Oak, Beech, Hornbeam and Hazel. The first of them--the Oak (_Quercus
Robur_)--is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed,
corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval
buds at the tips of the twigs. In summer it may be known at once by the
oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. The flowers of the Oak appear
with the leaves in April or May; they are imperfect, but both male and
female blossoms appear on the same tree. The former are in slender,
drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. The
latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is
enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. The ovary has three cells,
and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower
is fertilised. Sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules
become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as
many separate seedling trees. At times we meet with an Oak nearly every
acorn of which contains two or more ovules. This tree is remarkable for
the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number
of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and
stems. Two well-marked varieties occur: one--_pedunculata_--with sessile
leaves and long flower stalks; and the other--_sessiliflora_--with
stalked leaves and short flower-stalks.
[Illustration: THE BEECH IN FRUIT.]
The Beech (_Fagus sylvatica_) is readily recognised during winter and
early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long
tapering, pointed, brown buds. The expanding buds have already been
mentioned (p. 44) as of special interest as regards the fan-like
folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue
loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable.
The leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with
strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. When young
they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on
the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season
advances. The flowers are imperfect, and appear in April or early May.
The staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and
pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed,
yellow anthers. The pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of
from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by
a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. The
fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which
split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with
soft, silky hairs.
The Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus_) is a much smaller tree, more or less
abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the South. Its bark is smooth or
slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are
elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. The
arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the Beech, and
the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded
leaves are broader at the base than those of the Beech, are rougher, and
are permanently hairy on the under surface. As with the Beech, the
leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow,
and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods,
many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. The flowers
appear in May and early June, and are imperfect, male and female flowers
being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. The staminate catkins
are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from
three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. The
pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. Their
outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or _bracteoles_, which
are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time,
also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. Each flower has a
two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and
thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy
bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind.
Our last example of the _Cupuliferæ_ is the well-known Hazel (_Corylus
Avellana_), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the
undergrowth of woods. Its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey;
but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. The
leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp
apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are
longitudinally plaited in the bud. The flowers appear before the leaves,
and are mature in March or early April, but the early stages of the
catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in
the preceding autumn. The staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to
two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to
country children as 'lambs-tails.' They are of a bright yellow colour,
and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that
produce abundance of pollen. The pistillate catkins are small, oval, and
sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they
protrude their bright crimson stigmas. The minute flowers are enclosed
in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the
large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles.
Our forest trees include three representatives of the order
_Betulaceæ_--the Common Birch, the Dwarf Birch, and the Alder. The first
of these, the Common Birch, Silver Birch, or Lady of the Woods (_Betula
alba_), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which
peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very
slender, drooping twigs. The leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular,
with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very
prominent on the under side. They are also provided with long stalks
which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow
them to be moved by the slightest breeze. The male and female flowers
are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree
throughout the winter, but do not bloom until April or May. Both are at
first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed
abundance of yellow pollen. The flowers have three-lobed, deciduous,
scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked
filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. The female
catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of
minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed
by the wind. Two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and
twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an
oval-cordate form.
The Dwarf Birch (_B. nana_) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet
in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts
of Scotland. It has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the
wings of the fruit are very narrow.
The Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) is common in wet woods, and especially
along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. Some of the mountain
streams of the West of England, Wales, and Scotland, are bordered with
almost continuous lines of Alder for miles together. This tree has a
very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular
in form. The leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green
on both sides. They have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a
wavy, serrate margin. When very young they are hairy and sticky to the
touch; hence the specific name of _glutinosa_. The catkins appear before
the leaves, and are mature in March or April. The staminate catkins are
pendulous, and much like those of the Birch; but the flowers have red
scales and four stamens. The pistillate catkins are short and erect, and
each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. The
fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the
female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of
the following spring are in bloom.
Coming now to the order _Salicaceæ_, we have to deal with the Poplars,
of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely
planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar
(_Populus alba_), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most
woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and
buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are
roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots,
which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are
covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and
the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in
March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each
flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins
are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long,
narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into
capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided
with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to
almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree.
The Grey Poplar (_P. canescens_) grows in similar situations, and
flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and
toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey
down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this
species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from
two to four lobes.
A third species--the Aspen (_P. tremula_) receives its specific name
from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary
movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This
characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the
species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the
leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to
that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading
branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp
point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath,
but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of
the female tree have two divided stigmas.
The Black Poplar (_P. nigra_) and the Lombardy Poplar (_P. fastigiata_),
though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a
large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its
tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although
these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they
resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the
character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two
varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in
form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded
teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are
not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are
smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are
slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long,
of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very
conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe
capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with
a cottony down. _P. nigra_ has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more
irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. _P.
fastigiata_, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its
trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is
interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our
country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears
certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this
purpose.
We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native
conifers of our woods--the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_)
and the Yew (_Taxus baccata_). The former is very well known, for while
its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted
more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished
from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of
its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that
several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have
been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly
be included here.
[Illustration: THE SCOTS PINE WITH THE CONES OF TWO SEASONS.]
The bark of the Scots Pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and
peels off in thick scales. Its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four
feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. The
leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in
pairs. When young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark
green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. The male and
female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in May or June. The
male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are
collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow
pollen. The female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering
to a point. The carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are
thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. The cone is two or three
inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the
cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the
same time. When ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they
separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the
wind. The tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the
fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then
more easily detached in stormy weather.
[Illustration: THE YEW IN FRUIT.]
The Yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely
in other situations. It is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous
bark; and although it never grows to any great height--seldom exceeding
fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and
reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. The leaves are
very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along
the stem. They are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and
lighter below. The flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of
the leaves, and appear in March or April. The male flower consists of
from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping
scales. The female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc
with a small ovule at the top and scales below. After fertilisation the
ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely
surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an
inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy
appearance. The leaves of the Yew are poisonous, but the fruits are
quite harmless. A variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with
scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. It should be noted that while the
male and female flowers of the Yew generally grow on separate trees, the
both are occasionally found on the same tree.
VII
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that
are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in
waste places, during the spring months.
Our first example is the Celandine (_Chelidonium majus_), of the Poppy
family (order _Papaveraceæ_), generally spoken of as the _Greater_
Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. 108),
which belongs to the _Ranunculaceæ_. This plant is moderately common in
shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two
feet, and flowers from May to July or August. It has a yellow, pungent,
poisonous sap. The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip,
of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. The
flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are
arranged in long-stalked umbels. As in the poppies, there are two sepals
which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. There
are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter
ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half
in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves.
The Order _Cruciferæ_ is well represented by the wayside and on waste
ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the
general characters of the flowers of this order (p. 17), unless
already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species
here described. Our first example--the Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella
Bursa-pastoris_) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens,
and may be seen in bloom from February to October. It is an erect herb,
from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by
reference to our illustration. The small white flowers are in
lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the
conversion of the four petals into stamens. This weed is easily
distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the
fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. When ripe, it
splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a
central membrane to which the seeds are attached.
[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S PURSE.]
The Common Scurvy Grass (_Cochlearia officinalis_) is to be found
chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland,
especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. It is a smooth,
succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. The little white
flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and
the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed
at the top, with several seeds in each cell. This plant commences to
flower in May, and continues in bloom until August.
The Common Whitlow Grass (_Draba verna_) is a very small and
inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute,
white flowers in April and May. It has a cluster of narrow, toothed,
hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread
horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four
inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. The petals
of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a
quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds.
[Illustration: THE SCURVY GRASS.]
[Illustration: THE COMMON WHITLOW GRASS.]
Two species of Winter Cress (genus _Barbarea_) are common in waste
land--the Common Winter Cress or Yellow Rocket (_B. vulgaris_), and the
Early Winter Cress or American Cress (_B. præcox_). The former is an
erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow
flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from May to August. The radical
leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and
side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are
oval and irregularly toothed. All the leaves are smooth and glossy, and
of a deep green colour. The fruits are short, and thicker than the
pedicels. A double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in
flower gardens.
[Illustration: THE YELLOW ROCKET.]
The Early Winter Cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same
time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper
of which are pinnately divided. The flowers are also larger, and
arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker
than the pedicel. This species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently
occurs as a garden escape.
Two species of _Sisymbrium_ are also very common--the Garlic Mustard
(_S. alliaria_), also known as Sauce Alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge; and
the Thale Cress or Wall Cress (_S. Thaliana_). The first named is one of
the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. It grows to a height of one or
two feet, and bears, from April to June, a corymbose cluster of pure
white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The stem and
leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. The former is
slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate,
with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green
colour. The fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels.
The Thale Cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute
white flowers from April to the end of the summer. The stem is erect,
slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves,
which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed
and downy. The fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four
obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks.
The Rape or Cole-seed (_Brassica napus_) is a cruciferous weed commonly
occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. It
grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow
flowers during May and June. Its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and
all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. The lower leaves
are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are
ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. The pods spread as they
ripen.
The Wild Turnip (_Brassica Rapa_) is a very similar plant, producing its
yellow flowers from April to July. Its root is tuberous and fleshy. The
lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green
characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and
smooth.
The Sweet Violet (_Viola odorata_)--the favourite flower of wayside
banks--is common in many parts, and is generally very easily
distinguished from other similar species of the order (_Violaceæ_) by
its pleasing fragrance. It has a short root-stock, and, usually, long
creeping runners. At the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked
leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a
slightly downy surface. At the base of the leafstalks are very narrow,
entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks,
of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of
small bracts a little above the middle. The flowers are solitary,
drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a
short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed
stigma. The conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well
acquainted, bloom from March to April; but all through the summer the
plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds.
Of the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ our first example is the Ciliated
Pearlwort (_Sagina ciliata_), a small, creeping plant, flowering in May
and June in dry places. The leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated,
terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are
united at their bases. The flowers are very small and stalked; and the
petals are either very minute or absent. The sepals, stamens, styles,
and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close
against the capsule.
The Procumbent Pearlwort (_S. procumbens_), also found in dry places,
is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white
flowers that appear in May and bloom till the end of the summer. The
peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but
become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in
number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading.
[Illustration: THE PROCUMBENT PEARLWORT.]
The genus _Stellaria_ includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like
flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. The most
conspicuous of these is the Greater Stitchwort or Satin Flower (_S.
Holostea_), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. The sepals have no
veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply
cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of
five.
The Lesser Stitchwort (_S. graminea_) is a very similar flower, common
in dry places, blooming from May to August. The plant is smooth, and
does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. The stem is very
straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are
grass-like, sessile, and acute. The flowers are very similar to those of
the Greater Stitchwort, but are smaller. The sepals have each three
veins, and are as long as the petals.