in many parts of Britain. It usually grows from six to ten inches high,
and flowers during May and June. The whole plant is clothed with soft,
downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards
the base, and much wrinkled like those of the Primrose. The flowers are
arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. The calyx is tubular,
with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube,
with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup.
[Illustration: THE COWSLIP.]
Two species of Sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the
spring. They are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they
belong to the same genus (_Rumex_) of the order _Polygonaceæ_. Both have
erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green
flowers which soon turn red. The latter are imperfect, with a
deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. The male flowers have six stamens;
and the females have three styles. The fruits are little triangular
nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth.
One of these--the Common Sorrel (_Rumex Acetosa_)--is very abundant in
damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two
feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from
May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a
salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with
pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are
smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and
female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the
one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the
outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the
peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the
fruit.
The other species--the Sheep's Sorrel (_R. Acetosella_)--is a much
smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or
four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths,
flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common
Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and
generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers
are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always
on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species
in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit.
[Illustration: FOX-TAIL GRASS.]
Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three
flowers of the order _Orchidaceæ_, the general features of which are
described in Chapter XVIII; and the reader is advised to refer
to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before
attempting to identify the present species.
The first is the Twayblade (_Listera ovata_), frequently seen in moist
pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of
this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing
scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two
broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four
inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a
yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a
long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes.
The other two belong to the genus _Orchis_. They are the Green-winged
Meadow Orchis (_O. Morio_), and the Early Purple Orchis (_O. mascula_),
and may be distinguished by the following summary of their
characteristics:
The Green-winged Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from
six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem
only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually
about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about
the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller
petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes.
Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is
abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common
in the North. The flowers appear during May and June.
The Early Purple Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six
to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves
broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but
sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the
ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals
acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as
the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and
the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The
plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods,
flowering from April to June.
Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of
these is the Fox-tail Grass (_Alopecurus pratensis_), which grows from
one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our
illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (_A. agrestis_), a very
similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards
the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the
former.
IX
BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a
very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there
are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less
conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in
our list.
Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold (_Caltha palustris_) of the
Buttercup family (_Ranunculaceæ_), which is exceedingly abundant in
marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain,
flowering from March to June. It is represented on Plate V, and
may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its
glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two
inches in diameter.
A little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac
flowers of the Marsh Violet (_Viola palustris_--order _Violaceæ_), which
generally make their first appearance in April, and continue until June
or July. The plant is much like the well-known Sweet Violet in general
appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is
smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks.
Its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with
slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. The flowers
are smaller than those of the Sweet Violet, scentless, with pale petals;
and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. The plant is rather
local in the southern counties of England, but is decidedly abundant in
the bogs and marshes of North Britain.
Few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty
little Sundews (_Drosera_), so remarkable on account of their
carnivorous nature. A description of the three British species will be
found in Chapter XXIV, which contains also an account of their peculiar
habits.
Coming next to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note two of the
Stitchworts or Starworts (_Stellaria_)--slender plants distinguished by
their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white,
star-like flowers. They have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided
into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that
splits longitudinally, with many seeds.
One of these is the Glaucous or Marsh Stitchwort (_Stellaria glauca_ or
_S. palustris_), which is widely distributed though not very common. The
whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen
inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a
point. Its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the
three-veined sepals. They first appear in April, and continue to bloom
until August.
[Illustration: THE MARSH POTENTIL.]
The other is the Bog Stitchwort (_S. uliginosa_)--a smooth, slender
plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that
terminate in a stiff point. In marshy or boggy ground its stems are
straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are
much shorter, and the plant more tufted. The flowers are much
smaller--only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged
in loose, terminal cymes. Their petals are shorter than the sepals, and
are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. This species
flowers during May and June.
The Rose family (_Rosaceæ_) includes the Purple Marsh Cinquefoil or
Marsh Potentil (_Comarum palustre_ or _Potentilla palustris_)--a stout
plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally
more or less tinged with purple. The flowers are of a dull purple-brown
colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from May to July. The sepals, which
are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer,
broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. This species is widely
distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of England.
[Illustration: THE GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE.]
In shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty
little Golden Saxifrages (order _Saxifragaceæ_), and sometimes the both
growing together. One of them--the Common Golden Saxifrage
(_Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_), is very abundant, often covering
large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. It is a
tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or
branched near the top, and rooting at the base. The leaves are opposite,
almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a
few scattered hairs on the upper side. The lower ones are shortly
stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. The flowers are
very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the
upper leaves. They have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals;
eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary
divided above into two conical lobes.
The other species is the Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage (_C.
alternifolium_)--a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter
colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. Both species
have yellow flowers which bloom from April to July; and both grow to a
height of from two to five inches. The latter is much less common than
the former, but is very widely distributed.
The Marsh Pennywort or White Rot (_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_) is a peculiar
umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem
that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of
long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. The
latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy,
and stalked in the centre. The minute white flowers are collected into
little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the
leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five
spreading petals. This plant flowers from May to August.
[Illustration: THE MARSH VALERIAN.]
In the marshes of South Britain we may often meet with the pretty Marsh
Valerian (_Valeriana dioica_) of the _Valerianaceæ_. It grows from six
to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during May and June,
are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. They are mostly
unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. All
have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes;
but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are
of a deeper colour. The former have an inferior ovary, with a slender
style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the
corolla.
The _Gentianaceæ_ is represented in bogs by the common Buckbean or Marsh
Trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), the only member of its family with
trifoliate leaves. This plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers,
which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in
handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. The
calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is
deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with
delicate filaments. The time of flowering is May to July.
[Illustration: THE MARSH TREFOIL.]
[Illustration: THE MARSH LOUSEWORT.]
In the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the
Red Rattle or Marsh Lousewort (_Pedicularis palustris_) which belongs to
the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. It has an erect stem, from six to eighteen
inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval
segments more or less deeply cut. Its rather large crimson flowers are
on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together
a leafy raceme. The calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two
irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx,
with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. After flowering
the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a
capsule with a few rather large seeds. This plant flowers from May to
September.
Most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species
of Willows--those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the
genus _Salix_ of the order _Salicaceæ_. Some of them almost invariably
establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may
often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and
courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the
standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. One species in
particular, the Osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender
twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work;
but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either
specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable
twigs for this work.
[Illustration: THE YELLOW FLAG.]
Nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules
at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with
undivided scales. The flowers are always unisexual, the male and female
blossoms being produced on separate trees. The former have from two to
five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule
containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. A few of these
trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their
general features that the identification of species is somewhat
difficult for a beginner.
Some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from May
to July by the large, bright flowers of the Yellow Iris or Flag (_Iris
Pseudacorus_), which belongs to the order _Iridaceæ_. This plant has a
thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round
stem from one to three feet high. Two or three flowers grow on the stem,
each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. The perianth
consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and
spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. There are
three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like
stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into
two at the tip. The fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long,
containing many brownish-yellow seeds.
X
WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the
spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before
the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow.
Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but
thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground.
Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer
sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and
partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the
rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they
have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the
sun during some part of the day.
Plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and
although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods,
thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them
outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or
less protected from the heat of the sun.
Our first in this series is the Lime Tree (_Tilia europæa_) of the order
_Tiliaceæ_, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted
to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated
district except in the extreme North. Its leaves are stalked, alternate,
heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and
slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear during June and July,
are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on
axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their
length to a long, leafy bract. There are five sepals, which fall early;
five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into
clusters. The blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an
abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other
insects. The fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled,
five-celled, with two seeds in each cell.
[Illustration: _Plate II._ FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.
1. Great Valerian. 2. Foxglove. 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard. 4.
Nettle-leaved Bell-flower. 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine. 6. Hairy
Brome-grass.]
A small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (_Tilia
parvifolia_), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as _Tilia
grandifolia_, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a
downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs.
[Illustration: THE LARGE-FLOWERED ST. JOHN'S WORT.]
Several species of St. John's-wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) grow in
thickets and other wooded spots. They vary considerably in size, as well
as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: Their
leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or
very shortly stalked. The flowers are regular, with five sepals; five
petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered
into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule
with many seeds. No less than four species of the genus (_Hypericum_)
come within the province of the present chapter. They are:--
1. The Tutsan (_H. Androsæmum_).--An erect, shrubby plant, from one to
three feet high, flowering from June to August, common in the thickets
of most of the western and southern counties of Britain. It has several
erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or
three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily
seen when the leaves are held up to the light. The flowers are yellow,
about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact,
terminal corymb. The sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long;
the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five
sets, connected at the base.
[Illustration: THE COMMON ST. JOHN'S WORT.]
2. The Large-flowered St. John's-Wort or Rose of Sharon (_H.
calycinum_).--A shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a
creeping, woody stock, flowering from July to September. It is not
indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and
now grows wild in many parts. This species may be distinguished from all
other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a
half to three inches in diameter.
3. The Common St. John's-Wort (_H. perforatum_).--A very common plant in
woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering
from July to September. It has short, underground stems, or barren
shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the
erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and
branched towards the top. The leaves are half an inch long, with opaque
veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the
under side. The yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. Their sepals are
narrow, about half the length of the petals. The stamens are in three
sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with
black dots.
4. The Hairy St. John's-Wort (_H. hirsutum_).--A stiff, erect plant,
from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most
parts of Britain, flowering in July and August. The stem is round, and
clothed with soft hairs. The leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical,
tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many
transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. The
sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals,
and fringed with stalked glands. The stamens are in three sets.
[Illustration: THE DYER'S GREEN-WEED.]
The Wood Crane's-bill (_Geranium sylvaticum_--order _Geraniaceæ_), one
of the most handsome of our Wild Geraniums, is not found in the South,
but is moderately common in parts of North Britain, including North
Ireland. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched
towards the top. In general form the leaves are heart-shaped or
shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven
radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. The lower ones are on long stalks;
but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. The
flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in
diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel.
The five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate
in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched.
The plant flowers during June and July.
[Illustration: THE SWEET MILK VETCH.]
Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_ we note first the Dyer's
Green-weed (_Genista tinctoria_)--a shrubby plant, common in the
thickets and bushy places of South Britain, flowering from July to
September. The stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the
ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet
high. The yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower
having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small
bracts at the base of the calyx. The calyx has five teeth, the three
lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp
point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong
standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments,
forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth,
about an inch long, and compressed.
In the thickets of most parts of Britain, but more especially those of
the eastern counties, we may often meet with the Sweet Milk Vetch
(_Astragalus glycyphyllos_) of the same order. It is a prostrate plant,
with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from June to
August. The flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense,
shortly-stalked racemes. The calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is
free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary;
and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by
a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven
seeds.
[Illustration: THE WILD RASPBERRY.]
In the same order are two species of Everlasting Pea (_Lathyrus_), both
of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. One is the Tuberous
Everlasting Pea or Tuberous Bitter Vetch (_L. macrorrhizus_), an erect
plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from May to July.
Its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. The leaves are
pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half
arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk
terminates in a fine point. The flowers are of a red-purple colour,
changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from
two to four.