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FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
* * * * *
THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES.
THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. FURNEAUX.
With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the
Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 12 coloured
Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._
net.
LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 coloured Plates and
331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Coloured Plates and
numerous Illustrations from Drawings by PATTEN WILSON and from
Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Plates in colour and over 300
Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. HUDSON. With a Chapter on Structure and
Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which
are coloured), and over 100 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt
edges, 6_s._ net.
COUNTRY PASTIMES FOR BOYS. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. With 252 Illustrations
from Drawings and Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 3_s._ net.
LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London,
New York, Bombay, and Calcutta.
* * * * *
[Illustration: _Plate I._
SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.
1. Green Hellebore. 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane. 3. Lady's
Slipper. 4. Sand Garlic. 5. Wild Hyacinth. 6. Wood Melic Grass.]
FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
by
W. S. FURNEAUX
Author of
'The Outdoor World' 'British Butterflies and Moths'
'Life in Ponds and Streams' 'The Sea Shore' etc.
[Illustration]
With Eight Plates in Colour, and
Numerous Illustrations by Patten Wilson, and
Photographs from Nature by the Author
Longmans, Green, and Co.
39 Paternoster Row, London
New York, Bombay, and Calcutta
1909
All rights reserved
PREFACE
This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series'
is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs
and trees--a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms
and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific.
The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and
trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement
which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of
wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and
identifying his gathered specimens at home.
A large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the
descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included,
and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been
devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful
habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with
attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours.
It has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic
plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these
having been previously included in former volumes of this series
dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore.
The thanks of the author are due to his friend, G. Du Heaume, Esq., for
his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for
description and illustration.
W. S. F.
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION--GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE
IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS 1
II. THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS 25
III. CLIMBING PLANTS 30
IV. EARLY SPRING 39
V. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING 48
VI. THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS,
AND HEDGEROWS 61
VII. WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING 81
VIII. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING 108
IX. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING 123
X. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER 130
XI. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER 151
XII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--COMPOSITE FLOWERS 175
XIII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--_continued_ 190
XIV. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER 211
XV. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER 236
XVI. ON HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR 257
XVII. IN THE CORN FIELD 281
XVIII. ON THE CHALK 296
XIX. BY THE RIVER SIDE 312
XX. ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES 318
XXI. FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN 328
XXII. AUTUMN IN THE WOODS 331
XXIII. PARASITIC PLANTS 340
XXIV. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS 350
LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS
AND HABITS 359
LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS
AND GENERA 373
GLOSSARIAL INDEX 381
COLOURED PLATES
I. SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _Frontispiece_
1. Green Hellebore
2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-Bane
3. Lady's Slipper
4. Sand Garlic
5. Wild Hyacinth
6. Wood Melic Grass
II. FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _To face p._ 130
1. Great Valerian
2. Foxglove
3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard
4. Nettle-leaved Bell-flower
5. Broad-leaved Helleborine
6. Hairy Brome-grass
III. FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE _To face p._ 150
1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill
2. Black Horehound
3. Evergreen Alkanet
4. Bristly Ox-tongue
5. Red Bartsia
6. Annual Meadow Grass
7. Hemlock Stork's-bill
IV. FLOWERS OF THE FIELD _To face p._ 210
1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass
2. Lucerne
3. Crimson Clover
4. Blue-Bottle
5. Common Vetch
6. Meadow Clary
V. FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES _To face p._ 236
1. Marsh Gentian
2. Marsh Marigold
3. Marsh Orchis
4. Marsh Mallow
5. Marsh Vetchling
6. Marsh St. John's-wort
7. Bog Pimpernel
VI. FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH, AND MOOR _To face p._ 256
1. Musk Thistle
2. Clustered Bell-flower
3. Spiny Rest Harrow
4. Hairy Hawkbit
5. Sheep's-bit
6. Spotted Orchis
7. Heath Rush
VII. FLOWERS OF THE CORN-FIELD _To face p._ 280
1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy
2. Field Scabious
3. Corn Cockle
4. Corn Marigold
5. Flax
6. Corn Pheasant's-eye
VIII. FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS _To face p._ 296
1. Red Valerian
2. Narrow-leaved Flax
3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch
4. Spiked Speedwell
5. Pasque Flower
6. Bee Orchis
7. Yellow Oat Grass
_Erratum._--On Plate VI, _for_ 'Spring Rest Harrow' _read_ 'Spiny Rest
Harrow.'
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS
PAGE
Forms of Roots 2
Running underground stem of Solomon's Seal 4
Arrangement of Leaves 5
Leaf of Pansy with two large Stipules 5
Margins of Leaves 6
Various Forms of Simple Leaves 7
Forms of Compound Leaves 7
Forms of Inflorescence 8
Longitudinal Section through the flower of the Buttercup 10
Inferior and Superior Ovary 11
Unisexual Flowers of the Nettle 11
Dehiscent Fruits 12
THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS
Pollen Cells throwing out their Tubes 25
CLIMBING PLANTS
Prickles of the Wild Rose 31
Ivy, showing the Rootlets or Suckers 32
Stem of the Bindweed, twining to the left 34
Stem of the Hop, twining to the right 35
EARLY SPRING
Trees in Winter or Early Spring
1. Hazel; 2. Ash; 3. Oak; 4. Lime 41
5. Birch; 6. Poplar; 7. Beech; 8. Alder 43
Twig of Lime in Spring, showing the Deciduous, Scaly Stipules 45
Seedling of the Beech 46
WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING
The Daffodil 48
The Wood Anemone 49
The Goldilocks 50
The Wild Columbine 51
The Dog Violet 52
The Wood Sorrel 53
The Sweet Woodruff 54
The Lesser Periwinkle 55
The Bugle 56
The Broad-leaved Garlic 57
The Star of Bethlehem 58
The Hairy Sedge 59
SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS
The Barberry 62
The Spindle Tree 63
The Wild Cherry 65
The Crab Apple 67
The Mountain Ash 68
The Spurge Laurel 70
The Elm in Flower 71
The Oak in Flower 72
The Beech in Fruit 73
The Scots Pine, with Cones 78
The Yew in Fruit 79
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
The Shepherd's Purse 82
The Scurvy Grass 83
The Common Whitlow Grass 83
The Yellow Rocket 84
The Procumbent Pearlwort 86
The Greater Stitchwort 87
The Chickweed 88
The Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed 89
The Dove's-foot Crane's-bill 90
The Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill 91
The Herb Robert 92
The Grass Vetchling 93
The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil 94
The Moschatel 95
The White Bryony 96
The Wild Beaked Parsley 97
The Garden Beaked Parsley 98
The Goutweed 99
The Crosswort 100
The Colt's-foot in Early Spring 101
The Germander Speedwell 101
The White Dead Nettle 102
The Yellow Pimpernel 103
The Dog's Mercury 104
The Black Bryony 105
The Wild Arum 106
MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING
The Field Pennycress 109
The Wild Pansy 110
The Ragged Robin 111
The Purple Clover 114
The Daisy 115
The Butterbur 117
The Yellow Rattle 118
The Henbit Dead Nettle 119
The Cowslip 120
The Fox-tail Grass 121
BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
The Marsh Potentil 124
The Golden Saxifrage 125
The Marsh Valerian 126
The Marsh Trefoil 127
The Marsh Lousewort 127
The Yellow Flag 128
WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
The Large-flowered St. John's-wort 131
The Common St. John's-wort 132
The Dyer's Greenweed 133
The Sweet Milk Vetch 134
The Wild Raspberry 135
The Rose Bay Willow Herb 136
The Dogwood 137
The Wood Sanicle 138
The Alexanders 139
The Elder 140
The Guelder Rose 141
The Saw-wort 143
The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower 145
Twigs of Holly 146
The Privet 147
The Millet Grass 148
The Bearded Wheat 148
The Slender False Brome 149
WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER
The Wild Clematis 152
The Hedge Mustard 152
The Felix Weed 153
The Dyer's Weed 154
The Deptford Pink 155
The Red Campion 156
The Common Mallow 157
The Musk Mallow 158
The Bloody Crane's-bill 159
The Fruit of the Stork's-bill 160
The Hemlock Stork's-bill 161
The Bird's-foot Trefoil 162
The Herb Bennet or Geum 163
The Dog Rose 164
The Silver Weed 164
The Agrimony 165
The Orpine or Livelong 167
The Fool's Parsley 168
The Wild Parsnip 169
The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed 170
The Honeysuckle 171
The Great Hedge Bedstraw 172
The Teasel 173
Teasel Heads 174
Flower Head of the Marigold 176
Florets of a Composite Flower 176
The Yellow Goat's-beard 177
The Hawkweed Picris 178
The Prickly Lettuce 179
The Sharp-fringed Sow-Thistle 180
The Smooth Hawk's-beard 181
The Nipplewort 182
The Burdock 183
The Spear Thistle 184
The Creeping Thistle 185
The Tansy 186
The Wormwood 187
The Ragwort 188
The Scentless Mayweed 189
The Yarrow or Milfoil 189
The Rampion Bell-flower 191
The Great Bindweed 192
The Henbane 193
The Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet 194
The Deadly Nightshade 195
The Yellow Toadflax 196
The Vervein 197
The Balm 198
The Hedge Woundwort 199
The Gromwell 201
The Hound's-tongue 202
The White Goosefoot 203
The Spotted Persicaria 205
The Curled Dock 207
The Great Nettle 208
The Canary Grass 209
MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER
The Gold of Pleasure 212
The Bladder Campion 213
The White Campion 214
The Kidney Vetch 215
The Common Melilot 216
The Lady's Mantle 217
The Meadow Sweet 219
The Burnet Saxifrage 220
The Wild Carrot 221
The Devil's-bit Scabious 222
The Rough Hawkbit 223
The Autumnal Hawkbit 224
The Meadow Thistle 225
The Black Knapweed 226
The Great Knapweed 226
The Common Fleabane 227
The Ox-eye Daisy 228
The Sneezewort 229
The Small Bindweed 230
Section of the Flower of Salvia 231
The Self-heal 231
The Ribwort Plantain 232
The Butterfly Orchis 233
The Cat's-tail Grass 233
The Meadow Barley 233
The Rye Grass or Darnel 234
The Sheep's Fescue 234
BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER
The Lesser Spearwort 237
The Great Hairy Willow Herb 238
The Purple Loosestrife 239
The Water Hemlock 241
The Common Water Dropwort 242
The Marsh Thistle 243
The Brooklime 244
The Water Figwort 245
The Gipsy wort 246
The Round-leaved Mint 247
The Forget-me-not 248
The Water Pepper or Biting Persicaria 249
The Bog Asphodel 251
The Common Rush 252
The Shining-fruited Jointed Rush 253
The Common Sedge 254
The Marsh Sedge 255
HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR
The Milkwort 258
The Broom 259
The Furze or Gorse 260
The Tormentil 261
The Smooth Heath Bedstraw 264
The Dwarf Thistle 265
The Carline Thistle 267
The Common Chamomile 268
The Harebell 269
The Cross-leaved Heath 270
The Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath 271
The Eyebright 273
The Wild Thyme 275
The Autumnal Lady's Tresses 276
The Butcher's Broom 277
The Common Quaking Grass 278
The Common Mat Grass 279
IN THE CORN FIELD
The Mousetail 282
The Common Red Poppy 284
The White or Opium Poppy 285
The Fumitory 287
The Black Mustard 288
The Corn Spurrey 289
The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb 290
The Venus's Looking Glass or Corn Bell-flower 291
The Scarlet Pimpernel 292
The Climbing Bistort 293
The Dwarf Spurge 294
ON THE CHALK
The Rock Rose 297
The Sainfoin 300
The Salad Burnet 301
The Field Gentian 302
The Yellow-wort 303
The Great Mullein 304
The Red Hemp Nettle 305
An Orchis Flower 307
The Sweet-scented Orchis 309
BY THE RIVER SIDE
The Common Meadow Rue 313
The Hemp Agrimony 314
The Common Skull-cap 315
The Comfrey 316
ON WALLS, ROCKS AND STONY PLACES
The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper 321
The Wall Pennywort or Navelwort 322
The London Pride 323
The Mossy Saxifrage 324
The Ivy-leaved Toadflax 325
The Wall Pellitory 326
AUTUMN IN THE WOODS
The Alder in Autumn 333
The Ash in Autumn 336
The Maple in Fruit 337
The Wayfaring Tree in Fruit 338
The Strawberry Tree 339
PARASITIC PLANTS
The Greater Dodder 342
The Clover Dodder 343
The Great Broomrape 345
The Mistletoe 347
A Young Mistletoe Plant 348
CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
The Greater Bladder-wort 351
Longitudinal section through the leaf of the Toothwort 352
The Common Butterwort 353
The Round-leaved Sundew 355
FIELD
AND
WOODLAND PLANTS
I
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS
The beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite
impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a
country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many
disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large
number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close
resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. But
there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of
determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is
to put the beginner on the right track. He must remember, however, that
the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the
identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time,
help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other
flowers that fall in his way.
The directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of
his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted
with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure
of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such
knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject,
dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and
explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the
description of plants and their flowers.
THE ROOT
The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for
the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double
purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the
plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its
appendages.
[Illustration: FORMS OF ROOTS 1. Simple fibrous. 2. Branched fibrous. 3.
Tap root. 4. Tuberous root.]
Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils
contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the
moisture present. This matter is absorbed mainly by the minute
root-hairs--outgrowths of the superficial cells--which are to be found
on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main
descending axis.
The principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:--
1. The _simple fibrous root_, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we
see in the Bulbous Buttercup and the Common Daisy.
2. The _branched fibrous root_, as that of the Chickweed and Grasses.
3. The _tap root_, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the
roots of the Dandelion, Carrot and Wild Parsnip.
4. The _tuberous root_, common among the Orchids.
5. The _creeping root_, possessed by some Grasses in addition to their
fibrous roots.
Besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional
character, such as the _aerial roots_ or _suckers_ which grow from the
stem of the Ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the
Mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into
the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary
nourishment.
The student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between
roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and
tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. A
true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new
plants. If a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the
Barley Grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment
from a wider area--a matter of considerable importance when the soil is
dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. A creeping stem, on the
other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new
plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a
permanent terminal bud.
Again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is
often important to note whether the root is _annual_, _biennial_, or
_perennial_; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives
throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or
retains its life for an indefinite number of years.
Most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature,
thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored
nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the
warmth and light of the early spring sun.
THE STEM
The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and
habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves
and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they
obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of
communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also
frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of
thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs
from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers.
The character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the
species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive
our attention.
As regards surface, the stem may be _smooth_ or _hairy_. In general
form, as seen in transverse section, it may be _round_, _flattened_,
_triangular_, _square_, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and
furrows more or less distinct. Flattened stems are sometimes more or
less _winged_ with leaf-like extensions, as in the Everlasting Pea, in
which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. It should
also be noted whether the stems are _herbaceous_, or _woody_, and
whether they are _hollow_, or _jointed_.
In some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start
direct from the root, as in the Dandelion and Primrose. Such stems are
said to be _inconspicuous_.
[Illustration: RUNNING UNDERGROUND STEM OF SOLOMON'S SEAL
_a_, Terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; _b_,
Stem of the present year; _c_, and _d_, Scars of the stems of previous
years.]
The longer and conspicuous stems are either _simple_ or _branched_, and
they may be _erect_, _prostrate_, _trailing_, _climbing_, or _running_.
In the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary
support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by
the twining of the stem itself.
Running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the
continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals,
as in the case of the Wild Strawberry. Many stems, however, creep under
the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots,
from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into
new plants, as in the Iris and Solomon's Seal.
THE LEAF
The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great
importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted
whether the leaves are _opposite_, _alternate_, _whorled_ (arranged in
circles round the stem), or _radical_ (apparently starting direct from
the root).
Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at
the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves
or scales are termed _stipules_. They are often so well developed that
they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such
instances they perform the functions of the latter. The presence and
character of the stipules should always be noted. A leaf without
stipules is said to be _exstipulate_.
[Illustration: ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES
1. Opposite. 2. Alternate. 3. Whorled.]
A leaf usually consists of two distinct parts--the _petiole_ or stalk,
and the _lamina_ or blade. Some, however, have no petiole, but the blade
is in direct contact with the stem. These leaves are said to be
_sessile_, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on
the stem, forming a wing or a sheath.
[Illustration: LEAF OF THE PANSY WITH TWO LARGE STIPULES.]
A leaf is said to be _simple_ when the blade is in one continuous whole,
even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut
into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the
continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is
_compound_.
The student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and
little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are
often very similar in general appearance. The compound leaf may always
be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one
or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a
similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of
its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. The
distinct parts of compound leaves are termed _leaflets_.
Attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much
importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of
species. Not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also
the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. The surface may
be _smooth_, _hairy_, _downy_, _velvety_, _shaggy_, _rough_, _wrinkled_
or _dotted_. The margin is said to be _entire_ when it is not broken by
incisions of any kind. If not entire it may be _toothed_, _serrate_
(sawlike), _crenate_ or _wavy_. Sometimes it happens that the teeth bear
still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be _doubly
toothed_; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is _doubly serrate_. As
regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is
_acute_ (sharp), _obtuse_ (blunt), or _bifid_ (divided into two).
[Illustration: MARGINS OF LEAVES
1. Entire. 2. Serrate or sawlike. 3. Doubly serrate. 4. Dentate or
toothed. 5. Crenate. 6. Doubly crenate. 7. Sinuate or wavy.]
It is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of
simple and compound leaves. These are illustrated, and the student
should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the
different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations.
Concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves
sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary
segments may be similarly cut. Thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf
are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be _bi-pinnate_;
and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a _tri-pinnate_
leaf.
INFLORESCENCE
We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of _inflorescence_
or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks
(_peduncles_), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached
directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be _sessile_.
Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the
leaves--the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem--they are said
to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be
_solitary_; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one
peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a
separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle,
and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the
_pedicels_.
[Illustration: VARIOUS FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES
1. Oval or elliptical.
2. Ovate.
3. Obovate.
4. Orbicular.
5. Lanceolate.
6. Linear.
7. Cordate (heart-shaped).
8. Obcordate.
9. Reniform (kidney-shaped).
10. Sagittate (Arrow-shaped).
11. Rhomboidal.
12. Spathulate (spoon-shaped).
13. Peltate (stalk fixed to the centre).
14. Oblique.
15. Runcinate (lobes pointing more or less downwards).
16. Hastate (halberd-shaped).
17. Angled.
18. Palmate.
19. Pinnatifid.]
[Illustration: FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES
1. Binate. 2. Ternate. 3. Digitate. 4. Pinnate.]
[Illustration: FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE
1. Spike. 2. Raceme. 3. Corymb. 4. Umbel. 5. Cyme. 6. Compound Raceme or
Panicle. 7. Capitulum or Head. 8. Compound Umbel.]
It is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the
various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are
as follows:--
1. _Spike._--Sessile flowers arranged along a common axis.
2. _Raceme._--Flowers stalked along a common axis.
3. _Corymb._--Flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of
the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the
same level.
4. _Umbel._--The pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle.
5. _Cyme._--An arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of
the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels.
6. _Panicle._--A compound raceme--a raceme the pedicels of which are
themselves branched.
7. _Capitulum_ or _Flower-head_.--A dense cluster of flowers, all
attached to a common broad disc or receptacle.
Other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. Thus, a _compound
umbel_ is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves
umbellate.
THE FLOWER
A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves
arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly
attached to a receptacle.
The outer whorl is the _calyx_, and is composed of parts called
_sepals_, which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually
green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes
the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower,
the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be
_inferior_. If, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is
_superior_. When it remains after other parts of the flower have
decayed, it is said to be _persistent_.
The second whorl--the _corolla_--is usually the whorl that gives most
beauty to the flower. It is composed of parts, united or distinct,
called _petals_.
Both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. They may be
cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c.
If the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common
centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be _regular_;
if otherwise, they are _irregular_.
The third whorl consists of the _stamens_, each of which, in its most
perfect form, is made up of a _filament_ or stalk, and an _anther_
which, when mature, splits and sets free the _pollen_ that is formed
within it. Sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then
said to be sessile.
The mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. They may grow
from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be
attached to either the petals or the sepals. The filaments are usually
distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a
tube, or grow into two or more bundles. The anthers are usually
distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow
together.
[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE FLOWER OF THE BUTTERCUP
Showing the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The pistil consists of
several distinct carpels, one of which is represented in section to show
its single ovule.]
The central part of the flower is the _pistil_, and this is made up of
one or more parts called _carpels_. Each carpel, when distinct, is a
hollow case or _ovary_, prolonged above into one or more stalks or
_styles_, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the _stigma_. The
ovary contains the _ovules_, attached to a surface called the
_placenta_; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the
pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. The ovary may
have no style, and the stigma is then sessile.
Where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may
unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or
more cells. In other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus
forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. For
purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of
the placenta. This may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is
said to be _parietal_; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary,
without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as _free
central_. If, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is
attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed
_axile_.
If the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding
parts being attached below it, it is said to be _superior_; but if the
perianth (p. 11) adheres to it, it is _inferior_.
A leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or
at the base of a sessile flower. This is termed a _bract_, and a flower
possessing a bract is said to be _bracteate_. The bract is sometimes so
large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster
of flowers.
[Illustration: INFERIOR (1) AND SUPERIOR (2)OVARY.]
The flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the
production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the
seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the
ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the
ovules are impregnated. Thus the stamens and the pistil are the
_essential_ parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may
perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of
the species.
This being the case, a flower may be described as _perfect_ if it
consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or
corolla; and _imperfect_ if it possesses no pistil _or_ no stamens,
regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla.
[Illustration: UNISEX FLOWERS OF THE NETTLE
1. Pistillate. 2. Staminate.]
The two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and
corolla) together form the _perianth_. Some flowers, however have only
one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla
of the more highly organised flower. This one whorl, therefore, is the
perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or
sepals, since they represent both.
A perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as _bisexual_, for it includes
the two sexual organs of the plant--the ovary or female part, producing
the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the
impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules.
Many plants produce only _unisexual_ (and therefore imperfect) flowers,
which contain either no stamens or no pistil. If such possess stamens
and no pistil, they are called _staminate_ or _male_ flowers; and if
pistil and no stamens, _pistillate_ or _female_ flowers. These two kinds
are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be
_monoecious_; but often on separate plants (_dioecious_), as in some
of the Nettleworts and the Willow Tree. Spikes of unisexual flowers,
such as are common among our forest trees, are called _catkins_.
THE FRUIT AND SEED
[Illustration: DEHISCENT FRUITS
1. Pod. 2. Siliqua. 3. Silicula. 4. Follicles (cluster of three). 5.
Capsule splitting longitudinally. 6. Capsule splitting transversely. 7.
Capsule splitting by pores.]
After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into
seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at
the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or
less, till it becomes a ripened _fruit_.
Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be
divided into two main groups--those that split when ripe (_dehiscent
fruits_) and those which do not split (_indehiscent fruits_).
The principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:--
1. The _pod_ or _legume_, which splits into two valves, with placenta on
one side.
2. The _siliqua_, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which
separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides.
3. The _silicula_, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad
as it is long.
4. The _follicle_, which splits on one side only, through the placenta.
5. All other fruits that split are termed _capsules_. Some of these
split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for
the escape of the seeds.
The chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:--
1. The _drupe_ or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded
by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry.
2. The _berry_, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds,
like the currant and the grape.
3. The _nut_ or _achene_--a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the
filbert and the acorn.
4. The _samara_ or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore.
Various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with;
thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little
drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. A berry, too, may be
made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. The apple and
similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy
mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the
strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a
number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface.
The seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. It consists
of one or more seed-leaves or _cotyledons_, a _radicle_ or young root,
and a _plumule_ or young bud. In many cases the skin of the seed
encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named
above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient
matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERING PLANTS
Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the
_dicotyledons_ and the _monocotyledons_. These terms suggest that the
division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case,
but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus,
the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the
nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood
arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer
epidermis or in a bark. These plants also bear leaves with netted veins,
and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or
multiples of four or five. Those plants whose seeds have only one
cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in
the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in
a ring or rings. They have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins;
and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three.
The following table shows these features at a glance:--
_Dicotyledons_ _Monocotyledons_
Embryo with two cotyledons. Embryo with one cotyledon.
Stem with central pith, wood in Stem with no central pith, no true
rings or rings, and bark. bark, and wood not in rings.
Leaves with netted veins. Leaves with parallel veins.
Parts of flower usually in fours Parts of flower arranged in threes
or fives. or multiples of three.
These two great divisions or _classes_ are split up into _sub-classes_,
each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the
sub-classes are again divided into _orders_, and the orders into
_genera_.
The student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any
flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. It
is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but
at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may
be gained by the study of flowers--their peculiar structure, habits and
habitats--even though their names are unknown; and the student who has
learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships
that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly
much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only
a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves.
Our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing
characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large
proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine
the natural order of almost every one he sees. In order to show how this
table is to be used we will take an imaginary example.
Let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple
leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of
the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of
five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four
stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a
superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we
proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:--
The netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of
the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant
is a _dicotyledon_. Then, the presence of both calyx and corolla
enables us to decide that the plant belongs to Division I. of the
dicotyledons--that it belongs to one of the orders 1 to 59. Noting, now,
that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its
position in the subdivision I.B, among orders 37 to 59. Next, the
superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group I.B 2--orders
44 to 59; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once
that it is not a member of order 44. Turning now to the Synopsis of the
Natural Orders (p. 17), we find that the irregular flowers of
this group of orders occur only in 51, 52, 53, 54, and 56. Finally, the
square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that
the plant must belong to the order _Labiatæ_.
The student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this
manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his
specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always
be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly.
Again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was
previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which
it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by
means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on
seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant,
but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which
determine the natural position of the plant. In this way he will
cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid
progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will
soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or
less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers.
To aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the
natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where
difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common
species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus
has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with
the object of assisting in the identification of the others.
In our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those
features which are common to the species of their respective orders.
These features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is
essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by
referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters
which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of
the species themselves. Thus, when we describe the Pasque Flower (p.
297) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to
all the _Ranunculaceæ_ or Buttercup family, and which may be seen at
once by referring to p. 17, but give all those details that are
necessary to enable one to distinguish between the Pasque Flower and the
other members of the same order.
_Dicotyledons_
(Leaves with netted veins. Parts of flower generally in fours or fives
or multiples of four or five)
I. Flowers with both calyx and corolla.
A. Corolla composed of free and separate petals.
1. Stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil--Orders
1-22.
2. Stamens attached above or around the pistil--Orders
23-36.
B. Corolla of united petals.
1. Ovary inferior.
_a._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 37-41.
_b._ Stamens on the ovary--Orders 42-43.
2. Ovary superior.
_a._ Stamens free from the corolla--Order 44.
_b._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 45-59.
II. Flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent.
A. Flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens
and pistil in the same flower.
1. Ovary superior--Orders 60-64.
2. Ovary inferior--Orders 65-67.
B. Corolla and calyx usually absent. Stamens and pistil
usually in separate flowers.
1. Flowers not in catkins--Orders 68-71.
2. Flowers in catkins--Orders 72-76.
_Monocotyledons_
(Leaves usually with parallel veins. Parts of flower in
threes or multiples of three)
I. Perianth (see p. 11), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (Sometimes
absent.)
A. Ovary inferior.
1. Leaves with parallel veins--Orders 77-80.
2. Leaves with netted veins--Order 81.
B. Ovary superior--Orders 82-88.
II. Flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks.
A. Grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit
sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one
to three stamens--Order 89.
B. Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming
split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally
perfect, with three stamens--Order 90.
SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS
1. RANUNCULACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular
flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or
more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes.
(The Buttercup Family.)
2. BERBERIDACEÆ.--Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves;
and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry.
(The Berberry Family.)
3. NYMPHÆACEÆ.--Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary
flowers. Petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and
into stamens inwards. Ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (The
Water-lily Family.)
4. PAPAVERACEÆ.--Herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without
stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous.
Fruit a capsule. Petals 4. Stamens many. Ovary one-celled, but with many
membranous, incomplete partitions. (The Poppy Family.)
5. FUMARIACEÆ.--Herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes
of small irregular, bracteate flowers. Sepals 2 or 0, deciduous. Petals
4, irregular. Stamens 6, in two bundles. Ovary of two carpels,
one-celled. (The Fumitory Family.)
6. CRUCIFERÆ.--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of
regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciform. Stamens 6, four longer
and two shorter. Ovary one-or two-celled. Fruit a siliqua. (The Cabbage
Family.)
7. RESEDACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and
spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, persistent. Petals
4 to 7, irregular. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 lobes, one-celled. (The
Mignonette Family.)
8. CISTACEÆ.--Herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and
conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5. Petals 5, twisted in the
bud. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 carpels, one-chambered. (The Rock-rose
Family.)
9. VIOLACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary,
irregular flowers. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, unequal, the lower
one prolonged into a spur. Stamens 5. Ovary of three carpels,
one-celled. (The Violet Family.)
10. DROSERACEÆ.--Small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and
cymes of small, white, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or
10. Ovary of 3 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sundew Family.)
11. POLYGALACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple
leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner ones
resembling petals. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two bundles.
Ovary two-celled. Fruit a capsule. (The Milkwort Family.)
12. FRANKENIACEÆ.--Herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small,
axillary, red, regular flowers. Sepals 4 to 6, united into a tube.
Petals 4 to 6. Stamens 4 to 6. Ovary of 2 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The
Sea Heath.)
13. ELATINACEÆ.--Small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate,
spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. Sepals, petals and
stamens 2 to 5. Fruit a capsule with 2 to 5 valves. (The Waterwort
Family.)
14. CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple
leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5.
Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2 to 5. Fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at
top by teeth. (The Pink Family.)
15. LINACEÆ.--Herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire,
exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals,
stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Petals twisted in the bud, fugacious
(falling early). Carpels each with two ovules. Fruit a capsule of 3 to 5
cells. (The Flax Family.)
16. MALVACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and
conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in
the bud. Stamens many, united into a tube. Carpels many, each with one
ovule. (The Mallow Family.)
17. TILIACEÆ.--Trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves;
a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish,
regular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels 5, each with
two ovules. (The Linden Family.)
18. HYPERICACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate
leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow,
regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, with glandular dots. Petals 4 or 5,
twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into several bundles. Carpels 3
to 5, with many ovules. Fruit a capsule with 3 to 5 cells. (The St.
John's-wort Family.)
19. ACERACEÆ.--Trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small,
green, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 to 9. Stamens 8, on the
disc. Fruit a samara. (The Maple Family.)
20. GERANIACEÆ.--Herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and
conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Petals 3 to 5.
Stamens 5 to 10. Carpels 3 to 5, surrounding a long beak. (The
Crane's-bill Family.)