[k] F. H. SKRINE, _The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900_.
CHAPTER XII. ALEXANDER II, THE CZAR LIBERATOR (1855-1881 A.D.)
[b] A. RAMBAUD, _Histoire de la Russie_.
[c] D. M. WALLACE, _Russia_.
[d] A. A. SHUMAKR, _The Czar Liberator_.
[e] P. DE LA GORCE, _Histoire du second Empire_.
[f] ALEXANDER II, _Manifesto or Proclamation_.
[g] F. H. SKRINE, _The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900_.
[h] JULIUS ECKHARDT, _Modern Russia_.
CHAPTER XIII. REACTION, EXPANSION, AND THE WAR WITH JAPAN (1881-1904 A.D.)
[b] D. M. WALLACE, article on Russian history in the _New Volumes_ of the
_Encyclopædia Britannica_.
[c] ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE, _The Russian Advance_.
[d] HENRY NORMAN, _All the Russias_.
[e] A. N. KUROPATKIN, quoted in F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross’s _The Heart
of Asia_.
APPENDIX. DOCUMENTS RELATING TO RUSSIAN HISTORY
These documents, given in a somewhat condensed form, are from the
following sources: The Treaty of Paris, from H. TYRRELL’S _History of the
War with Russia_; The Treaty of Berlin and The Hague Peace Conference,
from SIR EDWARD HERTSLET’S _State Papers_, Vol. CX.
[Illustration]
A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE
PRESENT HISTORY; WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
=Anon.=, La guerre d’Orient en 1877-1878, par un tacticien, Paris, 1880;
Tainy nashei gosudarstvennoi politiki v Polshye. Sbornik sekretnykh
dokumentov (The secrets of our governmental policy in Poland. A
collection of secret documents), London, 1899; Secret Memoirs of the
Court of St. Petersburg, particularly towards the end of the reign of
Catherine II and the commencement of that of Paul I (translated from the
French), London, 1895; The Persecution of the Jews in Russia, published
by the Russo-Jewish Committee, London, 1890; Russia, Its Industries and
Trade (Official report prepared for the Glasgow Exhibition), Glasgow,
1901; Erinnerungen eines Dorfgeistlichen. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der
Leibeigenschaft und ihrer Aufhebung. Aus dem russischen übertragen von
M. Oettingen, Stuttgart, 1894 (Bibliothek russischer Denkwürdigkeiten.
Edited by Th. Schiemann, vol. 5); An early news-sheet. The Russian
Invasion of Poland in 1563. An exact facsimile of a contemporary
account in Latin, published at Douay. Together with an introduction and
historical notes, and a full translation into English, London, 1874; The
French bulletins relating to the war in Russia, London, 1813; Russia’s
March Towards India, by an Indian officer, London, 1893, 2 vols.; Russia
Before and After the War. By the author of “Society in St. Petersburg,”
etc. Translated from the German, with later additions by the author, by
E. F. Taylor, London and New York, 1880; Von Nicolaus I zu Alexander III:
St. Petersburger Beiträge zur neuesten russischen Geschichte, Leipsic,
1881; Russisch-Baltische Blaetter, Beiträge zur Kenntniss Russlands und
seiner Grenzmarken, 4 vol., Leipzig, 1886-1888; Russland vor und nach dem
Kriege; auch “Aus der petersburger Gesellschaft,” Leipsic, 1879; Russland
am Scheidewege: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Slawophilenthums, Berlin,
1888; Lose Blätter aus dem Geheim-Archive der russischen Regierung; Ein
aktenmässiger Beitrag zur neuesten Geschichte der russischen Verwaltung
und Beamten-Korruption, Leipsic, 1882.--=Abaza=, V. A. Istorya Rossii
(History of Russia), St. Petersburg, 1893.--=Abbott=, J., Narrative of
a Journey from Herat to Khiva, Moscow and St. Petersburg, during the
late Russian invasion of Khiva, London, 1856, 2 vols.--=Adam=, Mme., Le
général Skobélef, Paris, 1886.--=Adelung=, F. von, Kritisch-literarische
Übersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700, St. Petersburg, 1846,
2 vols.--=Alexander II=, Manifest (The proclamation of emancipation)
printed by the Senate, St. Petersburg, 1861.--=Alison=, A., History
of Europe, London and New York, 1849-1850, 14 vols.--=Arnaud=, C.
A. de, The New Era in Russia, Washington, 1890.--=Arnheim=, F., Der
ausserordentliche Finländische Landtag, Leipsic, 1900.--=Avril=, A. d’,
Négociations relatives au traité de Berlin et aux arrangements qui ont
suivi, Paris, 1886.
* * * * *
=Bain=, R. N., Charles XII and the Collapse of the Swedish empire
(Heroes of the Nations series) New York, 1895; The Pupils of Peter the
Great. A History of the Russian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740,
Westminster, 1897; The Daughter of Peter the Great. A History of Russian
Diplomacy and of the Russian Court under the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna
(1741-1762), Westminster, 1899.--=Bakunin=, A., M. =Herzen=, and others,
Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel. Mit einer biographischen Einleitung
von M. Dragomanov. Autorisirte Übersetzung aus dem russischen von B.
Minzer, Stuttgart, 1895. (Bibliothek russischer Denkwürdigkeiten, vol.
6).--=Bantysh-Kamenski=, D. N. Istorya maloi Rossii (History of Little
Russia) Moscow, 1842.
_Bantysh-Kamenski_ was born in Moscow in 1788. Between 1825
and 1828 he was governor of Tobolsk, and from 1836 to 1838,
governor of Vilna. After that he was engaged in the ministry
of the interior. He died at St. Petersburg in 1850. Besides
his “History of Little Russia,” which is to this day the
only complete history in this department, he also wrote a
biographical dictionary and the lives of a number of Russian
statesmen and commanders.
=Bantysh-Kamenski=, N., Diplomatitcheskoe sobranie dyel mezhdu Rossiiskim
i Kitaiskim gosudarstvom s 1619 po 1792 god (a collection of diplomatic
papers between the Russian and Chinese empires from 1619 to 1792)
Kazan, 1882; Obzor vnyeshnikh snoshenyi Rossii po 1800 g (a review of
the foreign relations of Russia up to the year 1800, Courland, Livonia,
Esthonia, Poland, and Portugal), Moscow, 1897.--=Bell=, R., Russia
(Cabinet Cyclopædia series), London, 1836, 3 vol.--=Bernhardi=, T.
von, Geschichte Russlands und der europäischen Politik in den Jahren
1814-1831, Leipsic, 1868-1878, 3 vols.--=Bestuzhev-Riumin=, K. N.,
Russkaya istorya (Russian history) St. Petersburg, 1872, 2 vol.
_Konstantin Nikelaievitch Bestuzhev-Riumin_ was born in 1829.
From 1865 to 1882 he was a professor at the university of St.
Petersburg. Besides the History, he has been the author of a
number of monographs. His method is thorough, painstaking,
and minute. He insists on a many-sided study of the national
life, and of the exclusion of all philosophical or general
theories, and devotes much more space to internal than to
external history, paying special attention to forms of family
life, political organisation, law, religion, and literature.
The introductory chapters give a valuable account of the source
and authorities of Russian history. At his death, in 1897, he
left his History a torso. It was translated into German by Dr.
Schiemann (Mitau, 1873-1875).
=Beveridge=, A. J., The Russian Advance, New York, 1903.--=Bigelow=,
P., The German Emperor and his Eastern Neighbors, New York,
1892.--=Bilbassov=, V. A., Istorya Ekateriny II (History of Catherine
II), London, 1895, 2 vols.--=Bilbassov=, B., Katherina II, Kaiserin von
Russland, im Urtheile der Weltlitteratur. Übersetzt aus dem russischen
mit einem Vorwort von T. Schiemann, Berlin, 1897, 2 vols.; Geschichte
Katharina II. Übersetzt aus dem russischen von M. von Petzold, Berlin,
1893, 2 vols.--=Bodenstedt=, F. von, Die Völker des Kaukasus und ihre
Freiheitskämpfe gegen die Russen, Berlin, 1855, 2 vols.--=Bogdanovitch=,
M. I., Istorya tsarstvovanya imperatora Alexandra I i Rossii v yevo
vremya (History of the reign of Alexander I and of Russia during his
time) St. Petersburg, 1869-1871, 6 vols.--=Bond=, E. A., Russia at
the Close of the 16th Century; comprising the treatise “Of the Russ
Commonwealth,” by G. Fletcher, and the travels of Sir J. Horsey (Hakluyt
Society Publications, vol. 20), London, 1856.--=Bookwalter=, J. W.,
Siberia and Central Asia, New York, 1899.--=Boulger=, D. C., England and
Russia in Central Asia, London, 1873, 5 vols.--=Brodhead=, J. M. N., Slav
and Moslem: historical sketches, Charleston, S. C., 1894.--=Brooks=, C.
W. S., Russians of the South, London, 1854.--=Browning=, O., Charles XII
of Sweden, London, 1899.--=Brueckner=, A. Finanzgeschichtliche Studien:
Kupfergeldkrisen, St. Petersburg, 1867; Kulturhistorische Studien: die
Russen im Ausland: die Ausländer in Russland im 17. Jahrhundert, Riga,
1878; Ivan Possoschkow: Ideen und Zustände in Russland zur Zeit Peters
des Grossen, Leipsic, 1878; Peter der Grosse, in Oncken’s Allgemeine
Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin, 1879; Der Zarewitsch
Alexei, Heidelberg, 1880; Katharina II, in Oncken’s Weltgeschichte in
Einzeldarstelungen, Berlin, 1883; Istorya Yekateriny II (History of
Catherine II), St. Petersburg, 1885, 3 vols.; Bilder aus Russlands
Vergangenheit, Leipsic, 1887; Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Russlands
im 17. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1887; Die Europäisierung Russlands, Gotha,
1888; Geschichte Russlands: Überblick der Entwicklung bis zum Tode Peters
des Grossen, in Geschichte der europäischen Staaten, Gotha, 1896.
_Alexander Brueckner_ was born August 5, 1834, at St.
Petersburg. After engaging for six years in business, he turned
his attention to the study of history, which he pursued at
Heidelberg, Jena, and Berlin. After returning to St. Petersburg
he became professor of history at the Imperial School of law,
in 1867 professor at the university of Odessa, and in 1872 at
Dorpat. Owing to his German origin, he was removed in 1891 from
Dorpat and transferred to the university of Kazan, but at his
request he was permitted to settle at Jena. Brueckner is, like
Schiemann and Eckhardt, a German-Russian, and as such has a
special qualification for the presentation of Russian history
to a West-European audience. He has written numerous works both
in Russian and in German, and takes rank with the foremost
historians of Russia.
=Brueggen=, E. von der, Polens Auflösung, Leipsic, 1878; Wie Russland
europäisch wurde, Leipsic, 1885.--=Bunge=, F. G. von, Geschichtliche
Entwicklung der Standesverhältnisse in Livonia, Esthonia, und Kurland
bis 1561, Dorpat, 1838; der Orden der Schwertbrüder, Leipsic,
1875.--=Burtsev=, V., and S. M. =Kravtchinski=, Za sto lyet (1800-1896).
Sbornik po istorii polititcheskikh i obshtchestvennikh dvizhenyi v Rossii
(One hundred years. Documents Relating to the History of Political and
Social Movements in Russia), London, 1897.--=Buturlin=, Knyaz D. P.,
Histoire militaire de la campagne de Russia en 1812, Paris, 1824, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Cary=, C., The Trans-Siberian Route, New York, 1902.--=Catherine
II=, empress of Russia, Memoirs of the Empress Catherine II, written
by herself, with a preface by A. Herzen, translated from the French,
New York, 1859.--=Celestin=, Fr. J., Russland seit Aufhebung der
Leibeigenschaft, Laibach, 1875.--=Choiseul-Gouffier=, (Tisenhaus),
comtesse de, Historical Memoirs of the Emperor Alexander I and the Court
of Russia. Translated by M. B. Patterson, Chicago, 1901.--=Colquhoun=, A.
R., Russia against India: The Struggle for Asia, New York, 1900.--=Coxe=,
W., An Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America:
added, The Conquest of Siberia, and the history of the transactions
and commerce between Russia and China, London, 1803.--=Crusenstolpe=,
M. I. von, Der russische Hof von Peter I bis auf Nikolaus I, Hamburg,
1855-1859.--=Curzon=, G. N., Russia in Central Asia in 1889 and the
Anglo-Russian Question, London, 1889; Persia and the Persian Question,
London, 1892; Problems of the Far-East: Japan, Corea, China, London,
1894; The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus, London, 1896.--=Custine=, le
marquis de, La Russie en 1839, Paris, 1844, 4 vols.
* * * * *
=Danilevski=, N. Y., Rossiya i Evropa: Vzgliad na kulturnyia i
polititcheskyia otnoshenya slavianskavo mira k germano-romanskomu (Russia
and Europe: a glance at the cultural and political relations of the
Slav world to the German-Romance world), St. Petersburg, 1895.--=Day=,
W. A., The Russian Government in Poland. With a narrative of the Polish
insurrection in 1863, London, 1867.--=De la Gorce=, P., Histoire du
second Empire, Paris, 1894, 4 vols.--=Delord=, T., Histoire du second
Empire, Paris, 1868-1875, 6 vols.--=Deutsch=, L. G., Sixteen Years in
Siberia, New York, 1903.--=De Windt=, H., Finland as It Is, London,
1901.--=Drage=, G., Russian Affairs, New York, 1904.--=Dubrovin=, N.
F., Pugatchev i yevo soobshtchniki (Pugatchev and his accomplices), St.
Petersburg, 1884, 3 vols.; Prisoedinenie Krima k Rossii (The annexation
of the Crimea to Russia), St. Petersburg, 1885-1889, 4 vols.--=Duggan=,
S. P. H., The Eastern Question: A Study in Diplomacy (Columbia studies in
history, economics, and public law), New York, 1902.
* * * * *
=Eckardt=, J., Jungrussisch und Altlivländisch. Politische und
culturgeschichtliche Aufsätze, Leipsic, 1871; Distinguished persons
in Russian society (translated from the Author’s Aus der Petersburger
Gesellschaft), London, 1873; Aus der Petersburger Gesellschaft, 5th
edition, Leipsic, 1880; Neue Folge, Leipsic, 1881; Von Nikolaus I zu
Alexander III, Leipsic, 1881; Russische Wandlungen. Neue Beiträge zur
russischen Geschichte von Nikolaus I zu Alexander III, Leipsic, 1882.
_Julius von Eckhardt_ was born August 1, 1836, at Wolmar
in Livonia. From 1860 to 1867 he was the secretary of the
Evangelical-Lutheran Consistory at Riga, one of the editors of
the Riga _Zeitung_, and an active member of the Liberal-German
party in the Baltic provinces of Russia. After the leaders of
this party had been removed from their offices on account of
their Germanising tendencies, Eckardt emigrated to Germany,
where he was active first as a journalist, then as secretary
of the Hamburg senate, and finally as German consul at Tunis,
Marseilles and Stockholm. Eckardt was the author of numerous
works and pamphlets, many of which were published anonymously,
on Russian, Baltic, and German affairs. He was less an
historian than a publicist and politician; but he had an
intimate knowledge of the Russia of his own day, the Russia of
Alexander II and Alexander III, and his works are indispensable
for an understanding of Russian parties and the vacillations
of Russian public opinion. His own point of view is that of a
conservative liberal.
=Edwards=, H. D., Russian Projects against India, London,
1885.--=Engelmann=, J., Peter der Grosse, seine Jugend und seine
Reformen, Dorpat, 1872; Die Leibeigenschaft in Russland, Leipsic, 1884;
Das Staatsrecht Russlands, in Marquardsen’s Handbuch des öffentlichen
Rechts, vol. 4, Freiburg, 1888.--=Engels=, F., Die auswärtige Politik des
russischen Zarenthums, in _Neue Zeit_, Stuttgart, 1890.
* * * * *
=Favre=, L., Histoire de la guerre entre la Russie et la Turquie, Niort,
1879.--=Fenton=, F. de, La Russie dans l’Asie-Mineure; ou, Campagnes du
Maréchal Paskewitch en 1828 et 1829, Paris, 1840.--=Ferrand=, A. de,
Les trois démembrements de la Pologne, Paris, 1865, 3 vols.--=Fischer=,
I. E., Sibirskaya istorya s samavo otkrytya (A history of Siberia from
its discovery), St. Petersburg, 1774.--=Fisher=, J. R., Finland and
the Tsars, London, 1899.--=Flerovski=, N., Tri polititcheskya sistemy:
Nikolai I, Alexander II, Alexander III, (Three political systems:
Nicholas I, Alexander II, Alexander III), Geneva, 1897, (German
translation, Berlin, 1898).--=Foster-Fraser=, J., The Real Siberia,
London, 1902.--=Foulke=, W. D., Slav or Saxon: A Study of the Growth
and Tendencies of Russian Civilisation, New York, 1887.--=Fowler=, G.,
History of the War between Turkey and Russia to the End of 1854, London,
1855.--=Fraehn=, C. M., Ibn Fosslans und anderer Araber Berichte über
die Russen älterer Zeit, St. Petersburg, 1823.--=Fraser=, J. F., The
Real Siberia; with an account of a dash through Manchuria, New York,
1902.--=Frederica=, Sophia Wilhelmina, Princess Royal of Russia, Memoirs,
London, 1812, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Galakhov=, A. D., Istorya russkoi slovesnosti (History of Russian
literature), Moscow, 1894, 2 vols.--=Galitsyne=, A., Le faux Pierre III,
trad. de Pouchkine, Paris, 1858.--=George=, H. B., Napoleon’s Invasion
of Russia, New York, 1899.--=Gerebtzov=, N. de, Essai sur l’histoire
de la civilisation en Russie, Paris, 1858, 2 vols.--=Gerrare=, W., The
Story of Moscow (Mediæval Towns series), London, 1900; Greater Russia,
London, 1903.--=Gogol=, N. V., Home Life in Russia, by a Russian
noble; revised by the editor of “Revelations in Siberia,” London,
1854, 2 vols.--=Golovin=, Knyas I, Russia under the Autocrat Nicholas
I, London, 1846, 2 vols.--=Gossip=, R., History of Russia, London,
1800.--=Grigorev=, V. V., Rossya i Azya, Sbornik izslyedovanyi i statey
po istorii, etnografii i geografii (Russia and Asia. Researches in
history, ethnography, and geography), St. Petersburg, 1876.--=Grodekov=,
N. G., A Ride from Samarcand to Herat, translated by C. Marvin, London,
1885.--=Gurowski=, A., Russia As It Is, New York, 1854.
* * * * *
=Hagemeister=, I. A., Rozyskanya o finansakh drevney Rossii
(Investigations concerning the finances of ancient Russia), St.
Petersburg, 1833.--=Hakluyt=, R., Discovery of Muscovy (Cassel’s Nat.
Lib.)--=Hamley=, E. R., The Story of the Campaign: a complete narrative
of the war in southern Russia. Written in a tent in the Crimea, Boston,
1855.--=Hanna=, H. B., Indian Problems, Westminster, 1895-1896, 3
vols.--=Hare=, A. J. C., Studies in Russia, London, 1885.--=Haumant=,
E., La guerre du Nord (1655-1660), Paris, 1893.--=Haxthausen=, A. von,
Studien über die inneren Zustände, das Volksleben, und insbesondere die
ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands, Hanover, 1847-1852, 3 vols.; Die
Kriegsmacht Russlands, Berlin, 1852; Transcaucasia: sketches of the
nations and races between the Black Sea and the Caspian, translated by
J. E. Taylor, London, 1854; Tribes of the Caucasus: with an account
of Schamyl and the Murids, translated by J. E. Taylor, London, 1855;
Transkaukasia, Leipsic, 1856, 2 vols.; The Russian Empire, Its People,
Institutions and Resources, translated by R. Farie, London, 1856, 2
vols.; Die ländliche Verfassung Russlands, Leipsic, 1866.
_Baron August von Haxthausen_ was born on his father’s estate
near Paderborn in Westphalia, February 3, 1792. He studied
in a mining school and took part in the War of Liberation,
1813-1815. His life was mainly devoted to the study of agrarian
conditions in eastern Prussia and in Russia. His researches in
the latter country were undertaken at the request of Nicholas
I, and he is generally regarded as the discoverer of the _mir_
or Russian village community. He died at Hanover, January 1,
1867.
=Hedin=, Sven, Through Asia, New York, 1899, 2 vols.--=Hehn=, V., De
moribus Ruthenorum. Zur Charakteristik der russischen Volksseele.
Edited by Th. Schiemann, Stuttgart, 1892.--=Hellwald=, F. A. H. von,
The Russians in Central Asia, translated from the German by Theo.
Wirgman, London, 1874.--=Herzen=, A. I., Die russische Verschwörung und
der Aufstand vom 14. Dezember 1825, Hamburg, 1858; Russlands soziale
Zustände. Aus dem russischen, Hamburg, 1854; Du développement des idées
révolutionnaires en Russie, par A. Iscander (pseud), Paris, 1851; Le
monde russe et la révolution; mémoires, 1812-1835, traduits par H.
Delaveau, Paris, 1860-1862, 3 vols.--=Himmelstjerna=, S. H. von, Russland
unter Alexander III., Leipsic, 1891, English translation, Russia under
Alexander III., and in the preceding period, New York, 1893; Verlumpung
der Bauern und des Adels in Russland, nach G. I. Uspensky und A. N.
Terpigoriew, Leipsic, 1892.--=Historischer Atlas von Russland, Polen,
etc.=, vom Jahre 1155 bis zum Jahre 1816, Leipsic, 1817.--=Holland=, Th.
E., A Lecture on the Treaty Relations of Russia and Turkey from 1774 to
1853, London, 1877.--=Hourwich=, I. A., The Economics of the Russian
Village (Columbia studies in history, economics, and public law), New
York, 1892.--=Howard=, B., Prisoners of Russia: a personal study of
convict life in Sakhalin and Siberia, New York, 1902.--=Howorth=, H. H.,
History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century, London,
1876-1880, 4 vols.
* * * * *
=Ignatovitch=, I., Pomyeshtchitchi krestyane nakanune osvobozhdenya
(Proprietor’s peasants on the eve of emancipation), in “Russkoe
Bogatstvo,” 1900.--=Ilovaiski=, D. I., Istorya Rossii (History of
Russia), Moscow, 1876-1890, 3 vols.; Smutnoe vremya moskocskavo
gosudarstva (The Troublous Period in the Muscovite Empire), Moscow,
1894.--=Ivanin=, M. L., O voyennom iskustvye i zavoevanyakh Mongolo-Tatar
i srednyeazyatskikh narodov pri Tchingis Khanye i Tammerlanye, (The Art
of War and the Conquests of the Mongol-Tatars and Central-Asian peoples
under Jenghiz Khan and Tamerlane), St. Petersburg, 1875.
* * * * *
=Jauffret=, P. E., Catherine II., et son règne, Paris, 1860.
* * * * *
=Kapnist=, J., Code d’organisation judiciaire russe, Paris,
1893.--=Karamzin=, N. M., Istorya gosudarstva rossiiskavo (History of the
Russian Empire), St. Petersburg, 1818-1829, 12 vols.
_Nikolai Mikhailovitch Karamzin_ was born December 12, 1765,
at the village of Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg,
and died June 3, 1826, at Tsarskoi Selo. His first literary
efforts consisted of translations of essays and poems from
foreign languages. In 1789 he undertook a journey to Germany,
France, Switzerland and England, the literary result of which
was his _Letters of a Russian Traveller_, elegant, poetical
and sentimental. These letters were first published in the
_Moscow Journal_, of which he was the founder, and which he
edited in 1791-1792. In the same periodical also appeared
some of his original stories, one of which treats of the
fall of Novgorod. From 1794 to 1799 he published a number of
miscellanies, _Aglaia_, _The Aonides_, and the _Pantheon_,
containing original as well as translated matter. In 1802-1803
Karamzin edited the _European Messenger_, destined to become
one of the most important Russian reviews, and of which he was
the founder. He then turned to the work of his life, the great
_History of the Russian Empire_, which was to occupy him till
his death. In this last enterprise he was aided and encouraged
by the emperor Alexander I, who contributed 60,000 rubles
to the cost of publication. The history terminates at the
accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. Karamzin’s work is the
first great Russian history. Its style is elegant and flowing,
its erudition large and solid, and it abounds in curious
information. It is owing to these qualities that the book still
maintains its place, although much of it has by this time
become obsolete. The book is especially strong in description
of battles and analysis of character. Its spirit is frankly
reactionary. The barbarism of early Russia is glossed over by
a glittering veil of romanticism, the material, intellectual
and moral condition of the Russian people is almost entirely
ignored, and the book has been styled the “epic of despotism.”
A French translation appeared at Paris in 1819-1820, and a
German one at Leipsic in 1820-1833.
=Kelly=, W. K., History of Russia, London, 1854, 2 vols.--=Kennan=,
G., Tent Life in Siberia, and Adventures Among the Koraks and Other
Tribes in Kamtchatka and Northern Asia, New York, 1870; Siberia and the
Exile System, New York, 1891, 2 vols.--=Kinglake=, A. W., The Invasion
of the Crimea, London, 1863-1887, 8 vols.--=Klaczko=, J., Études de
diplomatie contemporaine (1861-1864), Paris, 1866; Deux chanceliers
(Gortchakov and Bismarck), Paris, 1877.--=Kleinschmidt=, A., Drei
Jahrhunderte russischer Geschichte (1598-1898), Berlin, 1898.--=Knorr=,
E., Die polnischen Aufstände seit 1830, Berlin, 1880.--=Kohl=, J. G.,
Russia: Travels, London, 1842.--=Kostomarov=, N. I., Istoritcheskya
monografii i izslyedovanya (Historical Monographs and Researches), St.
Petersburg, 1863-1867, 3 vols.; Russkaya istorya v zhiznye opisanyakh
yeya glavnyeisliikh dyeiyatelyei (Russian History in the Biographies of
its Chief Actors), St. Petersburg, 1892-1896, 4 vols.; Smutnoe vremya
moskovskavo gosudarstva v natchalye XVII. stolyetya (The Troublous Period
in the Muscovite Empire at the Beginning of the Seventeenth Century),
St. Petersburg, 1868; Poslyednie gody ryetchi-pospolitoi (The Last Years
of the Polish Republic), St. Petersburg, 1870; Predanya pervonatchalnoi
russkoi lyetopisi (The Traditions of the Earliest Russian Chronicles),
St. Petersburg, 1881; Bogdan Khmelnitski: istoritcheskaya monografia
(Bogdan Khmelnitsky: an Historical Monograph), St. Petersburg, 1884,
3 vols.; Syevernorusskie narodopravstva vo vremya udyelno-vyetchevovo
uklada (Popular Rights in Northern Russia During the Period of
Appanages and Republics. The History of Novgorod, Pskov, and Vyatka),
St. Petersburg, 1886, 2 vols.; Otcherk domashney zhizni i nravov
velikorusskavo Naroda v 16. i 17. stolyetii i starinnye zemskie sbory
(A Sketch of the Domestic Life and Manners of the Great-Russians in
the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries; and the Ancient Provincial
Assemblies), St. Petersburg, 1887; Otcherk torgovli moskovskavo
gosudarstva v 16. i 17. stolyetyakh (A Sketch of the Commerce of the
Muscovite Empire During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries), St.
Petersburg, 1889.
_Nikolai Ivanovitch Kostomarov_ was born May 4th, 1817, at
Ostrogosh, in the government of Voronezh. In 1846 he was
appointed to a professorship of history in the university of
Kiev. Owing to his activity for the reviving of Little Russian
literature he was accused of harbouring separatist tendencies,
arrested, imprisoned for a whole year, and then banished to
Saratov and forbidden to teach or publish his writings. On
the accession of Alexander II he was pardoned, and in 1859 he
was appointed professor of history at the university of St.
Petersburg. But in 1862, when the university was closed in
consequence of students’ disorders, he resigned his post, and
henceforth devoted himself exclusively to writing. He died at
St. Petersburg, April 19th, 1885. His poetical works, which
were written in the Little Russian dialect under the _nom
de plume_ of Jeremiah Halka, were published collectively at
Odessa, 1875. Some of them have been translated into German. As
an historian Kostomarov occupies a very high place in Russian
literature. His work has assumed the form of monographs, owing
to his idea that Russian history cannot be understood without
an exhaustive study of the numerous ethnological elements and
the separate territorial divisions of which the Russian empire
is composed. In his own words, “the Russian empire represents
an integration of parts that once led an independent existence,
and for a considerable time after unification the life of
the parts expressed itself in separate tendencies within the
general political structure. To discover and disclose these
peculiarities of national life in the divisions that make
up the Russian empire, was the problem I set before myself
in my historical labours.” The justification of this view
lies in the comparative recency of the Russian empire, its
weakness in the assumption that the national or provincial
character is unchangeable and immobile. Kostomarov had at his
command a vigorous, dramatic style and a lively imagination,
and his books contributed greatly toward the popularisation
of historical studies in Russia: but he was also possessed
in a high degree of the critical faculty, and more than one
historical legend has been demolished in his pages. His
“Russian History in Biographies” was translated into German and
published at Leipsic, 1886-1889.
=Kovalevski=, M., Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia, London,
1891; Le Régime économique de la Russie, Paris, 1896; L’Agriculture en
Russie, Paris, 1897; Russian Political Institutions, Chicago, 1902.
_Maxim Kovalevski_ was born at Kharkov in 1851, of a rich and
noble family that is remarkable for the number of men--and
one woman--of science it has given to Russia. He studied at
Berlin, Paris, and London, and in 1877-1887 he was professor
of comparative law at the university of Moscow. Owing to his
liberal views he was compelled to give up his position. Since
then he has settled at Paris, where he has collected a valuable
library, and lectured at various seats of learning in Europe
and America--Stockholm, Oxford, Brussels, Chicago. He has
written numerous and important works on the history of Russia,
France, England, the Caucasus, etc., and is a recognised
authority in the departments of pre-history, public and private
law, and economic history.
=Koyalovitch=, M. I., Dnyevnik poslyednyavo pokhoda Stefana Batorya
na Rossiyu, 1581-1582. Osada Pskova (A diary of the last campaign of
Stephen Batory against Russia in 1581-1582. The siege of Pskov), St.
Petersburg, 1867; Tchtenya po istorii zapadnoi Rossii (Lectures on the
history of Southern Russia), St. Petersburg, 1884.--=Kravchinski=, S. M.,
(Stepniak). The Russian Peasantry: Their Origin, Condition, Social Life
and Religion, London, 1888, 2 vols.--=Kropotkin=, P. A., Memoirs of a
Revolutionist, Boston, 1899.--=Kulish=, P. A., Istorya vozsoedinenya Rusi
(A history of the unification of Russia), St. Petersburg, 1874.--=Kunik=,
E., Die Berufung der schwedischen Rodsen durch die Finnen und Slawen,
St. Petersburg, 1844-1845.--=Kuropatkin=, Gen. A. N., Les confins
anglo-russe, translated by G. Le Marchand, Paris, 1879; Kashgaria,
translated by Col. W. E. Gore, Calcutta, 1882; Kritische Rückblicke auf
den russisch-türkischen Krieg 1877-1878, Berlin, 1885-1890, 3 vols.
_Alexei Nikolaievitch Kuropatkin_ was born March 29, 1848.
In 1866 he joined the army of Turkestan as a lieutenant,
served with distinction in the expedition of General Kaufman
in 1867-1868, was sent at the head of a diplomatic-military
mission to the emir of Kashgar, and studied in 1872-1874
at the academy of the general staff. He joined the French
army in Algeria as a volunteer, was active on his return in
Turkestan, and then became chief of the Asiatic section of the
general staff. In 1877-1878 he was chief of General Skobelev’s
staff, under whom he also served in the campaign against
the Akhal-Tekke Turkomans, 1880-1881. In 1890 he became a
lieutenant-general and governor of the Transcaspian territory,
and later minister of war.
He is the author of two important works on the last
Russo-Turkish War, which have been translated into French and
German, and of a book of travels on Kashgar.
* * * * *
=Labensky=, A., A Russian’s Reply to the Marquis de Custine’s “Russia in
1839,” London, 1844.--=Laferté=, V., Alexander II: Détails inédits sur
sa vie intime et sa mort, Paris, 1882.--=Lamartine=, A. de, Histoire de
la Russie, Paris, 1855, 2 vols.--=Lansdell=, H., Russian Central Asia,
including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva and Merv, Boston, 1885.--=Latham=,
R. G., Native Races of the Russian Empire, London, 1854; Russian
and Turk, from a Geographical, Ethnological and Historical Point of
View, London, 1878.--=Latimer=, Mrs. W. E., Russia and Turkey in the
Nineteenth Century, Chicago, 1893.--=Leger=, L., Cyrille et Méthode,
étude historique sur la conversion de Slaves au christianisme, Paris,
1868; De Nestore rerum russicarum scriptore, Paris, 1868; Traduction
de la chronique de Nestor, Paris, 1884.--=Lehmann=, C. and =Parvus=
(pseud.), Das hungernde Russland, Stuttgart, 1900.--=Lemke=, M., Otcherki
po istorii tsenzuri (Studies in the History of the Russian Censorship),
in “Russkoe Bogatstvo,” 1903.--=Leonov=, R., Documents secrets de la
politique russe en Orient (1888-1890), Berlin, 1893.--=Leroy-Beaulieu=,
A., L’empire des Tsars et les Russes, Paris, 1881-1889, 3 vols.; Un homme
d’état russe: Nicolas Milutin, Paris, 1884; La France, La Russie et
l’Europe, Paris, 1888; Israël chez les nations, Paris, 1893.
_Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu_ was born in 1842 at Lisieux. Since
1881 he has been professor of modern history at the _école
libre de sciences politiques_ in Paris. His chief work,
“_L’empire des Tsars et les Russes_,” is one of the most
important works on Russia ever published in western Europe. The
first two volumes treat of the geography, ethnology, and the
economic and political institutions, while the third is devoted
to a study of the Russian church and the sects.
=Leroy-Beaulieu=, P., The Awakening of the East: Siberia, Japan,
China, New York, 1900.--=Lestrade=, Combes de, La Russie économique et
sociale, Paris, 1896.--=Lessar=, P., La Russie et l’Angleterre dans
l’Asie centrale, Paris, 1886.--=Lévesque=, P. C., Histoire de Russie,
Yverdun, 1782, 8 vols., Paris, 1812, 4 vols.--=Livov=, G., Michel
Katkoffet son époque: quelque pages d’histoire contemporaine en Russie
(1855-1887), Paris, 1897.--=Loris-Melikov=, M. T. T., Konstitutsya grafa
Lorisa-Melikova (The Constitution of Count Loris-Melikov), London,
1893.--=Lyaskoronski=, V., Istorya Pereyaslovskoi zemli s drevneyshikh
vremyon do polovinny XIII stolyetya (A History of Pereyaslavl from the
earliest times to the middle of the thirteenth century), Kiev, 1897.
* * * * *
=Maggiolo=, A. de, France et Russie; Pozzo di Borgo, 1764-1842, Paris,
1890.--=Maltsev=, A., Die russische Kirche, Berlin, 1893.--=Manstein=,
Baron de, Memoirs of Russia 1727-1744, translated from the original
manuscript, London, 1773.--=Martens=, F. F., Étude historique sur la
politique russe dans la question d’Orient, Gand, 1877; Recueil de traités
et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères, St.
Petersburg, 1878-1889, 10 vols.; Russia and England in Central Asia,
London, 1879.--=Martin=, H., Histoire de France depuis 1789 jusqu’à
nos jours, Paris, 2nd edition, 1878-1885, 8 vols.--=Marvin=, C., The
Eye Witnesses’ Account of the Disastrous Russian Campaign against the
Akhal-Tekke Turkomans, London, 1880; The Russian Advance Towards India:
conversations with Skobelev, Ignatiev, and other distinguished Russian
generals and statesmen, London, 1882; The Russians at Merv and Herat and
their Power of Invading India, London, 1883; The Russians at the Gates
of Herat, London and New York, 1885.--=Marx=, F., The Pacific and the
Amoor: Naval, military, and diplomatic operations from 1855 to 1861,
London, 1861.--=Marx=, K., The Eastern Question: a reprint of letters
written 1853-1856 dealing with the events of the Crimean War, London,
1897; Secret Diplomatic History of the Eighteenth Century, London, 1899;
Lord Palmerston, London, 1899.--=Massa=, Isaac de Harlem, Histoire des
guerres de Moscovie 1601-1611, Brussels, 1876; Skazanya Massy i Herkmana
o smutnom vremeni v Rossii (The Accounts of Massa and Herkmann of the
Troublous Period in Russia), St. Petersburg, 1874.--=Masson=, C. F.
P., Mémoires secrets sur la Russie pendant les regnes de Catherine II
et de Paul I, (in Bibliothèque des mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de
France pendant le 18ᵉ siècle, vol. 22), Paris, 1859.--=Maxwell=, J. S.,
The Czar, his Court and People, New York, 1849.--=Mechlin=, R., Das
Staatsrecht des Grossfürstenthums Finland, Freiburg, 1889.--=Mérimée=,
P., Les faux Démétrius, Paris, 1852; Épisode de l’histoire de Russie,
Paris, 1854; Les cosaques d’autrefois, Paris, 1865; Mélanges historiques
et littéraires, Paris, 1867; Portraits historiques et littéraires,
Paris, 1874.--=Michelin=, L. H. S., Finland in the Nineteenth Century,
Helsingfors, 1894.--=Milukov=, P. N., Glavnyia tetchenya russkoi
istoritcheskoi mysli (The Main Currents of Russian Historical Thought),
Moscow, 1898; Skizzen russischer Kulturgeschichte. Deutsche vom Verfasser
durchgesehene Ausgabe von E. Davidson, Leipsic, 1898-1901, 2 vols.
_Milukov_ was born in 1859. From 1886 to 1895 he taught at
the university of Moscow. But like so many other Russian
professors of history and social science, he came in conflict
with the government, and accepted a professorship at the
university of Sofia, Bulgaria. He is one of the ablest of the
younger generation of Russian historians, his method being the
realistic or economic. During several years he was a regular
contributor of reviews on Russian literature to the London
_Athenæum_.
=Milutin=, D. A., Istorya voiny Rossii s Frantsieu v tsarstvovanie
imperatora Pavla I v 1799 g. (A History of the War Between Russia and
France During the Reign of the Emperor Paul I in the Year 1799), St.
Petersburg, 1852-1853, 5 vols.
_Dmitri Alexeievitch Milutin_ was born July 10, 1816, at
Moscow. In 1833 he entered the army as lieutenant, then served
in the army of the Caucasus, in which he advanced in 1843 to
the post of chief of the commissariat department, and in 1856
to that of chief of the general staff. In 1860 he became first
adjutant to the war minister, and in 1862 war minister. In this
capacity he devoted himself toward reorganising the army on
a modern basis, and in 1874 he introduced universal military
service. The campaigns of 1877-1878 showed the shortcomings as
well as the improvements of the army under his administration.
In 1878 the title of count was conferred on him. In 1881
he was dismissed by Alexander III owing to his expressed
dissatisfaction with the reactionary, strictly absolutist
manifesto of May 11 of that year. He was the author of a number
of works on military history and science, and his history of
Souvorov’s campaign in Italy appeared in a German translation,
at Munich, 1856-1858.
=Moltke=, H. C. B., The Russians in Bulgaria, in 1828-1829, London,
1854.--=Monteith=, W., Kars and Erzeroum: with the campaigns of Prince
Paskiewitch, London, 1856.--=Morane=, P., Finlande et Caucase, Paris,
1900.--=Morfill=, W. R., Russia (Story of the Nations series), New
York, 1891; A History of Russia from the Birth of Peter the Great to
Nicholas II., New York, 1902.--=Motley=, J. L., Peter the Great, London,
1887.--=Munro=, H. H., Rise of the Russian Empire, Boston, 1900.
* * * * *
=Nagasee=, H., Die Entwicklung der russischen und englischen
Politik Persien und Afghanistan betreffend bis 1838, Halle, A. S.
1894.--=Nestor=, Prepodobnavo Nestora rossiski lyetopisets (Holy
Nestor’s Russian Chronicle), St. Petersburg, 1767; La chronique de
Nestor, translation by Louis Paris, Paris, 1834, 2 vols.--=Neuburger=,
F., Russland unter Kaiser Alexander III., Berlin, 1895.--=Nicolai=, on
(pseud. of Danielson) Histoire de développment économique de la Russie
depuis l’abolition du servage, Paris, 1899; Die Volkswirthschaft in
Russland nach der Bauernemancipation. Autorisierte Übersetzung aus
dem russischen von Dr. G. Polansky, Munich, 1899.--=Nikitin=, P.,
Istorya goroda Smolenska, (History of the City of Smolensk), Moscow,
1848.--=Nikitski=, A., Otcherk vnutrennei istorii Pskova (Outline of
the Internal History of Pskov), St. Petersburg, 1873.--=Noble=, E., The
Russian Revolt: its causes, condition and prospects, Boston, 1885; Russia
and the Russians, Boston, 1901.--=Norman=, H., All the Russias: travels
and studies in contemporary European Russia, Finland, Siberia, New York,
1902.--=Novikov=, Mme. O. K., Skobelev and the Slavonic Cause, London,
1883; Russia and England from 1876 to 1880: a protest and an appeal: with
a preface by J. A. Froude, London, 1880.
* * * * *
=O’Donovan=, E., The Merv Oasis, London, 1882.--=Ordega=, V., Die
Gewerbepolitik Russlands von Peter I bis Katharina II, Tübingen,
1885.--=Oxley=, T. L., Character and Reign of Alexander II, London, 1881.
* * * * *
=Palmer=, F. H. E., Russian Life in Town and Country, New York,
1901.--=Parmele=, M. P., A Short History of Russia. New York,
1900.--=Pavlov=, N. M., Russkaya istorya ot drevneyskikh vremyon (Russian
History from the Earliest Times, 862-1362), Moscow, 1896-1899, 2
vols.--=Pekarski=, P. P., Nauka i literatura v Rossii pri Petrye Velikom
(Science and Literature in Russia at the Time of Peter the Great), St.
Petersburg, 1862, 2 vols.--=Pember=, A., Ivan the Terrible, London,
1895.--=Pfuel=, E. von, Der Rückzug der Franzosen aus Russland, Berlin,
1867.--=Pierling=, P., Rome et Démétrius, Paris, 1878; La Sorbonne et
la Russie, Paris, 1882; Un Nonce du pape en Moscovie: préliminaires de
la trêve de 1582, Paris, 1884; La Saint-Siège, la Pologne et Moscou
(1582-1587), Paris, 1885; Bathory et Possevino, Paris, 1887; Papes et
Tsars (1547-1597), Paris, 1890; La Russie et l’Orient: marriage d’un Tsar
au Vatican, Ivan III et Sophie Paléologue, Paris, 1891; L’Italie et la
Russie au XVI siècle, Paris, 1892.--=Pingaud=, L., Les Français en Russie
et les Russes en France, Paris, 1886.--=Pogodin=, M. P., Izslyedovanya,
zamyetchanya i lektsii o russkoi istorii (Researches, Comments and
Lectures on Russian History), Moscow, 1846-1857, 7 vols.; Nestor:
eine historisch-kritische Untersuchung über den Anfang der russischen
Chroniken. Übersetzt von F. Loewe, (Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen
Reiches, vol. 10), St. Petersburg, 1884.--=Popowski=, J., The Rival
Powers in Central Asia, London, 1893.--=Porter=, R. K., Narrative of the
Campaign in Russia During the Year 1812, London, 1814.--=Possevino=,
A., Antonii Possevini missio moscovitica ex annuis litteris Societatis
Jesu excerpta et adnotationibus illustrata curante P. Pierling, Paris,
1882.--=Pozzo Di Borgo=, Ch., Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo
di Borgo, Paris, 1891.--=Pyzyrewsky=, A., Der polnisch-russische Krieg
von 1831, Wien, 1892-1893, 3 vols.
* * * * *
=Rafn=, K. C., Antiquités Russes, Copenhagen, 1850-1854, 3
vols.--=Ralston=, W. R. S., The Songs of the Russian People, London,
1872; Russian Folk-tales, London, 1873; Early Russian History, London,
1876.--=Rambaud=, La Russie épique, Paris, 1876; Souvorof, (conférances
de Saint-Cyr), Paris, 1889; Français et Russes, Moscou et Sevastopol,
Paris, 1892; L’armée du tsar Alexandre III, in la Revue Bleue, November
10, 1894; Histoire de la Russie, Paris, 1900; The Expansion of Russia:
Problems of the East and of the Far East, New York, 1904.
_Alfred Nicolas Rambaud_ was born July 21st, 1842 at Besançon.
Appointed in 1864 a teacher at the lyceum of Nancy, he
advanced steadily until his appointment to a professorship in
the university of Paris in 1882. In 1896 he was minister of
education in the Méline cabinet. He is the author of many works
on the history of France, and in conjunction with Lavisse he
is editing the “Histoire générale du IVᵉ siècle jusqu’à nos
jours.” His “History of Russia” is regarded as the best of its
kind that has ever been written by a West-European.
=Ravenstein=, E. G., The Russians on the Amur; its discovery, conquest,
and colonisation and personal accounts of Russian travellers, London,
1861.--=Rawlinson=, H. C., England and Russia in the East; a series
of papers on the political and geographical condition of Central
Asia, London, 1875.--=Reinholdt=, A. von, Geschichte der russischen
Litteratur von ihren Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit, in Geschichte der
Weltlitteratur in Einzeldarstellungen, vol. 7, Leipsic, 1886.--=Reinsch=,
P. S., World Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century, New York,
1900.--=Rivière=, Ch. de la, Catherine II et la révolution française,
Paris, 1895. =Rocca=, F. de, Les assemblées politiques dans la Russie
ancienne, Paris, 1899.--=Rozhkov=, N., Gorod i derevnia v russkoi
istorii: kratki otcherk ekonomitcheskoi istorrii Rossii (City and village
in Russian history; a rapid survey of Russian economical history), in
“Mir Bozhi,” 1902; Obzor russkoi istorii s sotsiologitcheskoi totchki
zryenya. Tchast pervaya: Kievskaya Rus (A survey of Russian history from
the sociological point of view. Part first: Kievan Russia), in “Mir
Bozhi,” 1903.--=Rulhière=, C. C. de, Révolution de Pologne, Paris, 1862,
3 vols.
* * * * *
=Saraw=, Chr. von, Die Feldzüge Karl’s XII, Leipsic, 1881.--=Schiemann=,
Th., Russland, Polen, und Livland bis im XVII. Jahrhundert, in Oncken’s
Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin, 1886-1887, 2 vols.;
Die Ermordung Pauls und die Thronbesteigung Nikolaus I: neue Materialien
veröffentlicht und eingeleitet, Berlin, 1902.--=Schlözer=, K. von,
Russlands älteste Beziehungen zu Skandinavien und Konstantinopel, Berlin,
1847.--=Schmucker=, S. M., Memoirs of the Court and Reign of Catherine
the Second, New York, 1855.--=Schnitzler=, J. H., Geheime Geschichte
Russlands unter den Kaisern Alexander und Nikolaus, unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der Krisis von 1825, Grimma, 1847, 2 vols., English
translation, Secret History of the Court and Government of Russia Under
the Emperors Alexander and Nicholas, London, 1847, 2 vols.; L’Empire
des Tsars ou point actuél de la science, Paris, 1856-1869, 4 vols.; La
Russie en 1812, Rostopchine et Koutouzof, Paris, 1863; Les institutions
de la Russie depuis les réformes de l’empereur Alexander II, Paris,
1866, 2 vols.; Geschichte des russischen Reiches von der ältesten Zeit
bis zum Tode des Kaisers Nikolaus, Leipsic, 1874.--=Schuyler=, E.,
Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bokhara,
and Kuldja, London and New York, 1876, 2 vols.; Peter the Great,
London and New York, 1884, 2 vols.--=Ségur=, P. P. Comte de, History
of Russia and Peter the Great, London, 1829.--=Semyovski=, V. I.,
Gornozavodskie krestyane v vtoroi polovinye 18vo vyeka (The Peasants in
Metallurgic Works During the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century), in
“Russkaya Mysl,” 1900.--=Sergeevitch=, V. I., Vetche i knyaz: russkoe
gosudarstvennoe ustroistvo i upravlyenie vo vremena knyazei rurikovitchei
(Folkmote and Prince: the Russian Political System in the Days of the
Rurik Princes), Moscow, 1867.--=Shilder=, N. K., Imperator Alexandr I
(The Emperor Alexander I), St. Petersburg, 1897, 4 vols.; Tsarstvovanie
imperatora Nikolaya I (The Reign of Emperor Nicholas I), St. Petersburg,
1901.--=Shoemaker=, M. M., The Great Siberian Railway, New York,
1903.--=Shpilevski=, S. M., Drevnie goroda i drugie bulgarsko-tatarskie
pamyatniki v Kazanskoi gubernii (Ancient Cities and Other Bulgaro-Tatar
Monuments in the Government of Kazan), Kazan, 1877.--=Shtchebalsky=,
P., La régence de la tzarewna Sophie: épisode de l’histoire de Russie,
1682-1689, translation by Prince S. Galitzine, Carlsruhe, 1857; Tchtenie
iz russkoi istorii (Readings from Russian History), Moscow, 1861, 6
vols.--=Shumakr=, A. A., Tsar-Osvoboditel (The Czar Liberator), St.
Petersburg, 1901.--=Skrine=, F. H., The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900,
Cambridge, 1903.--=Soloviov=, S. M., Istorya Rossii s drevneyshikh
vremyon (History of Russia from the Earliest Times), Moscow, 1863-1875,
29 vols.
_Sergei Mikhailovitch Soloviov_ was born May 17th, 1820. In
1850 he became a professor at the university of Moscow. In
1877 he came into conflict with the reactionary policy of
the government toward the universities, and demanded and
obtained his dismissal. He died October 16th, 1879. Besides his
monumental _History of Russia_ he was the author of numerous
monographs. _The Relations Between the Russian Princes of the
House of Rurik_ was of epoch-making importance in Russian
historical literature. His _History of the Fall of Poland_ has
become the standard work on the subject and was translated
into German (Gotha, 1865). But all his other works are cast
into the shade by his stupendous _History of Russia from
the Earliest Times_, in which he proposed to himself a task
excelling, perhaps, the power of any single human being--the
presentation of the entire history of his country, based
exclusively on original research. The result has, therefore,
been not wholly successful, and the later volumes present
the appearance of a mere aggregation of materials hastily
arranged. But the material is of the finest quality and will
serve as a rich quarry for all future historians. Soloviov’s
method of presentation is calm and dispassionate, his style
tranquil and somewhat dry, but admirably clear. From Karamzin
to Soloviov the gulf is wide indeed, and perhaps it will be
well to present a few of the latter’s ideas in order to show
the indebtedness that all modern historians of Russia owe
to him. Russian society, like all primitive society, was in
its origin tribal and based on kinship. The introduction of
Varangian rule represents the beginnings of the dissolution of
that society and the introduction of political society, based
on territory. But society was still in a transitional stage.
The warlike followers of the princes were free to renounce
their allegiance to one master and to choose another in his
stead, and the principle of kinship was still dominant within
the house of Rurik itself, thus counteracting the separatist
tendencies of the appanages. It was the colonisation of the
north and east and the removal of the center of Russian life to
the Volga, that first makes possible, as well as necessary, the
centralisation of power: for the colonists settle on land that
belongs to the prince and in cities founded by him, while the
colonists themselves come from different parts of Russia and
are unconnected by the bond of kinship. In the struggle that
follows between the prince and the refractory, unsubmissive
elements--whether of the common people or of the noble
followers--the prince is victorious and the irreconcileables
flee to the forests of the north or to the steppes of the
south. Thus we have the origin of the robber bands, and of the
Cossacks--another name for the same thing. But the removal of
the centre to the Volga also implies the estrangement of Russia
from European influences, and the Tatar rule plays in this only
a subordinate and external part. The grand princes of Moscow
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are thus seen to be
the continuators of the policy of the grand princes of Suzdal
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, while the episode
of the period of confusion represents an abortive attempt at
the establishment of a milder rule by the Cossacks. Ivan III
and Ivan IV, in their struggle with the foreigner, begin to
appreciate the superior potency of European civilisation,
and are the precursors of Peter the Great. But the new
tendencies work with unceasing force during the intervening
period, and those who resist the new tendencies become the
nonconformists or Raskolniki (Old Ritualists). This tendency
finds its parallel in Western Europe, where the task had been
accomplished two centuries earlier; but not so the effort
to reach the sea, which is a peculiar Russian phenomenon.
Soloviov’s work reaches down to 1774.
=Sorel=, A., Histoire du traité de Paris, Paris, 1873; La question
d’Orient au XVIII. siècle, Paris, 1889.--=Stepniak=, S. (pseudonym of
Kravtchinski, S. M.), Underground Russia, New York, 1883; Russia under
the Tsars. Rendered into English by W. Westall, New York, 1885; King Log
and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia, London, 1896.
_Stepniak_, whose real name was Sergius Mikhailovitch
Kravtchinski, was born in South Russia, in 1852, of a noble
family. When he left school he became an officer in the
artillery, but his sympathy with the peasants soon led him into
the revolutionary agitation, and he became identified with
the terrorist party. In 1880 he was obliged to leave Russia,
and after a few years’ stay in Switzerland and Italy he came
to London, where he lived until 1895, when he was killed by a
railway engine at a level crossing at Bedford Park, Chiswick.
He was the author of numerous works on contemporary Russia,
dealing chiefly with the revolutionary agitation and the
condition of the peasantry.
=Strahl=, P. and E. =Herrmann=, Geschichte des russischen Staates,
Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-1866, 7 vols.--=Stevens=, W. B., Through
Famine-Stricken Russia, London, 1892.--=Stumm=, H., Russia in Central
Asia, London, 1885.--=Sugenheim=, S., Russlands Einfluss auf und
Beziehungen zu Deutschland (1689-1855), Frankfort on Main, 1856, 2 vols.;
Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft, St. Petersburg, 1861.
* * * * *
=Tatishtchev=, V. N., Istorya Rossii s samykh drevnyeishikh
vremyon (History of Russia from the very Earliest Times), Moscow,
1768.--=Tchitchagov=, L’Admiral, Mémoires de (1767-1849), Leipsic,
1862.--=Tchitcherin=, N., Oblastnyia utchrezhdenya Rossii v 17 vyeke
(The Provincial Institutions of Russia in the Seventeenth Century),
Moscow, 1856.--=Thun=, A., Geschichte der revolutionären Bewegungen in
Russland, Leipsic, 1883; Landwirtschaft und Gewerbe in Mittelrussland,
in Schmoller’s Staats- und Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen,
Leipsic, 1880.--=Thomson=, V. L. P., The Relation Between Ancient
Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State, London,
1877.--=Tilly=, H. A., Eastern Europe and Western Asia, London,
1864.--=Tissot=, V., Russians and Germans: translated from the French
by S. L. Simon, London, 1882; La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1884;
Russes et Allemands, New York, 1888.--=Tikhomirov=, L., Russia, Political
and Social, translated from the French by E. Aveling, London, 1888, 2
vols.--=Tolstoi=, L. N., La Famine, Paris, 1893.--=Tooke=, W., Russia;
or a Complete Historical Account of all the Nations which Comprise the
Russian Empire, London, 1780-1783, 4 vols.; The Life of Catherine II,
London, 1800, 3 vols.; A History of Russia from A. D. 862 to 1762,
London, 1806, 2 vols.--=Turgeniev=, N., La Russie et les Russes, Paris,
1847, 3 vols.--=Tugan-Baranovski=, M., Russkaya fabrika v proshlom i
nastoyashtchem (The Russian Factory, Past and Present), St. Petersburg,
1898.--=Tyrrell=, H., History of the (Crimean) War with Russia, London,
n. d. 4 vols.
* * * * *
=Ustrialov=, N., Skazanya knyazya Kurbskavo (The Accounts of Prince
Kurbski), St. Petersburg, 1868.
* * * * *
=Valikhanov=, =Veniukov= and others, The Russians in Central
Asia, translated from the Russian by J. and R. Mitchell, London,
1865.--=Vambéry=, A., Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier
Question, London, 1874.--=Vannovski=, P. S., Doklad po povodu
studentcheskikh bezporyadkov 1899 g. (Report on the Students’
Disorders in the Year 1899), Publication of the “Rabotchnoe znamya,”
1900.--=Vereshtchagin=, V., “1812,” Napoleon in Russia, London,
1899.--=Viniarski=, L., Les finances russes (1867-1894), Geneva,
1894.--“=Vladimir=,” (pseud.), Russia on the Pacific and the Siberian
Railway, London, 1899.--=Vogüé=, E. de, La révolte de Pugatchef (Revue
des Deux Mondes, 1879); Spectacles contemporains (Loris-Melikov; Lettres
d’Asie), Paris, 1891.--=Voltaire=, F. M. A. de, Histoire de l’empire de
Russie, sous Pierre le Grand, Paris, 1809.
* * * * *
=Waliszewski=, K., Peter the Great, London, 1897, 2 vols.; A History of
Russian Literature, London and New York, 1900. (Short History of the
Literature of the World, vol. 8); L’héritage de Pierre le Grand: règne de
femmes, gouvernements des favoris (1725-1741), Paris, 1900.--=Wallace=,
D. M., Russia, London, 1877, 2 vols.
_Donald Mackenzie Wallace_ was born November 11th, 1841.
Studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin, Heidelberg,
and the École de Droit of Paris. Resided and travelled in
various foreign countries, chiefly in France, Germany, Russia,
and Turkey, during the years 1863-1884. From 1884 to 1889
he was private secretary to Lords Dufferin and Lansdowne
while they were viceroys of India, and during 1890-1891 he
accompanied the czarevitch during his tour in India and
Ceylon. In 1883 he published a work on “Egypt and the Egyptian
Question.” His work on “Russia” is universally regarded as the
best book on that country that has ever been issued from the
pen of an Englishman.
=Westlaender=, A., Russland vor einen Regime-Wechsel: politische
und wirthschaftliche Zustände im heutigen Russland, Stuttgart,
1894.--=Wilson=, R., Brief Remarks on the Character and Composition of
the Russian Army, and a Sketch of the Campaigns in Poland in 1806 and
1807, London, 1810.--=Winckler=, A., Die deutsche Hansa in Russland,
Berlin, 1886.--=Windt=, H. de, The New Siberia, London, 1896.--=Witte=,
S. J., Samoderzhavie i zemstvo (Autocracy and Local Representative
Government. A Confidential Communication by the Minister of Finance, S.
J. Witte, in 1899), Stuttgart, 1901.--=Wolkonski=, Prince S., Pictures of
Russian History and Russian Literature, Boston, 1897.--=Wright=, G. F.,
Asiatic Russia, New York, 1902, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Yozefovitch=, T., Dogovori Rossii s Vostokom, polititcheskie i torgovye
(The Commercial and Political Treaties of Russia with the East), St.
Petersburg, 1869.
[Illustration]
A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
862 The Varangian chieftains =Rurik=, Sineus, and Truvor
settle at Ladoga, Bielo-ozero and Izborsk. This date is purely
conventional.
865 Askold and Dir, two Varangian chieftains who had settled at
Kiev, lead an unsuccessful expedition against Constantinople.
879 Rurik dies, leaving the regency of the principality and the
guardianship of his son Igor to =Oleg=.
882 Oleg takes possession of Kiev after killing Askold and Dir,
and makes that city his capital.
907 Oleg leads an expedition consisting of eighty thousand men
and two thousand boats against Constantinople. A treaty of
peace and commerce is concluded.
911 Oleg renews the treaty with the emperor of Constantinople
securing valuable trading privileges for the Russians.
913 Oleg dies, and is succeeded by =Igor=.
941 Igor leads an expedition against Constantinople. His ships
are destroyed by the Greek fire, and with great difficulty he
brings his troops back to Kiev.
944 Igor leads a second expedition against Constantinople. The
Byzantines rid themselves of the barbarians by renewing the
treaty that had been made with Oleg and also paying a ransom.
The treaty is given in full by Nestor. Of the fifty names
attached to it three are Slavonic and the rest Norse, which
shows that the two races, the conquerors and the conquered, are
beginning to be fused.
945 Igor is killed by the Drevlians, a Slavonic tribe. His
wife Olga assumes the regency during the minority of his son
Sviatoslav.
955 Olga embraces Greek Christianity. Her subjects, however,
remain on the whole pagans.
964 =Sviatoslav= assumes the rule. He is the first of the
Varangians to bear a Slavonic name.
968 Sviatoslav, in the pay of the Byzantine emperor Nicephoros,
leads an army of 60,000 men against the Bulgarians of the
Danube.
970 Sviatoslav, after dividing the country among his three
sons, again marches to Bulgaria, this time on his own account.
972 Sviatoslav is defeated at Silistria and compelled to
evacuate the Balkan peninsula.
973 On his retreat, Sviatoslav is surprised and killed by the
Petchenegs of the Dnieper.
977 Rout of Oleg by Iaropolk and his death.
980 =Vladimir=, after killing Iaropolk, becomes sole ruler.
988 Vladimir is baptized and makes Greek Christianity the state
religion. On the day of his baptism he marries a daughter of
the Byzantine emperor Romanos II.
1015 Vladimir dies and the country is divided among his eight
sons and a nephew.
1019 =Iaroslav=, prince of Novgorod and the youngest son of
Vladimir, finally becomes grand prince, and removes his capital
to Kiev.
1054 Iaroslav dies. The country is divided among his five
sons, one of whom, Iziaslav, is recognised as grand prince of
Kiev. The custom, first introduced by Sviatoslav of breaking
up the country into appanages, has now reached its full
fruition. Russia has become an extremely loose federation of
principalities. The central authority has been reduced to a
nullity, and the period is filled with wars among the petty
princes. This, of course, weakened the power of Russia for
resisting foreign invaders, and made it an easy prey to the
eastern nomadic tribes, from the Polovtsi to the Tatars. The
chief events during this period are the foundation of Moscow
(1147), the rise of Suzdal in Vladimir, and the pillaging
of Kiev (1169) by Prince Andrew Bogoliubski of Suzdal. The
hegemony of Kiev comes to an end for all time. The principal
figures during this period are those of Vladimir II, surnamed
Monomakh (1113-1125), and of Andrew Bogoliubski (1157-1175),
who strove to re-establish some sort of unity and was
assassinated by his nobles.
1068 The people of Kiev liberate Vseslav and make him grand
prince.
1069 Iziaslav is restored by Boleslaw the Bold of Poland.
1073 Iziaslav is again expelled from Kiev by his brothers
Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. =Sviatoslav= becomes grand prince.
1076 Death of Sviatoslav. He is succeeded by Vsevolod.
1077 Iziaslav is again restored to the grand princedom.
1078 Iziaslav dies and is succeeded by =Vsevolod=.
1084 Failure of Vsevolod’s attempt to conquer Tmoutorakan
(Tmutarakan).
1093 Death of Vsevolod and accession of =Sviatopolk=, the
second son of Iziaslav. The Polovtsi defeat the Russians in the
battle of Tripole.
1097 The congress of princes at Lubetz.
1100 The congress of princes at Uvetitchi.
1111 Defeat of the Polovtsi on the Sula.
1113 Death of Sviatopolk and accession of =Vladimir Monomakh=.
1125 Death of Monomakh.
1147 Legendary date for the foundation of Moscow.
1157 Andrew Bogoliubski becomes prince of Suzdal.
1169 Kiev is captured and plundered by Andrew Bogoliubski.
1175 Andrew Bogoliubski is assassinated.
1221 Nijni-Novgorod is founded by Iuri, grand prince of Suzdal.
1223 First invasion of Russia by the Mongols under Jenghiz
Khan. The Russians are defeated on the banks of the Kalka, near
where it flows into the Sea of Azov and adjoining the present
site of the town of Mariupol.
1237-38 The Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan’s grandson, Batu,
invade northern Russia, burn Moscow, defeat twice the army of
Suzdal (at Kolomna on the Oku and on the Sit), and plunder
Riazan, Suzdal, Iaroslavl, and Tver. But Novgorod is spared.
1239-40 The Mongols ravage southern Russia, burn Tchernigov
and Kiev, and extend their conquests as far west as Volhinia
and Galicia. All Russia is now under the yoke of the Mongols,
except the territory of Novgorod.
1240 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, defeats the Swedes on the
Neva; whence his surname Nevski.
1242 Batu establishes the Golden Horde of Kiptchak, with
Sarai, on one of the mouths of the Volga, as its capital. It
constituted one of the five divisions of the great empire of
Jenghiz Khan.
1245 Alexander Nevski defeats the German Sword-bearing Knights
on Lake Peipus, in the “battle of the ice.”
1260 Novgorod submits to the Mongols and consents to pay
tribute.
1263 Death of Alexander Nevski.
1303 Death of =Daniel Alexandrovitch=, founder of the Moscow
dynasty.
1320 Prince Michael of Tver is executed by order of the khan.
1321 Vladimir in Volhinia is conquered by the Lithuanians. Kiev
and all west Russia soon become Lithuanian.
1404 Smolensk is annexed to Lithuania. A son of Alexander
Nevski, named Daniel, was the founder of the principality
of Moscow, to which he added the cities of Kolomna and
Pereiaslavl. He was succeeded by his son =Iuri Danilovitch=
(1303-1325), who annexed Mozhaisk. In 1313 he marries a sister
of Usbek Khan. In 1320 he is appointed grand prince in place
of his murdered rival, Michael of Tver. Iuri is the initiator
of the Muscovite policy to dominate Russia with the aid of
the Tatars, for whom the Muscovite princes henceforth act as
tax collectors. In 1325 he was assassinated by Dmitri, son
of Michael of Tver, and =Alexander=, Michael’s second son is
appointed grand prince. But the grand princedom soon reverts to
Moscow, and Alexander is executed in 1329. Iuri is succeeded
by his brother =Ivan Kalita= (1328-1340), who receives from
Usbek Khan Vladimir and Novgorod together with the grand
princedom, and who also adds Tver to his dominions. He assures
the pre-eminence of Moscow in the Russian church by inducing
the metropolitan to reside there, thereby also securing the
alliance of the all-powerful church in the realisation of
his political schemes. =Simeon the Proud=, son of Kalita
(1340-1353), =Ivan II=, (1353-1359), brother of Simeon, and
=Dmitri Donskoi= (1359-1389), son of Ivan II, continue the
policy of dominating Russia with the aid of the Tatars, whom
they conciliate with Russian gold, while they gain the support
of the nobles by enhancing their power at the expense of the
princes of appanages. Towards the end of his reign Dmitri feels
himself strong enough to resist the Tatars, whom he defeats in
the battle of Kulikovo (1380); but two years later the Mongol
general, Toktamish, invades Russia, burns Moscow and puts to
death a great number of the inhabitants. Dmitri was succeeded
by his son =Vasili= (1389-1425). On the death of the latter,
first his brother, and then his brother’s son, laid claim to
the succession; but the direct lineal succession triumphed
twice in the person of Vasili’s son, known as =Vasili the
Blind= (1425-1462).
THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
1407 The river Ugra is made the boundary between Moscow and
Lithuania.
1408 Invasion of Moscow by the Tatars, who burn many towns and
villages, but fail to capture the Kremlin.
1412 Vasili Dmitrievitch goes to the Horde, pays tribute, and
the khan confirms to him the grand princedom.
1435 Vasili Vasilievitch blinds his cousin Vasili Kossoi.
1446 Vasili Vasilievitch is blinded by Dmitri Shemiaka of
Galicia.
1448 The archbishop Jonas is elected metropolitan by an
assembly of the Russian bishops, without regard to the
patriarch of Constantinople.
1453 Dmitri Shemiaka is poisoned.
1462 =Ivan III=, son of Vasili ascends the throne. He assumes
the title _gossudar_ (lord, autocrat), and is regarded as the
founder of autocracy.
1463 The princes of Iaroslav cede their domain to Moscow.
1464 Ivan gives the hand of his sister to Vasili, prince of
Riazan, thus making sure of the approximate annexation of that
appanage.
1469 The khanate of Kazan becomes a dependency of Moscow.
1472 Ivan conquers Perm. Marries the Byzantine princess Sophia,
niece of the last emperor of Constantinople, Constantine
Palæologus. Assumes the title of czar and adopts the two-headed
eagle as the symbol of his authority. In consequence of this
marriage many Greeks come to Moscow, bringing with them
Byzantine culture.
1474 The princes of Rostov sell their domain to Moscow.
1478 The republic of Novgorod is annexed. The principal
citizens are brought prisoners to Moscow, their property is
confiscated, the possessions of the clergy serve to endow the
boyar followers of Ivan. Ahmed, khan of the Golden Horde, sends
ambassadors demanding homage. Ivan puts the envoys to death,
except one, who was to take back the news to his master. The
reply of Ahmed to this outrage is a declaration of war.
1479 Ivan issues Sudebnik, or Books of Laws, second Russian
code after the Russkaia Pravda of Iaroslav. A comparison of
two codes shows how much the Russian character was lowered by
Mongol domination; it is in the reign of Ivan that we first
hear of the use of the knout.
1480 The Mongols invade Russia. The two armies meet on the
banks of the Oka and flee from each other in mutual fear. On
his retreat Ahmed is killed and his army is annihilated by the
Nogai Tatars.
1482 Cannon is used for first time at the siege of Fellin in
Livonia. It was founded by the architect and engineer Aristotle
Fioraventi of Bologna, the builder of the Kremlin.
1485 The principality of Tver is annexed to Moscow.
1485 The last prince of Vereya leaves his domains by will to
Ivan.
1489 Viatka, a daughter of the city of Novgorod and Pskov, and
like them a republic, is annexed.
1489 Poppel comes to Moscow as the first German ambassador.
1491 Mines of Petchora discovered. For first time silver and
copper money is coined at Moscow from produce of Russian mines.
1492-1503 A large part of Little Russia is reconquered from
Lithuanians.
1494 Alexander of Lithuania marries Ivan’s daughter Helen.
1495 Ivan, considering himself to have been insulted by a
Hanseatic city, orders all merchants of all the cities of
that union at Novgorod to be put in chains and their property
confiscated. This marks the end of Novgorod’s commercial
greatness.
1499 The princes of Tchernigov and Novgorod-Seversk come over
to Moscow.
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
1501 Russians routed in the battle of the Siritza, near
Izborsk, by the grand-master of the Teutonic order, Hermann von
Plettenberg.
1503 A treaty is concluded with Lithuania. Moscow retains all
her conquests, and Ivan is granted the title of sovereign of
all Russia.
1505 Death of Ivan. =Vasili=, second son of Ivan, succeeds him.
1508 The Russian army is defeated by the revolted people of
Kazan. The victors unite with the Tatars of the Crimea, invade
Russia and carry their ravages up to the gates of Moscow.
Vasili pays a large ransom for the safety of his capital, and
signs a treaty by which he engages to become tributary to
the khan. Thirty thousand prisoners are carried off by the
invaders, and sold at Kaffa to the Turks.
1510 Pskov, last Slavonic republic, annexed.
1514 Smolensk is taken from the Lithuanians after being held by
them for 110 years. But in the same year the Lithuanians defeat
the Russian force at Orsha, on left bank of the Dnieper. Thirty
thousand Russians are said to have fallen in battle.
1521 Riazan and Novgorod-Seversk, the last independent
principalities, are annexed. Crimean Tatars devastate the
country.
1523 A second expedition against Kazan, consisting of 150,000
men, fails of its object; one of its two divisions is almost
annihilated.
1530 Third expedition against Kazan. The city is surprised by
night and 60,000 inhabitants are massacred. But the Russian
commander, bribed, it is said, by the remaining Kazanians,
enters into a treaty of peace with them.
1533 Vasili dies. Regency of his wife, Helena Glinska, 1533-37.
Supremacy of the Shuiski, 1537-43. Ivan is under the influence
of the Glinski till 1547, when they were torn in pieces by the
infuriated Moscow populace. Such was the youth of Ivan the
Terrible.
1547 =Ivan= is crowned and takes the title of Czar.
1550 The Sudebnik of his grandfather Ivan III is revised.
1551 The Stoglav, or Book of the Hundred Chapters, by which the
affairs of the church were regulated, is issued.
1552 Kazan, which had freed itself during his father’s reign,
is annexed.
1553 Chancellor arrives at Archangel and proceeds to Moscow.
The English secure great trading privileges and establish
factories in the country.
1556 Astrakhan is annexed. The power of the Mongols is now
almost completely broken.
1558 Treaty with Elizabeth of England. A Russian army invades
Livonia and takes several towns. The Teutonic Order thereupon
makes an alliance with Poland.
1564 Ivan, with a few personal friends, retires to
Alexandrovskoe, near Moscow, and does not return until after
repeated supplications by his nobles. A printing press
established at Moscow.
1571 The Mongols of Crimea invade Russia, burn Moscow, drag
100,000 Russians into slavery. Next year they make another
raid, but are defeated.
1580 Conquest of Siberia by the Cossack Iermak as far as the
Irtish river.
1581 Ivan kills his eldest son in a fit of fury.
1582 Peace of Sapolye. Ivan is forced to surrender to Stephen
Bathori (Battori) king of Poland all his conquests in Livonia.
The attempt to open for Russia a passage in the Baltic fails
for the present.
1584 Death of Ivan. =Feodor=, his weak-minded son, succeeds
Ivan. Boris Godunov, Feodor’s brother-in-law, is the real ruler.
1587 A company of Parisian merchants obtains trading privileges.
1590 War with Sweden.
1591 Dmitri, the younger brother of Feodor (Ivan’s son by his
seventh wife), and the only obstacle to Godunov’s ambition,
dies at Uglitch. The khan of Crimea makes one of his periodical
raids against Moscow, but is repulsed with great slaughter.
1592 Godunov issues a ukase (edict) binding the peasant to the
soil, thus reducing him to unmitigated serfdom. As a result,
peasants emigrate in large numbers to the Cossacks in order to
preserve their freedom.
1597 An edict is issued prescribing the most vigorous measures
for the recovery of fugitive serfs.
1598 Death of Feodor, last of the Ruriks. =Boris Godunov= is
elected to succeed him, first by the Council of Boyars (douma)
and then by a General Assembly (Sobór).
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
1601 A terrible famine, accompanied by pestilence, devastates
Russia. Boris causes immense quantities of provisions to be
distributed in Moscow, whither multitudes flock from all the
provinces. Five hundred thousand are said to have perished in
Moscow alone, which had become a city of cannibals.
1604 Dmitri the Impostor invades Russia and is victorious on
the Desna.
1605 Dmitri is defeated on the plain of Dobrinitchi, not far
from Ord. Godunov dies. His son =Feodor= is proclaimed his
successor. Basmanov, commander of the army, proclaims Dmitri.
Feodor and his mother are strangled and Dmitri enters Moscow.
1606 A rebellion breaks out under Vasili Shuiski. Dmitri is
killed. =Shuiski= is proclaimed emperor.
1608 A second false Dmitri defeats Shuiski’s army near Volkhov,
but fails in an attack on the Troitsa monastery, near Moscow.
He is murdered by one of his followers in 1610.
1609 The Poles invade Russia and lay siege to Smolensk.
1610 Shuiski is defeated at Klushino and =Wladislaw=, son of
the Polish king, is crowned czar.
1611 Revolt of the patriots led by Minin and Prince Pojarski.
1612 The Poles are driven out of Moscow.
1613 =Michael Romanov= is chosen czar.
1617 Wladislaw appears with an army under the walls of Moscow,
but is repulsed. The Treaty of Stolbovna is brought about by
the mediation of England and Holland: the Russians give up
Kexholm, Karelia and Ingria to Sweden, and receive in return
Novgorod, which was lost during the Troublous Period.
1618 Wladislaw consents to abandon his claim to the Russian
throne, the czar gives up his claims to Livonia, Tchernigov and
Smolensk, and an armistice is concluded for fourteen years.
1619 Philarete, the father of Czar Michael, comes back from the
Polish captivity, is elected patriarch, and becomes his son’s
associate in the government of the country.
1627 The Cossacks of the Don conquer Azov, which they offer
to the czar. After convoking a sobor, which shows little
enthusiasm for the enterprise, the czar orders the Cossacks to
evacuate it.
1633 War with Lithuania.
1634 Peace of Polianovka: the czar surrenders all claims to
Livonia and all the country that once belonged to the Order, as
well as to Smolensk, Tchernigov and Seversk. The Polish king
abandons his claim to the Russian throne.
1645 Death of Michael. He is succeeded by =Alexis=.
1648 Revolt at Moscow against misgovernment of the czar’s
favorites, particularly Morosov, and depreciation of the
coinage. This revolt led to a new codification of the laws (the
Ulozhenie), which was based on the preceding codes of Ivan III
and IV, and was sanctioned by a sobor convoked at Moscow. A new
police institution, the “chamber of secret affairs,” is created
for the prevention and suppression of popular uprisings. The
Cossacks of the Ukraine revolt from Poland under the leadership
of Bogdan Chmielnicki.
1649-50 Khabarov occupies the course of the Amur.
1654 The Ukraine becomes a Russian protectorate. War with
Poland.
1655 Outbreak of war between Sweden and Poland. The Russians
occupy Vilna and join the Swedes in their march upon Warsaw.
1656 Truce with Poland. The Russian arms are turned against
Sweden. At first they were successful, and Narva, Dorpat and
other places in Esthonia were taken, Livonia was conquered,
but Riga was besieged in vain, and after many losses all the
conquests are restored.
1655-56 The patriarch Nicon calls two councils of the church
for the purpose of revising the Bible and service-books. In
consequence of this change a great schism takes place in the
Russian church. The adherents of the old books are known as
Raskolniki, and are to this day subjects of persecution.
1667 Peace of Andrussov with Poland: Little Russia east of
the Dnieper, including Smolensk, Kiev, Seversk, Vitebsk, and
Polotsk are acquired by Russia. Thus the territory which had
been taken by the Lithuanians and annexed to Poland by Treaty
of Lublin (1569) became Russian again.
1670 Rebellion of Stenka Kazin. He takes Tzaritzin, Astrakhan,
Saratov, Samara, Nijni-Novgorod, Tambov, and Penza.
1671 Stenka Radzin is defeated near Simbirsk and executed at
Moscow.
1676 Death of Alexis. He is succeeded by his eldest son,
=Feodor=. During his reign the books of pedigrees (_razviadnie
Knigi_), which determines the rank of each family and the
office to which it was entitled (_mestnichestvo_), were
destroyed.
1682 Death of Feodor. After a sanguinary outbreak of the
Strelitz, which lasted three days, =Ivan= and =Peter= were
declared joint sovereigns, and their sister Sophia was to act
as regent during their minority.
1689 Treaty of Nertchinsk: the fertile region of the Amur,
conquered by a handful of Cossacks, is restored to the Chinese,
and the fortress Albazin is rased.
1696 Peter takes from the Turks the fort of Azov, situated at
the mouth of the Don, and converts it into a naval port. In its
vicinity he commences the building of the new town of Taganrog.
1697-98 Peter makes his first journey through Europe.
1698 The Strelitz break out into open revolt, which is
suppressed with great bloodshed. Their corps is dissolved.
1699 Peter forms a coalition with Poland and Denmark against
Sweden.
1700 Beginning of the Northern War. The Russian forces sustain
a severe defeat at Narva. The beginning of the new Russian year
is changed from the first of September to the first of January.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
1703 Peter begins the building of St. Petersburg.
1706 The Cossacks of the Don revolt.
1707 The secret marriage of Peter with Catherine takes place.
1709 Mazeppa, hetman of the Little-Russian Cossacks, revolts.
Battle of Pultowa.
1710 Turkey declares war against Russia.
1711 The old supreme council of boyars (_douma_) is replaced by
the senate, into which merit and service might obtain admission
independently of noble origin. By the terms of the Treaty of
the Pruth Peter surrenders to the Turks his artillery, gives
back Azov, and undertakes to rase Taganrog.
1714 The Russians gain over the Swedes the important naval
victory of Åland or Hankül. Peter becomes master of Finland.
1717 Peter makes a second tour through Europe. A general
police, modelled on that of France, is instituted.
1718 Peter’s eldest son, Alexis, is executed. The old prikaz is
replaced by colleges for foreign affairs, finance, justice, and
commerce.
1719 The Russians ravage Sweden almost up to the gates of
Stockholm.
1720 The Russians renew their devastation of Sweden,
notwithstanding the presence of an English fleet.
1721 Treaty of Nystad with Sweden: Peter is left master of
Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and the districts of Viborg and
Kexholm in Finland. Peter promulgates an ukase (afterwards
abrogated by Paul) that the sovereign has the right of naming
his successor. The Patriarchate is abolished and its income
united to the public revenue. In its place the holy synod is
established for the supreme direction of church affairs.
1722 The _tchin_ is established: whoever enters the service of
that state becomes a gentleman. The exporting of merchandise
through Archangel is prohibited in favor of St. Petersburg.
1722-24 War with Persia. The provinces of Ghilan, Mazandaran,
and Astrabad (Astarabath) are annexed to Russia.
1725 Death of Peter. He is succeeded by his second wife,
=Catherine=.
1726-27 The St. Petersburg Academy of Science founded.
1727 Death of Catherine. She is succeeded by =Peter II=, son
of Alexis. Menshikov, who was the real ruler of Russia under
Catherine, is banished to Siberia.
1730 Death of Peter II. =Anna=, daughter of Ivan, the brother
of Peter the Great, is chosen his successor after submitting
to the terms dictated by the great nobles--terms intended to
convert the government into an oligarchy.
1733-35 War of the Polish Succession: Russia intervenes on
behalf of the elector of Saxony, Augustine III, and defeats the
French attempt to replace Stanislaus Leszczynski on the throne
of Poland.
1735 Russia surrenders her Persian possessions in return for
extensive trading privileges to Russian merchants.
1735-39 War with Turkey, in conjunction with Austria. The
Russians conquer Otchakov at the mouth of the Dnieper and the
important fortress of Khotin on the same river. But at the
peace of Belgrade, hastily concluded by the Austrians, they
retain only Azov.
1740 Death of Anna. =Ivan VI=, her grand-nephew, succeeds her,
with Biron, duke of Courland, as regent during his minority.
1741 A coup d’état, led by Field-marshal Münich deposed Biron
and raises Princess Anna, mother of Ivan, to the regency. But
Münich is the real ruler. A palace revolution deposes Ivan,
sends Münich to Siberia, and raises to the throne =Elizabeth=,
a daughter of Peter the Great by Catherine. Sweden, urged on by
France, declares war. The Swedes are defeated at Vilmanstrand.
1742 Seventeen thousand Swedes surrender at Helsingfors. The
Armenian churches in both capitals are suppressed by order of
the holy synod.
1743 Treaty of Åbo with Sweden; Russia acquires the southern
part of Finland as far as the river Kymmene.
1753 The custom-houses of the interior, as well as many toll
duties, are suppressed.
1755 The first Russian university is founded at Moscow.
1756 The first Russian public theatre is established at St.
Petersburg. Three years later another theatre is established at
Moscow.
1757 The Russians under Apraxin defeat at Jägerndorf the
Prussians under Lewald.
1758 The Russians under Fermor are defeated by Frederick the
Great at Zorndorf. The Academy of Fine Arts is established at
St. Petersburg.
1759 Saltikov defeats Frederick at Kunersdorf.
1760 The Russians plunder Berlin.
1762 Death of Elizabeth. She is succeeded by her nephew, =Peter
III=, son of her sister Anna. He makes peace with Frederick,
restores to him east Prussia, which was entirely in the hands
of the Russians, and orders his army to aid Frederick against
the Austrians. Peter issues an ukase freeing the nobility
from the obligation of entering upon some state employment;
is assassinated and is succeeded by his wife, =Catherine=.
Catherine recalls the Russian armies from Prussia.
1764 Assassination of Prince Ivan. Resumption of the
ecclesiastical lands with their one million serfs by the state.
1766-68 A great _sobor_ is convened, first at Moscow and then
at St. Petersburg, for the compilation of a new code. It fails
of its object.
1767 An ukaze forbids serfs to bring complaints against their
masters, who were authorised to send them at will to Siberia or
to force them into the army.
1767-74 War with Turkey.
1768 Massacre of Jews at Uman, in the Government of Kiev, under
the leadership of the Cossack Gonta.
1769 The Russians under Galitzin take Khotin.
1770 Rumiantzev is victorious over the Tatars on the banks of
the Larga and over the grand vizir at Kagul. Three hundred
thousand Kalmucks, with their wives and children, their cattle
and their tents, flee from Russia to China.
1771 Conquest of the Crimea by Dolgoruki. Annihilation of the
Turkish fleet at Tchesme.
1772 The Congress of Fokshani fails to bring about peace and
the war is renewed. First division of Poland. Russia acquires
White Russia, including Polotsk, Vitebsk, Orsha, Mohilev,
Mstislavl, Gomel.
1773-74 Pugatchev’s revolt.
1774 Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji: the sultan acknowledges the
independence of the Tatars of the Crimea, the Bug and the
Kuban, and cedes to Russia Azov on the Don, Kinburn at the
mouth of the Dnieper, and all the fortified places of the
Crimea.
1775 The Zaparog military republic of the Cossacks is
dissolved. The empire is reorganized. Instead of fifteen
provinces there are created fifty governments subdivided into
districts.
1783 Formal annexation of the Crimea and the country of the
Kuban.
1787-92 Second war with Turkey in conjunction with Austria.
1788-89 War with Sweden. The Peace of Varela restores the
_status quo ante bellum_.
1788 The storming of Otchakov by Potemkin, accompanied by an
indiscriminate massacre.
1789 Suvarov wins the battles of Fokshani and Rimnik. Potemkin
takes Bender.
1790 Suvarov takes Ismail. The Austrians sign the Peace of
Sistova, but the Russians continue the war. Repnin defeats the
grand vizir at Matchin.
1792 Treaty of Jassy. The Russians retain only Otchakov and the
seaboard between the Bug and the Dniester.
1793 Second division of Poland. Russia obtains an enormous
extension of territory in Lithuania and absorbs the rest of
Volhinia, Podolia, and Ukraine.
1794 Kosciuszko is defeated by Fersen at Maciejowice and
Suvarov storms Praga, a suburb of Warsaw.
1795 Third division of Poland. Russia obtains the rest of
Lithuania, besides other territories which at one time had been
Russian, while Poland proper is divided between Austria and
Prussia. The former power also obtains Galicia or Red Russia.
Courland is annexed by Russia. Its last duke, Peter Biron,
voluntarily renounces it in return for a yearly revenue.
1796 Death of Catherine. Accession of her son =Paul=.
1798 Paul promulgates the line of succession according to
primogeniture, with precedence in the male line. Russia joins
the second coalition against France, with England, Austria,
Naples and Turkey.
1799 Suvarov defeats Moreau on the Adda, Macdonald on the
Trebbia, and Joubert at Novi. Korsakov is defeated by Massena
at Zurich, and Suvarov is forced to make his memorable retreat
across the Alps.
1800 Reconciliation with France, chiefly owing to the English
occupation of Malta.
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
1801 Assassination of Paul. His son =Alexander= succeeds him.
The new emperor concludes treaties of peace with England,
France, and Spain. Georgia, or Grusia, is formally annexed, and
a war with Persia follows in consequence.
1802 Eight ministries are established in place of the colleges
founded by Peter the Great.
1804 The Persians are defeated at Etchmiadzin.
1805 Alexander joins the third coalition with Austria and
England. Battle of Austerlitz.
1806 Conquest of the Persian province of Shirvan, and the
taking of Derbent.
1806 War with Turkey. Alexander joins fourth coalition, of
which Prussia is also a member. Battles of Pultusk and Golymin.
1807 Battles of Eylau and Friedland. Peace of Tilsit. Russia
acquires Bielostok, a part of Prussian Poland.
1808 War with Sweden. Finland is overrun by a Russian army.
1809 By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn Sweden surrenders Finland.
The Finns are allowed complete autonomy, the czar being its
grand duke. War with Turkey. The Russians are defeated at
Silistria.
1810 The Russians are victorious over the Turks at Batyen on
the Danube.
1811 The Russians are victorious at Rustchuk. Twenty thousand
Turks surrender at Giurgevo.
1812 By the Treaty of Bukharest Russia acquires Bessarabia and
a large part of Moldavia, with the fortresses of Khotin and
Bender. The Pruth becomes its boundary. The district of Viborg,
which was acquired from Sweden in 1744, is added to Finland.
Count Speranski, leader of the liberal party, is dismissed.
Later he was exiled to Peru. Invasion of Russia by Napoleon.
Battles of Smolensk and Borodino. Firing of Moscow. Napoleon
orders a retreat (October 18). Battle of Malojaroslavetz
compels Napoleon to retreat by his old route. The Beresina
crossed (November 26th-29th).
1813 By the Treaty of Kalish Alexander engages not to lay down
his arms until Prussia had recovered all its lost territories.
The Russians and Prussians are defeated at Lützen and Bautzen.
The allies are repulsed before Dresden. Battle of Leipsic.
Peace of Gulistan with Persia. Russia obtains Baku and the
western shore of the Caspian.
1814 The Russians invade France together with the allies. At
the congress of Vienna Alexander insists on the creation of a
kingdom of Poland under his rule.
1815 By the Treaty of Vienna Alexander obtains all of Poland,
except Galicia, Cracow, and Posen. Conclusion of the Holy
Alliance.
1816 Abolition of serfdom in Esthonia.
1817 Abolition of serfdom in Courland.
1818 Abolition of serfdom in Livonia. In all Baltic provinces
the emancipated peasants receive no portion of the land,
which remains in possession of the nobles. A constitution and
separate administration are granted to the Polish kingdom.
1819 Establishment of military colonies in the border provinces
of the north, west and south.
1825 Death of Alexander. His brother =Nicholas I= succeeds him.
Revolt of the Dekabrists.
1826 War with Persia.
1827 War with Turkey. The Turkish fleet is destroyed at
Navarino by the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia.
1828 Peace of Turkmanchai. Persia cedes the provinces of
Erivan and Nakhitchevan, pays a war indemnity, and grants
important trading privileges. The Russians invade the Danubian
principalities and take Varna. Paskievitch takes Kars.
1829 Diebitsch defeats the Turks at Kluvetchi, takes Silistria,
crosses the Balkans, and takes Adrianople. Peace of Adrianople.
Russia gets control of the mouths of the Danube, of a portion
of Armenia including Erzerum, and receives a war indemnity.
1830 The new code, a complete collection of the laws of the
Russian Empire, is promulgated. Polish insurrection. The
Russians are compelled to evacuate the country.
1831 Paskievitch takes Warsaw. The building of new Roman
Catholic churches in Poland is prohibited.
1832 Poland is incorporated with Russia. The constitution
granted by Alexander is annulled, and Poland is divided into
five governments.
1833 By the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi Russia obtains additional
rights to meddle in the internal affairs of Turkey.
1839 A Russian expedition to the khanate of Khiva is compelled
to return.
1849 A Russian army is sent into Hungary. Capitulation of
Görgei at Villagos.
1853 The Crimean War. The Russians occupy the Danubian
principalities. Destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope.
1854 France and England join Turkey. Battle of the Alma. Siege
of Sebastopol. Fall of Bomarsund.
1855 Sardinia joins the allies. Battles of Balaklava, Inkerman,
and Tchernaia. Fall of Sebastopol. Bombardment of Sveaborg. The
Russians take Kars. Nicholas I dies. His son =Alexander II=
succeeds him.
1856 Treaty of Paris. Russia relinquishes the mouths of the
Danube and a portion of Bessarabia, restores Kars, gives up
the protectorate over the Oriental Christians and the Danubian
principalities, and agrees to have no war vessels in the Black
Sea.
1858 General Muraviev signs the treaty of Aigun with the
Chinese, by which Russia acquires the entire left bank of the
Amur.
1859 Capture of Schamyl.
1861 Emancipation of the serfs.
1863 Polish insurrection.
1864 Final pacification of the Caucasus. Reforms in judicial
administration. Institution of representative assemblies
(zemstvos) for governments and districts. By ukase, Polish
peasants are given in fee-simple the lands which they had
cultivated as tenants-at-will.
1865 Tashkend taken from the emir of Bokhara; organisation of
the province of Turkestan.
1866 Karakozov fires at the emperor at St. Petersburg.
1867 Governor-generalship of Turkestan created. Sale of Alaska
to the United States. A Slavophil congress is held at Moscow.
The prince of Mingrelia relinquishes his sovereign rights for
one million rubles. Russian is substituted for German as the
official language of Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland. Peasants
are given the ownership of the lands which they occupied as
tenants.
1868 Samarkand taken from Bokhara.
1870 Khiva is stormed by General Kauffman.
1871 The Pontus Conference, held at London, abolishes paragraph
11 of the Paris treaty delimiting Russian fortifications and
naval forces on the Black Sea.
1873 The right bank of the Amu Daria (Jaxartes) is annexed and
the rest of Khiva becomes a vassal state.
1874 Universal compulsory military service is introduced. The
vice-royalty of Poland is abolished, and its administrative
fusion with Russia becomes complete.
1875 Russia cedes to Japan the Kurile islands. Japan gives up
its claims to the southern part of Sakhalin.
1876 The khanate of Khokand is absorbed and transformed into
the province of Ferghana.
1877 War with Turkey. The Russian advance is beaten back in
Europe and in Asia. The Shipka pass alone remains in Russian
hands. Three defeats before Plevna, which is besieged and
forced to capitulate with 40,000 men. Kars is taken.
1878 The Russians cross the Balkans. The Shipka army is
captured, Adrianople taken, the last Turkish army is almost
annihilated, and the Russians reach the Sea of Marmora. Treaty
of San Stefano: Treaty of Berlin. Assassination of General
Trepov at St. Petersburg, and acquittal of Vera Zassulitch.
Assassination of General Mezentsev, chief of gendarmerie.
1879 Soloviov fires six shots at the emperor. An attempt is
made to wreck the train by which the czar was travelling from
Moscow to St. Petersburg.
1880 An attempt is made to blow up the Winter Palace.
Loris-Melikov is placed at the head of a commission with
dictatorial powers.
1881 Assassination of the emperor. The Tekke-Turkomans are
subjected by Skobelev. Anti-Jewish riots in southern Russia.
1882 The “May laws” of Ignatiev issued against the Jews.
Agrarian disturbances in the Baltic provinces give the
government a welcome pretext for additional measures of
russification.
1883 =Alexander III= is crowned at Moscow.
1884 The Turkomans of the Merv oasis make submission to
Russia. The emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria meet at
Skierniewice, where they form the Three Emperors’ League for
the term of three years.
1885 The Afghans are defeated by General Komarov at Penjdeh.
The Trans-Caspian railway is begun.
1886 Contrary to Article 59 of the Treaty of Berlin, Batum is
transformed into a fortified naval port.
1887 A convention between England and Russia is signed for the
delimitation of the Russo-Afghan frontier. The Russian advance
in the direction of Herat is stopped.
1888 An army officer named Timoviev makes an attempt on the
czar’s life. The Trans-Caspian railway is completed. Samarkand
is linked with the Caspian. The imperial train is derailed at
Borki. The czar and his family escape injury.
1890 Three commissions are appointed to prepare plans for
assimilating the Finnish postal, monetary, and fiscal systems
with those of the empire.
1891 A French squadron under Admiral Gervais visits Kronstadt.
A succession of famines begins. An ukase is issued directing
the construction of a railway line which should connect the
European system with the Pacific coast. Work is commenced on
seven sections simultaneously.
1893 A Russian squadron under Admiral Avelan visits Toulon.
1894 A military convention, arranged by the military
authorities of Russia and France, is ratified. Death of
Alexander III and accession of =Nicholas II=.
1895 An Anglo-Russian convention is signed settling the
disputes as to the Pamirs. Russia, in conjunction with Germany
and France, forces Japan to revise the terms of the Treaty
of Shimonoseki by giving up the Liao-tung peninsula. Russia
obtains the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese
territory from Stretensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long
detour, besides getting control of North Manchuria.
1896 Coronation of the czar at Moscow. Catastrophe on the
Khodinski plain. The emperor visits Germany, Austria, England,
and France.
1897 President Faure makes an official visit to St. Petersburg,
and the term “alliance” is for the first time used in the
complimentary speeches. Specie payment is established.
1898 Russia leases Port Arthur and Talienwan, and obtains leave
to carry a branch of the Trans-Siberian line through Manchuria
to the sea. An imperial decree declares that the powers of
the Finnish diet are to be limited to matters of strictly
local, not imperial, concern. General Bobrikov is appointed
Governor-general of Finland.
1899 During the Boxer uprising the Chinese authorities in
Manchuria declare war against Russia. The Russian authorities
retaliate with the massacre of Blagovestchensk. Russia assumes
the civil and military administration of Manchuria. Peace
Conference held at the Hague.
1900 The Bank of Persian Loans is founded by the Russian
government.
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
1901 The state monopoly in the manufacture and sale of spirits
is extended to the whole empire.
1903 Vice-Admiral Alexiev appointed as first Russian viceroy of
the Far East.
1904 Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE showing the Accessions since Peter the
Great]