECOGNITION BY SALVADOR AND HONDURAS—SEIZURE OF THE
TRANSIT COMPANY'S STEAMERS—COSTA RICANS ON THE WAR-PATH—HAVOC
OF CHOLERA.
Certain men of the United States, with ideas somewhat warped in regard
to the relative rights of humanity, now come forward, as in the line
of their destiny, to interfere in the affairs of their neighbors.
The legitimist government of Nicaragua, in May 1855, felt certain of
ultimate triumph over its democratic opponents at Leon. Circumstances
seemed to point that way, when the infusion of this foreign element at
this time came to defeat all preconceived plans.
[Sidenote: DEFEAT AT RIVAS.]
News arrived from the United States of the organization in New York,
Philadelphia, and Washington, by H. L. Kinney, Fabens, American
commercial agent at San Juan del Norte, and others, of an expedition
ostensibly to establish a colony on the Mosquito Coast for the purpose
of developing its resources, but really designed to overthrow the
governments of Central America, and usurp sovereignty over the whole
country.[XVI-1] Remonstrances against the scheme were duly made to
the American government, which partially succeeded in their purpose.
However, the project was not exactly the source of the dire calamities
that were erelong to befall Nicaragua.[XVI-2] The real danger lay in
another direction, to explain which I must go back in my narrative
to previous events. An American named Byron Cole, who had conceived
plans with respect to Central America, and was well informed on her
affairs, arrived at Leon, in August 1854, when the democratic leaders
became convinced that they could not take Granada. They entered into
a contract with him to bring an expedition of foreigners, under the
garb of colonists, who should receive grants of land.[XVI-3] Cole
transferred his contract to William Walker, who at once set to work
in organizing the expedition.[XVI-4] He sailed from San Francisco,
California, May 4, 1855, on the brig _Vesta_, with 58 men,[XVI-5]
touched at Amapala to meet Captain Morton, Castellon's agent, and on
the 13th of June reached Realejo, where he received the greetings
of the government he was to serve from Lieutenant-colonel Félix
Ramirez.[XVI-6] At Leon he refused to serve under General Muñoz.[XVI-7]
He was made a colonel of the Nicaraguan army, and with 55 foreigners
and 100 natives was despatched to the department of Rivas, having
in his company colonels Ramirez and Mendez, and Máximo Espinosa, the
last-named going there as prefect. Muñoz at once informed Corral of
the movement, and the town of Rivas was reënforced and prepared for
defence. Walker obtained some advantages at first, on the 29th of June,
but being assailed on his left by Colonel Argüello, his foreigners
were dispersed, and Ramirez' native force fled, and entered Costa
Rican territory.[XVI-8] Walker and his phalanx reached San Juan del
Sur, whence they returned to Realejo on the brig _San José_;[XVI-9]
and shortly after, Estrada, the legitimist president, went to Managua
in June, staying there until early in July, when the first cases of
cholera occurred.[XVI-10] The mortality in Managua from the epidemic
was greater than in any other town, owing to the concentration of
troops there. The army which had been organized for assailing Leon was
destroyed within a few days; and only a small body of officers of all
grades, some of them in a dying condition, transferred themselves to
Granada, entirely abandoning Managua. The epidemic was still doing its
work, when the action of El Sauce took place on the 18th of August,
between forces respectively commanded by Guardiola and Muñoz, in which
the former were defeated, and abandoned the place to their assailants;
but just as success was crowning democratic efforts, Muñoz was killed
by a bullet entering his side.[XVI-11] The victors, now under Colonel
Sarría, did not pursue the enemy, but resolutely countermarched to
Leon, and meeting Jerez on the road, who wished to lead them against
the legitimists, they refused to follow him.
[Sidenote: SAN JUAN DEL SUR EXPEDITION.]
Another expedition under Walker, composed of 50 foreigners and 120
natives, whose immediate chief was J. M. Valle, alias El Chelon, sailed
from Realejo on the 23d of August, and landed at San Juan del Sur on
the 29th, his main object being to take up a position on the transit
route between the two oceans. The news of his landing reached Granada
on Guardiola's return from his ill-fated fight at El Sauce. Guardiola
went to Rivas, and assuming command of 500 men, in the night between
the 2d and 3d of September, marched against Walker. Once on the main
road he heard that the latter had gone to La Vírgen, on Lake Nicaragua,
and rapidly countermarched to that place, expecting to surprise the
enemy. But he made the mistake of attacking an opponent whom he could
not see, and in a little while his men became dispersed, and hurried
back to Rivas. This may be said to have been the end of Guardiola's
career in Nicaragua.[XVI-12] Corral was now placed in command of the
legitimist forces in the south.
Castellon, the head of the democratic government, died of cholera on
the 2d of September, and Senator Nazario Escoto was called to succeed
him.
Walker's force, after his victory at La Vírgen, became greatly
augmented with native democrats.[XVI-13] His movement on La Vírgen was
intended to show that he had a sufficient force to take the offensive.
After the action he returned to San Juan del Sur, where he received
from Corral a paper hinting at a desire to enter into confidential
relations with him, to which he paid no attention. His plan was to
make a dash upon and occupy the legitimist seat of government, the
battered city of Granada.[XVI-14] In furtherance of which Espinosa
was despatched to Leon to ask the government for a diversion toward
Managua, so as to draw resources away from Granada. General Pineda
was accordingly stationed with a respectable force in Pueblo Nuevo.
The legitimists, under General Hernandez, attacked Pineda on the 11th
of October, defeated and drove him out of the place, after which
he demanded of the government at Leon the surrender of the town,
together with its garrison and military stores, as the only means of
averting the bloodshed which must follow any attempt at resistance.
The democrats suffered reverse, but Walker gained his point. Granada
was left with a weak garrison. He had a force of 250 natives and about
80 Americans, with which he left San Juan at daybreak on the 11th of
October, arriving at La Vírgen early the same morning. In the afternoon
Colonel Hornsby seized the steamboat _Vírgen_, and the next morning the
troops were embarked and informed that their destination was Granada.
They effected a landing at 3 o'clock in the morning of the 13th, and
took Granada with little resistance from the insignificant civic guard
which constituted the garrison.[XVI-15] The place was taken before a
majority of the inhabitants knew who their visitors were. President
Estrada, and the ministers Nicasio Castillo and Francisco Barberena,
saved themselves on foot in different directions, which the other
ministers, Mayorga and Ruiz, failed to do. The fact is, that persons
who did not get away at the moment of the invasion found themselves
unable to do so, and at the mercy of the enemy. Walker, however,
checked the abuses of his soldiery, and liberated nearly 100 political
prisoners, who had been kept in chains and at hard labor, and who now
joined his banner to a man. He next issued a proclamation guaranteeing
the lives, liberty, and property of legitimists promising to be
peaceable.[XVI-16]
[Sidenote: ATTITUDE OF THE BELLIGERENTS.]
Walker now manifested a disposition to treat with Corral, who had
prepared five hundred men for an attempt to recover Granada. Juan J.
Ruiz, Estrada's minister of war, was despatched by water in company
with John H. Wheeler, the American minister, to convey a message to
Corral at Rivas; but on finding that the legitimist general had gone
off to the eastern department, he escaped into Costa Rica. Another
commission went by land, and meeting the legitimist army near Nandaime,
communicated to the general Walker's message to this effect: peace,
on the condition that the two leaders should govern the republic,
Corral as president, and Walker as commander of the forces.[XVI-17] The
proposition was not accepted. The expedition which had been prepared
for an effort to recuperate Granada finally went to Masaya, where the
legitimist government became organized, with President Estrada, and his
ministers, Castillo and Barberena.
[Sidenote: ASCENDENCY OF THE FILIBUSTER.]
The officers who had won the victory at Pueblo Nuevo, fearing that
their country would become a prey to the foreign adventurers, proposed
to Escoto's government a fusion of the parties, to drive Walker and
his myrmidons out of the country. This effort failed.[XVI-18] Walker
and Valle, for their successful campaign in the south, were on the 22d
of October promoted to brigadier-general. The first named, angered by
Corral's refusal to accept his proposals, and ignoring his own pledges
to the prisoners taken at Granada, reduced to close confinement some
of the most prominent, among them the ex-minister Mayorga,[XVI-19]
whereupon a commission, composed of the Frenchman Pierre Rouhaud of
Granada, and Fermin Arana, represented to Corral the necessity of his
coming to amicable arrangement with Walker, but he declined a second
time. Meanwhile an incident occurred which greatly aggravated the evils
of the situation. Parker H. French[XVI-20] brought fifty men to Walker
from California, who, under a so-called Colonel Fry, were to capture
Fort San Cárlos, which they failed to do. The steamer then returned to
Granada to leave the recruits, and to La Vírgen to land the rest of the
passengers. This was done just as some legitimist troops, under Captain
F. Gutierrez, arrived. Gutierrez asserted that he had been fired upon
from the house of the Transit company, and returned the fire, keeping
it up till hostilities from the other side ceased. The result was,
that two or three passengers from the United States were killed. The
San Cárlos also fired shots at the river steamer on her return from
the north with passengers, a gun killing a woman and child.[XVI-21]
This news reached Granada together with Corral's second refusal. Walker
then resolved upon retaliation, to avenge the slain of San Cárlos and
La Vírgen, and to frighten the legitimists into accepting terms of
compromise. Mayorga, a young man of twenty-nine, generally esteemed for
his fine qualities, was the chosen victim, and shot in the morning of
the 23d.[XVI-22] Rouhaud and Arana went on the 22d to Masaya, reporting
Mayorga's fate, and urging the absolute necessity of disarming Walker's
wrath to avert greater calamities.[XVI-23] Added to their statement was
a petition from the prisoners in favor of peace, and the alarming news
that four hundred more riflemen had arrived to swell Walker's army. The
legitimist authorities concluded then to negotiate for peace, and sent
Corral to Granada on the 23d for that purpose, which was tantamount
to a capitulation. The chief clauses agreed upon between him and
Walker were: suspension of hostilities; recognition of Patricio Rivas
as provisional president; and reorganization of the two contending
forces into one army, with Walker as its commander-in-chief.[XVI-24]
Corral returned to Masaya, and Estrada, submitting to the force of
circumstances, approved it, though his army was disposed to disregard
the capitulation.[XVI-25] However, he filed a protest declaring that
the arrangement had been forced upon him, and therefore void.[XVI-26]
He called on the other governments to come, without further invitation,
and save the independence, sovereignty, and liberties of Nicaragua; and
to that effect appointed commissioners with unlimited powers[XVI-27] to
conclude adequate treaties. The fall of Cabañas in Honduras opened an
opportunity in that direction. Estrada dissolved his government October
28th, and departed for Chontales, but soon after had to take refuge in
Honduras.
[Sidenote: MURDEROUS PROCEEDINGS.]
Fermin Ferrer and Valle, alias El Chelon, were despatched as
commissioners to obtain the assent of the government at Leon to the
convention of October 23d, which, in view of Walkers rebellion, was
given only after some hesitation.[XVI-28] A commission was despatched
to Walker to thank him for his services, which had made possible a
peace, and to authorize him to ratify the arrangement. After which the
government, October 28th, dissolved itself. The commissioners[XVI-29]
arrived at Granada on the 31st, and found there the provisional
president, Patricio Rivas,[XVI-30] who had arrived from San Juan del
Norte on the 30th, and occupied the presidential chair. He had at
first appointed Corral minister of war, Walker general of division and
in chief of the forces, and Norberto Ramirez minister of relations.
Corral was pleased with this arrangement, as Rivas was disposed to
rely on him; but Walker became suspicious, and the result was that,
Corral's opposition notwithstanding, Rivas was made a blind tool of
Walker, and in obedience to orders appointed a new cabinet with a
majority of democrats; namely, Máximo Jerez, of relations; Fermin
Ferrer, of public credit; Parker H. French, of the treasury; Corral
retaining the war portfolio. The latter now saw the abyss his weakness
had thrown him into. The man who, ignoring the duty he owed his cause,
threatened with death any one proposing to him plans against Walker,
now writes Martinez, comandante at Managua, that all is lost, and he,
Martinez, must take some steps to save the country. With this letter
were enclosed others to the same effect addressed to generals Guardiola
and Pedro Xatruch, who had returned to Honduras.[XVI-31] These letters
went into the hands of Walker,[XVI-32] who at once called to his
presence the legitimists then in the city to forbid the departure of
any of them, and laid the letters before Rivas and his cabinet. Corral
acknowledged the authorship, declaring that he was solely responsible
for them. It was then decided to confine in prison Corral and his chief
supporters. This was on the 5th of November, the day after Corral's
troops had been, without any previous notice, disarmed.[XVI-33] On the
6th, it was decreed that Corral should be dealt with as a traitor and
tried by court-martial, which was done in the presence and with the
approval of the government, notwithstanding its illegality.[XVI-34]
The trial took place, and the prisoner was sentenced to death.[XVI-35]
The prisoner's family used the utmost exertions to have the sentence
revoked, but Walker was inflexible, and the penalty was inflicted
on the 8th of November,[XVI-36] causing the utmost consternation
in the native community. The portfolio of war was given to Selva
by a decree of November 5th. Valle went to Managua to place Pascual
Fonseca in command, vice Martinez, and to report if the latter made
any resistance, in which event Walker would have shot his legitimist
prisoners. But as none was offered, Martinez having had timely warning,
Walker had them released.[XVI-37]
Walker was now master of Nicaragua. As a matter of fact, the secondary
leaders were scattered and powerless, and but for the execution
of Corral, and the wanton imprisonment of subordinate officials
and private citizens, the conservative party would have submitted
with a good grace to the new order of things, if pledged security
of life and property. It is undeniable that the legitimists feared
the Yankees[XVI-38] less than they did the native democrats. Walker
pretended a great respect for religion, without whose support, he
said, no government could have stability.[XVI-39] He succeeded in
borrowing from the vicar 963 ounces of fine silver belonging to the
church; and it is evident that he placed great reliance on a numerous
foreign immigration to keep his ranks well filled.[XVI-40] A decree
was issued at this time by the government, and published in its
official journal, which might be called one for the confiscation of
the property of absentees, who were required to return to their homes
under heavy pecuniary penalties, collectible without any previous legal
process.[XVI-41]
[Sidenote: RELATIONS, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.]
The exiles who reached Honduras[XVI-42] endeavored to obtain help
from the government, but Guardiola, now chief of the state, declined
giving any, and in fact permitted no hostile words against Walker
or the Yankees. Cabañas had come to Granada for aid to recover
his lost position,[XVI-43] which alarmed Guardiola, who despatched
Manuel Colindres with the ostensible mission of negotiating a treaty
of friendship with the government, but really to watch Cabañas.
Colindres announced himself from Yuscaran, but on reaching Leon, and
ascertaining that Cabañas got no assistance, went back pleading fear
of the cholera, which was doing havoc in the foreign force; but the
recognition by his government was already accomplished. The cabinet of
San Salvador also returned a satisfactory answer to a circular from
Nicaragua.[XVI-44] Guatemala apparently inclined toward neutrality,
until Estrada applied to Carrera for assistance, and was told that
he would be recognized as the legitimate president of Nicaragua, but
must first establish his government somewhere.[XVI-45] Estrada, being
unable to set it up in Honduras, asked for 50 men to escort him to
Nueva Segovia in Nicaragua, but did not get them, though he laid before
Guardiola the letters from Carrera and Pedro de Aycinena. In Costa
Rica, the situation of Nicaragua was differently viewed. President
Mora despatched Nazario Toledo to Guatemala to arrange for concerted
action against Walker.[XVI-46] Mora in an energetic proclamation asked
the people to prepare for the defence of their lives and property
at a moment's call.[XVI-47] Walker watched the conduct of Costa
Rica, believing it prompted by British influence mainly against the
United States. Rivas' relations with the cabinet of Washington were
not encouraging. It is true that Wheeler, the American minister, had
prematurely recognized him, but he had not been upheld in it by his
government. Parker H. French, being accredited in November 1855 as
minister at Washington with powers to negotiate a treaty, was not
received in any diplomatic capacity.[XVI-48] He was thereupon recalled,
and diplomatic relations were discontinued with Wheeler.[XVI-49]
President Pierce issued a proclamation against the departure from
the United States of filibustering expeditions, which were declared
disgraceful and criminal. Cabañas, in whose behalf Jerez had used his
best endeavors, having been refused by the government any aid,[XVI-50]
retired to Salvador,[XVI-51] and Jerez resigned his portfolio on the
8th of January, 1856. Soon after, the cabinet was reduced to one,
Fermin Ferrer, who served as ministro general.
Walker now endeavored to gain the good-will and coöperation of the
legitimist party, but his intrigues, cajolings, and even threats failed
to secure the desired effect.[XVI-52] The legitimists saw in Walker's
disagreement with the democrats their opportunity to bring about the
fusion of all Nicaraguans against the common enemy; but both Walker and
the democrats concluded that they must work together for their mutual
safety; hence the removal of the capital to Leon.[XVI-53]
[Sidenote: SEIZURE OF STEAMSHIP PROPERTY.]
Walker now committed one of the greatest blunders of his life in
quarrelling with the founders and chief men of the Accessory Transit
Company, whose ships had brought him much to recruit his needed men and
military supplies.[XVI-54] He and Edmund Randolph, after studying the
company's contracts made in 1851, arrived at the conclusion that there
were good reasons to revoke their charter and acts of incorporation,
and to make a grant to other parties.[XVI-55] This was secretly done
without communicating their plans to President Rivas or his cabinet.
After completing their arrangements in New York, Walker and Randolph
drew up a decree suppressing the Accessory Transit Company, which was
laid before Rivas, who issued it on the 18th of February, 1856. On
the following day he, in obedience to Walker's command, signed a new
charter in favor of Randolph.[XVI-56] Cleto Mayorga, E. T. C. Kewen,
and George F. Alden were appointed commissioners to ascertain the
amount of the company's indebtedness, and to attach their property, all
of which was done with the utmost rapidity.[XVI-57] The transportation
men raised a loud cry, of course, calling upon the United States
government to recover their lake steamers and other valuables; but
the attempt was unsuccessful. The company, however, had means which
they brought into the service of the Central Americans to compass the
destruction of Walker.
[Illustration: WALKER'S EXPEDITION.]
Costa Rica had failed to notice the communication notifying her of the
new order of things established in Nicaragua on the 23d of October,
1855. Walker now thought the time had come to demand from that
cabinet a frank explanation of its course.[XVI-58] But it persisted in
leaving unanswered the Nicaraguan notes, and refused to receive Louis
Schlessinger, the envoy sent, who retired threatening war and Walker's
resentment.[XVI-59] Costa Rica accepted the challenge of war, President
Mora, with the authorization of the legislative body, resolving to
carry the arms of the republic into Nicaragua, and to aid in driving
out the foreigners. War was accordingly declared, the strength of
the army raised to 9,000 men, and a loan levied for expenses.[XVI-60]
After surrendering the executive office to Vice-president Oreamuno,
Mora placed himself, on the 8th of March, at the head of an army about
3,000 strong,[XVI-61] and in a few days was in Bagaces, at the extreme
end of the gulf of Nicoya, ready to cross the frontier into Nicaragua.
Walker, who seemed to misjudge Costa Rican prowess, sent only 500 men
under Schlessinger, who on the 20th[XVI-62] encountered the enemy's
avant guard, and after a few minutes' fighting were put to flight,
losing a quantity of arms and several killed and wounded.[XVI-63] A
number of prisoners captured by the Costa Ricans were at once tried by
court-martial and shot.[XVI-64] Schlessinger with a few men reached
Rivas, where Walker had concentrated his forces, and unsuccessfully
tried to exculpate himself.[XVI-65]
[Sidenote: COSTA RICA TO THE RESCUE.]
The Costa Ricans marched to Rivas, and as they approached Walker
retired on the Transit company's lake steamers to Granada. Two columns
of 300 each dislodged on the 7th of April the Nicaraguan garrisons
left by Walker in La Vírgen and San Juan del Sur, and on the following
day the rest of the army occupied Rivas. But Walker soon came upon
them. Under cover of the thick plantain and cacao plantations, he
entered unperceived in the morning of the 11th. His attack began about
8:30 and lasted till night. He captured the main plaza, and from the
church and houses kept up a deadly fire on the enemy, stationed only
two blocks away. The latter fought desperately, till Walker, finding
himself closely pressed by Costa Rican reënforcements from La Vírgen
and San Juan del Sur,[XVI-66] and surrounded by burning buildings,
gave orders for retreat, which was silently effected under cover of
the darkness, never tarrying till he reached the Gil Gonzalez River.
He left behind a considerable number of rifles, revolvers, and other
arms, and about 50 saddled horses, besides his seriously wounded in the
church. The Costa Rican victory was complete, though at the expense
of heavy casualties.[XVI-67] The victors were relentless toward the
first prisoners that fell into their hands. According to Mora's report,
the wounded in the church were bayoneted, and seventeen others shot.
Walker tried to make out that he had won a great victory, and the event
was celebrated in Granada with salutes and ringing of bells; and his
government published that the Costa Ricans had been dispersed and were
in full flight.[XVI-68]
[Sidenote: UNSTABLE POWER OF THE PIRATE.]
Mora expected heavy reënforcements from Punta Arenas, and had formed
the plan, after securing eastern Nicaragua between the Pacific and
the great lake, and cutting off the transit communication, already
suspended by a general order, to assail Walker in his stronghold of
Granada. He was further encouraged in this by news that forces of
Salvador and Honduras were already on the western frontier, under
Belloso and Xatruch, ready to coöperate with him. But the breaking out
of cholera in his army, with terrible havoc in its ranks, necessitated
the abandonment of the project for the time. And a report having come
of plottings in Costa Rica against his authority, with his brother José
Joaquin and his personal staff, he returned home, leaving General Cañas
in command of the remnants of the army, with orders to send it back to
Costa Rica in the most convenient manner, which was done, many of the
men being left dead or dying on the march. Cañas found it unavoidable
to leave his wounded and sick in Rivas, and fearing retaliation because
of the executions of prisoners at Santa Rosa and Rivas, he wrote Walker
on the 26th of April, recommending these men to his protection, and
proposing an exchange of prisoners, of whom he had twenty, according to
the usages of war. This letter had the desired effect.[XVI-69]