principal Causes: [Sidenote: _Arts_ how first Invented.] _First_,
_Necessity_ is said to have been the _Mother_ of Invention, by reason it
puts Mens Minds upon thinking how to supply their Wants, with such
Things, and after such manner as they have most occasion for.
_Secondly_, _Unexpected Experiments_, as when you aim and try to find
out one Thing, and accidentally light on another: Thus ’tis said
_Gun-Powder_ and divers other considerable Things have been found out by
Chance, and innumerable others by experimental _Chymistry_. _Thirdly_,
_Natural Philosophy_, or Observation of the Instincts of all living
Creatures, has suggested many noble Thoughts and Fancies to Men, both
for Imitation and Invention. Now tho’ we cannot assert that Men at first
learn’d _Architecture_ from the _Beaver_, which builds himself a House
for shelter and security in the Winter Time, yet are we certain they
took the several Ornaments of Building either from Birds, Beasts and
Fishes, or from the Leaves, Flowers and Fruits of Plants. Thus the
_Grecians_ generally us’d the Leaves of [5]_Acanthus_, and the _Jews_
those of Palm-Trees and Pomegranates in their Buildings. Nor is it less
probable their Weaving might be found out from the Spider or Silk-Worm,
than that the Fish call’d _Nautilus_, or the little Mariner, was
_Navigiorum Archetipus_, the first Type or Pattern of a Ship, who when
he is to Swim, contracts his Body and Finns into the form of a Galley
under Sail. From the sight whereof, some (as _Pliny_ conceives) took the
first hint of framing a Ship, as from the sight of a Kite flying in the
Air, who turns and steers his Body with his Tail (as Fishes also do in
the Water) some have devis’d the Stern and Rudder of a Ship. _Iidem
videntur Artem gubernandi docuisse Caudæ flexibus, in Cælo monstrante
Natura quod opus esset in profundo_, Pliny _Lib._ 10. cap. 10. _They
seem to have taught Men the Art of Steering a Ship by the flexures of
their Tails, Nature shewing in the Air what was needful to be done in
the Deep._ ’Tis also observ’d by that great _Naturalist_ Mr. _Ray_, that
the Trunk of a Bird’s Body does somewhat resemble the Hull of a Ship,
the Head the Prow, which is for the most part small, that it may the
more easily cut the Air, and the Tail serves to steer, govern and direct
its flight. We read there was a Beast in _Egypt_ call’d _Cynocephalus_,
of a very strange kind, kept in the Temple of _Serapis_, which, during
the Time of the two Equinoxes, made Water 12 Times in a Day, and as
often in the Night, regularly and at even Spaces of Time; from the
Observation of which, they divided the Natural Day into 24 Hours, that
Beast being as it were their Clock and Dial, both to divide their Day,
and reckon their Hours by. This probably gave _Ctesibius_ of
_Alexandria_ an hint to invent the _Clepsydræ_ or Water Glasses, which
distinguish’d the Hours by the fall or dropping of Water, as
_Clepsammidiæ_ or Sand-Glasses did by the running of Sand; and to shew
they ow’d the Invention of these Water-Glasses to the _Cynocephalus_,
they us’d to carve one on the top of them, as may be seen in _Kircher_
in _Mechanica Ægyptiaca_. Now _Egypt_ was both in respect of its
Scituation as well as natural production of curious Things, a mighty
help to the Invention and improvement of Arts and Sciences; for as
_Casalius de veter. Ægypt. Ritibus_, p. 35. tells us, _Arithmetic_ was
first found out by their great Commerce, and _Geometry_ from the River
_Nile_’s Annual over-flowing the Fields, and removing their Bound-Marks,
which occasion’d great Disputes among them, so that by the frequent
measuring of the Ground it was deriv’d into this Art. And as for
_Astrology_, the quality of the Climate and scituation of the Country
was such, as gave them an advantage above others, more clearly to
discern the rising and setting of the Stars, for by reason of the
perpetual Serenity of the Air, they found out the Course of the Sun,
Moon and Stars, with their Constellations, Aspects and Influences, and
moreover by their often Worshipping those Planets, beheld and
contemplated them more seriously, and from thence became the most
skillful _Astrologers_ in the World, as _Firmianus Divin. instit._ Lib.
2. cap. 14. says: Hereby also being made more perspicacious, and
observing of natural Things, they invented _Physick_, for, as _Prosper
Alpinus_, [Sidenote: _Physic_, how first found out.] Lib. _de Medicina
Ægyptiorum_ reports, They took the hints of curing divers Diseases from
brute Beasts and Animals. Thus _Phlebotomy_ or Bleeding was found out
from the _Hippopotomos_ or River-Horse, which lives in the _Nile_, for
when this Beast is grown over fat with continual Gluttony and
Gormandizing, he searches out for a sharp pointed Reed on the Banks of
the River, and having found one fit for his purpose, sticks it into his
Thigh, and wounds a certain Vein there; when having sufficiently emty’d
his Plethoric Body by Bleeding, he closes, and as it were plasters up
the Orifice with Mud. Also that a certain Bird call’d _Ibis_, about the
Banks of _Nile_, first taught the _Egyptians_ the way of administring
_Clysters_; for this Bird has been often observ’d, by means of his
crooked Bill intromitted into the _Anus_, to inject salt Water, as with
a Syringe, into its own Bowels, and thereby to exonerate its Paunch when
too much obstructed. Dogs are commonly known when Sick to Vomit
themselves by eating Grass. Swine, so soon as they perceive themselves
ill, refuse their Meat, and so recover by Abstinence. ’Tis reported the
wild Goat taught the use of the _Dictamnus_, for drawing out of Darts
and healing Wounds, and the Swallow the use of _Celandine_ for
recovering the Sight; whence we may as well infer, that from the
diversity of Bodies, such as Flies, Spiders, Gnats, Bees, Pismires,
Grashoppers, Locusts, Frogs, _&c._ inclos’d in Amber, the _Egyptians_
might first learn the Art of _Embalming_; [Sidenote: How _Embalming_.]
but since these things appear rather Fabulous, and the pleasant Flights
of acute Wits and inquisitive Naturalists, than solid Truths to be
rely’d on, we must have recourse to the fourth _Cause_, _viz._ That
their Opinion of the _Metemsychosis_ or Transmigration of the Soul, and
other such like religious Principles, first oblig’d them to study this
Art, and perhaps the known Virtues of _Opobalsamum_, so good against
Mortifications and Putrifactions, might suggest to them the use of it in
preserving the Bodies of Princes, as the Balsamic, Sulphurous and
Bituminous Nature of their _Asphalt_, taught them to use that for the
poorer sort of People; besides, whatever way it was first found out, it
was as easie for them to do it as for us to believe it, says _Gabriel
Clauderus_ in _Methodo Balsamandi_, p. 41. because they excell’d all
other Nations in Learning and Invention, so that by applying themselves
with the utmost diligence to the study of this Art, they could not fail
of attaining the perfection of it, especially since this Region was,
above all others, the best accommodated with an extraordinary
fruitfulness and plenty of Aromatic and Medicinal Things, necessary as
well for all Physical Uses as for the decent performing of their
_Embalmings_. Now _Sandys_, p. 38. tells us abundance of Practitioners
in Physic are frequently invited to _Cairo_ by the great store of
Simples there growing. Add to this the extraordinary Diligence of the
_Egyptian_ Kings and Priests, both in rewarding Arts and being
solicitously intent on finding out the Nature of Things themselves, not
by indulging Superstition, but by a strict search and scrutiny, not
trusting to plausible Appearances, but only to Experiments and
Demonstration. To prove this we shall show such infallible Methods for
the Invention and Improvement of all Arts and Sciences, that they could
not easily miscarry in their Designs; for besides the famous Library of
_Ptolemy Philadelphus_, and that in the Temple of _Serapis_, there was
at _Cairo_, as _Prosper Alpinus de Medicina Ægyptiorum_ relates, a
University or place of Study call’d _Gemelhazar_, which paid yearly out
of the public Stock of the Academy 300000 pieces of Gold for Books,
Food, Stipends, _&c._
Footnote 5:
’Tis said the Ornaments of the _Corinthian_ Chapiter were invented
from seeing a Maid rest her Basket on a Tomb over-grown with this
Plant; of which see _Vitruvius_.
The Invention of Arts and Sciences may be partly imputed to the goodness
of their Laws, [Sidenote: Goodness of their _Laws_.] and their
strictness in observing them; the _Egyptians_ alledging this as an
undeniable Argument, that the best Laws were made and instituted among
them, in that the Native Kings had Reign’d in _Egypt_ for the space of
above 4700 Years, and that their Country during all that Time had been
the most prosperous and flourishing in the World, which could never have
been so if the Inhabitants had not been civiliz’d and brought up under
good Laws, and a liberal Education in all kinds of Arts and Sciences. To
effect this therefore they divided their People into three Orders:
_First_, Priests. _Secondly_, Artificers and Husbandmen. And, _Thirdly_,
Military Persons or Souldiers. Now each Person strictly keeping to his
own Province, Art flourish’d in a right Line, and Sciences were not
attack’d by rustic and ignorant Pretenders, but only practis’d by
Priests, who were the chief of their Nobility, and liv’d separate from
all others least their Learning should be any ways divulg’d. Nor was it
lawful for any but Priests Sons to enter the Colleges where these
Sciences were taught, whereby the more polite Knowledge was secur’d to
the Priests, and mechanic Arts and Trades practis’d only by the inferior
People. Now the better to effect and propagate this, they had three Laws
that mightily encourag’d the Study and Invention of Arts, on which their
chief Felicity depended, as _Diodorus Siculus_ witnesses. _First_, In
that they honour’d and esteem’d all such as were the first Inventors and
Promoters of useful Things. _Secondly_, In that he who pretended to more
Arts than one, incurr’d a most grievous Punishment. And, _Thirdly_, In
that every one was oblig’d to appear annually before the Governour of
the Province to show how he got his Living, which if he could not prove,
or was found to subsist by unjust means, he was infallibly punish’d with
Death. Thus all Men were employ’d, [Sidenote: _Arts_ most flourishing in
the Reign of _Amasis_.] and every Art carry’d to the highest perfection
in the Reign of _Amasis_, who enacted the third Law. Now, as a further
Argument of the _Egyptian_ Industry, hear what _Fl. Vopiscus_ relates of
the _Alexandrians_: _Civitas_, says he, _[Alexandria] opulenta, dives,
fæcunda, in qua Nemo vivit otiosus, alii Vitrum conflant, ab aliis
Charta conficitur, alii Linyphiones sunt: Omnes certe cujuscunque Artis
& videntur & habentur; Podagrosi quod agant habent, habent cæci quod
faciant, ne Chiragrici quidem apud eos otiosi vivunt_. [Sidenote:
_Alexandria_, how Industrious and Flourishing.] Alexandria _is a
plentiful and opulent City, in which none live idle: Some blow Glass,
others make Paper, a third sort weave Linnen, and in a word, all have
some Trade or Work. Those that have the Gout in their Feet or are Blind
have something to do, and even such as have the Gout in their Hands are
not idle._ This shows how every Art was cultivated: Likewise their
Industry and number of Hands as plainly prove the facility of performing
those seemingly incredible and stupendious Works, which has taken us up
so much Time to relate; for ’tis said, throughout the whole Country of
_Egypt_, [Sidenote: _Egypt_, its number of Cities and Inhabitants.] in
the Reign of _Amasis_, there were reckon’d no fewer than 20000 Cities,
and that it was esteem’d the most populous Country of the World.
_Diodorus Siculus_ tells us it had in it above 18000 Cities, as might be
seen register’d in their Sacred Records; and in the Time of _Ptolemeus
Lagus_ there remain’d above 3000. Once, they say, in a general _Census_
taken of all the Inhabitants, they amounted to Seven Millions, and even
at the Time of _Diodorus_, there were no less than Three Millions of
People, [Sidenote: How it came to be so numerous.] which wonderful
Encrease some think might be effected by the constant drinking of the
_Nile_ Water, which had the Virtue of making the _Egyptian_ Women
Prolific, so as commonly to bring forth three or four Children at a
Birth. This may a little abate the wonder, how the Children of _Israel_
could multiply to that degree in so short a space, that in 430 Years,
from 70 Persons, which came with _Jacob_ into _Egypt_, he became a
mighty Nation; for it is said, at their departure, there journey’d, from
_Rameses_ to _Succoth_, about 600000 Men, besides Women and Children.
Now how populous the Land from whence they came was, may be collected
not only from their commanding such mighty Powers as were under them,
but also, as has been before observ’d, from the several Accounts of that
Kingdom, given us by _Herodotus_ and _Diodorus Siculus_; for it is
reported that _Sesac_ or _Sesonchis_ arm’d 400000 Foot, 60000 Horse and
1200 Chariots against _Rehoboam_, and that King _Cheops_ or _Chemnis_
employ’d 360000 Men in erecting one of the _Pyramids_. ’Tis also farther
said, they built other stupendious Works, such as the _Labyrinth_,
_Obelisks_, _Colossus’s_, &c. [Sidenote: By what Means such wonderful
Works were perform’d,] as not knowing otherwise how to expend their
Treasure or employ their People, thro’ which means their Kings, by their
great Riches and infinite numbers of Men, left behind them such eternal
Monuments of their State and Grandure, which altho’ they bear the name
of _Wonders_ to this very Day, as seeming very difficult to have been
perform’d, yet were such Works render’d easie enough, if we consider so
vast a multitude of Hands as were employ’d about them, and this being
rightly consider’d, we may well enough believe what _Herodotus_ says of
_Egypt_, _That it had more wonderful Works than all the Nations of the
World besides_.
[Sidenote: and to what End.]
Thus having shown how the _Egyptians_ were the first Inventors and
Propagators of Arts and Sciences, we will next show to what end they
built those admirable Structures with so great Labour and Expence,
thinking not as _Aristotle_, Lib. 3. _Polit._ who makes them to have
been the Works of Tyranny, or as _Pliny_, Lib. 26. cap. 12. conjectures,
that they built them partly out of Ostentation, and partly out of
State-Policy, to divert their People from Mutinies and Rebellion by
keeping them employ’d, but that they erected them as Repositories for
their Dead, which they did from a Belief they had of the Immortality of
the Soul, and an Opinion they held of the Metempsychosis or
Transmigration of it from one Body to another: ’Tis true, those
Arguments alledg’d by _Pliny_ might be Secondary Motives, yet says
_Greaves_ in his _Pyramidographia_, p. 45. the true Reason depends upon
higher and more weighty Considerations, [Sidenote: _Theology_ of the
_Egyptians_, or _Metempsychosis_.] springing from the _Theology_ of the
_Egyptians_, who as _Servius_ shews in his Comment on these words of
_Virgil_, Lib. 3. _Æneid._ where that Poet describes the Funeral of
_Polydorus_,
——_Animamq; Sepulchro
Condimus_——
believ’d, _That as long as the Body endur’d so long should the Soul
continue with it_, which also was the Opinion of the _Stoicks_: _Hence
the_ Egyptians, _skilful in Wisdom, keep their Dead_ embalm’d _so much
the longer, to the end the Soul may for a long while continue with the
Body, lest it should quickly pass into another. The_ Romans _acted quite
contrary, burning their Dead, that the Soul might suddenly return into
the generality of Things, that is, into its own Nature_; wherefore, says
_Greaves_, that the Body might not either by Putrifaction be reduc’d to
Dust, out of which it was first form’d, or by Fire be converted to Ashes
(as the manner of the _Greeks_ and _Romans_ was) the _Egyptians_
invented curious Compositions, besides intombing their Dead in stately
Repositories, thereby to preserve them from Rottenness, and render them
Eternal. _Nec cremare, aut fodere fas putant, verum arte Medicatos intra
penetralia collocant_, says _Pomponius Mela_, Lib. 1. cap. 9. Also
_Herodotus_ in _Thalia_ gives the Reason why they neither burn’d nor
bury’d their Dead, for discoursing in his third Book of the Cruelty of
_Cambyses_, and his commanding the Body of _Amasis_, an _Egyptian_ King,
should be taken out of his Sepulchre, be whipp’d and us’d with all
contumely; he reports, after all this he order’d it to be burn’d,
_Commanding that which was not Holy, for the_ Persians _imagin’d the
Fire to be a God, [Sidenote: _Fire_ thought by the _Persians_ a _God_.]
and neither the_ Egyptians _nor they were accustom’d to burn their Dead:
The_ Persians, _for the Reason before alleg’d, because they conceiv’d it
unfit for a God to devour the Carcass of a Man; and the_ Egyptians,
_because they were persuaded the Fire was a living Creature, [Sidenote:
By the _Egyptians_ a living Creature.] devouring all Things it receiv’d,
and after it was satisfy’d with Food, dy’d with that it had devour’d.
Nor was it their Custom to give their dead Bodies to Beasts (as the_
Hyrcanians _were wont to do) but to_ Embalm _or Salt them, not only for
this Reason, but also that they might not be consum’d with Worms_. The
term ταριχεύειν, i. e. _Salting_ or _Embalming_ the Dead, us’d by
_Herodotus_, is also us’d by _Baruch_ and _Plato_. _Lucian_ likewise in
his Discourse _de Luctu_, treating of the several kinds of Burial
practis’d by divers Nations, says, _The_ Grecians _burn their Dead, the_
Persians _bury them, the_ Indians _anoint them with the Fat of Swine,
the_ Scythians _eat them, and the_ Egyptians (ταριχεύει) Embalm _them_:
Which manner likewise is alluded to by _M. Aurelius Antoninus_, under
the word τάριχος: His Words are these, _That which the other Day was
excrementitious Matter, shall within few Days either be_ τάριχος, _an_
Embalm’d _Body, or down right Ashes_; in the one expressing the Custom
of the _Egyptians_, and in the other that of the _Romans_. By Salting or
_Embalming_ the Soul, according to the Belief of the _Egyptians_, was
oblig’d to abide with the Body, and the Body on its part became as
durable as Marble, insomuch that _Plato_, who liv’d in _Egypt_ with
_Eudoxus_ no less than 13 Years, as _Strabo_ witnesses, brings it for an
Argument, in his _Phædon_, to prove the Immortality of the Soul, thro’
the long duration of these Bodies, which surely would have been yet more
conclusive with him, could he but have imagin’d they should have
continu’d so solid and entire even to this Day, as we find many of them
are: _For this Reason St._ Austin [Sidenote: _Egyptians_ believ’d the
_Resurrection_.] _truly affirms the_ Egyptians _had a Belief of the
Resurrection, in that they carefully preserv’d their Dead; for they had
a Custom among them of drying up the Bodies, and rendring them as
durable as Brass_: These, in their Language they call’d _Gabbares_,
whence the gloss of _Isidore_, _Gabbares mortuorum in Vulcanius_ his
Edition, or as _Spondanus de Cæmet. sacris_, Lib. 1. pars 1. cap. 5.
reads, _Gabbares mortuorum condita Corpora_.
The manner how the _Egyptians_ prepar’d and _Embalm’d_ these Bodies is
very copiously, and by what I observ’d at my being there, says _Greaves_
in his _Pyramidographia_, p. 48. faithfully describ’d by _Herodotus_ and
_Diodorus_; in which Matter, tho’ I cannot totally dissent from Mr.
_Greaves_, for their Account may be true, yet is it not so copious as
they make it, but imperfectly related, or at least so far that some
Passages are hardly to be understood or made out, which may easily be
allow’d without Reflection on those famous Men, since they treated of
the Matter only as _Historians_ and not as _Physicians_: My business
therefore shall be, after relating their own Words, to reconcile their
Differences, explain the Difficulties, and compare the Opinions of
_Annotators_ and _Physicians_ on this _Art_, and lastly, to suggest some
new Thoughts, as plausible, and perhaps as true as any, especially since
it is all but guesswork, and the true _Art_ may have entirely perish’d
with the antient _Egyptians_, either by Inundation, Fire, Irruptions of
Enemies, or other hostile Devastations. I will begin first with
_Herodotus_, whose Words serve as well to shew the several Ceremonies of
_Sepulture_ as their _Embalmings_, and whom we find in his Second Book
call’d _Euterpe_, thus speaking of the _Egyptians_:
[Sidenote: _Herodotus_’s Account of the _Egyptian Funerals_.]
_Their Mourning_, says he, _and manner of Burial are after this kind:
When any Man of Quality dies, all the Women of that Family besmear their
Heads and Faces with Dirt; then leaving the Body at home, they go
lamenting up and down the City with all their Relations, their Apparel
being girt about them, and their Breasts left naked. On the other hand
the Men, having likewise their Cloaths girt about them, beat themselves.
These things being done, they carry the dead Body to be_ Embalm’d; _for
which, there are certain Persons appointed who profess this_ Art.
_These, when the Body is brought to them, shew to those that bring it
certain Models of Wood, painted like the Dead Person that is to be_
Embalm’d. _One of these they say is accurately made (which I think not
lawful to name;) then they shew a second inferior to it and of an easier
Price, and next a third cheaper than the former, and of a very small
value, which being seen, they ask them what Pattern they will have the
dead Body prepar’d by: When they have agreed on the Price they depart,
and those with whom the dead Corps is left proceed to_ Embalm _it after
the following manner: First of all they, with a crooked Iron, draw the
Brain out of the Head thro’ the Nostrils, and then fill up the Cavity
with Medicinal Ingredients. Next, with a sharp_ Æthiopic _Stone, they
cut up that part of the_ Abdomen _call’d the_ Ilia, _and that way draw
out all the Bowels, which having cleans’d and wash’d with Palm-Wine,
they again rinse and wash with Wine perfum’d with pounded Odours; then
filling up the Belly with pure_ Myrrh _and_ Cassia _grosly powder’d, and
all other Odours except_ Frankincense, _they sow it up again. Having so
done, they salt it up close with Nitre 70 Days, for longer they may not
salt it. After this number of Days are over, they wash the Corps again,
and then roul it up with fine Linnen all besmear’d with a sort of Gum
commonly us’d by the_ Egyptians _instead of Glue. Then is the Body
restor’d to its Relations, who prepare a wooden Coffin for it, in the
shape and likeness of a Man, and then put the_ Embalm’d _Body into it,
and thus inclos’d place it in a Repository in the House, setting it
upright against the Wall. After this manner they with great expence
preserve their Dead, whereas those who to avoid too great a Charge
desire a mediocrity, thus_ Embalm _them: They neither cut the Belly nor
pluck out the Entrails, but fill it with Clysters of Oil of_ Cedar
_injected up the_ Anus, _and then salt it the aforesaid number of Days.
On the last of these they press out the_ Cedar _Clyster, by the same way
they had injected it, which has such Virtue and Efficacy that it brings
out along with it the Bowels wasted, and the Nitre consumes the Flesh,
leaving only the Skin and Bones: Having thus done, they restore the dead
Body to the Relations, doing nothing more. The third way of_ Embalming
_is for those of yet meaner Circumstances: They with Lotions wash the
Belly, then dry it with Salt for 70 Days, and afterwards deliver it to
be carry’d away. Nevertheless, beautiful Women and Ladies of Quality
were not deliver’d to be_ Embalm’d _till three or four Days after they
had been dead_. Ea de causa facientes, ne cum Fæminis isti Salinarii
concumbant. Deprehensum enim quendam aiunt coeuntem cum recenti Cadavere
Muliebri, delatumq; ab ejusdem Artificii Socio. _But if any_ Egyptian
_or Stranger was either kill’d by a Crocodile, or drown’d in the River,
the City where he was cast up was to_ Embalm _and bury him honourably in
the Sacred Monuments, whom no one, no, not a Relation or Friend, but the
Priests of_ Nile _only might touch, because they bury’d one who was
something more than a dead Man_.
[Sidenote: _Diodorus Siculus_’s Account of the _Egyptian Funerals_.]