_From a Picture in the possession of the Royal Society, presented by
D^r. Wolf, of Dantzic, June 6, 1770._
Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.
_London. Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
]
He also exhibited at an early age a very decided taste for mathematical
studies, especially for astronomy; and attended the lectures, both
public and private, of Albert Brudzewski, then mathematical professor at
Cracow. Under his tuition, Copernicus, as we shall hereafter call him,
became acquainted with the works of the astronomer, John Müller, (now
more commonly known by his assumed appellation of Regiomontanus,) and
the reputation of this celebrated man is said to have exercised a marked
influence in deciding the bent of his future studies. Müller died at
Rome a few years after the birth of Copernicus, and when the latter had
reached an age capable of appreciating excellence and nourishing
emulation, he found Müller’s works disseminated through every civilized
country of Europe, his genius and acquirements the subject of universal
admiration, and his premature death still regretted as a public
calamity. The feelings to which the contemplation of Müller’s success
gave rise, were still more excited by a journey into Italy, which
Copernicus undertook about the year 1495. One of his brothers and his
maternal uncle were already settled in Rome, which was therefore the
point to which his steps eventually tended. He quitted home in his
twenty-third year; when his diligence in cultivating the practical part
of astronomy had already procured for him some reputation as a skilful
observer. It seems to have been in contemplation of this journey that he
began to study painting, in which he afterwards became a tolerable
proficient.
Bologna was the first place at which he made any stay, being drawn
thither by the reputation of the astronomical professor, Dominic Maria
Novarra. Copernicus was not more delighted with this able instructor
than Novarra with his intelligent pupil. He soon became an assistant and
companion of Novarra in his observations, and in this capacity acquired
considerable distinction, so that on his departure from Bologna and
arrival at Rome, he found that his reputation had preceded him. He was
appointed to a professorship in that city, where he continued to teach
mathematics for some years with considerable success.
It does not appear at what time Copernicus entered into holy orders:
probably it may have been during his residence at Rome; for on his
return home he was named to the superintendence of the principal church
in his native city Thorn. Not long afterwards his uncle Luke, who, in
1489, succeeded Nicolas von Thungen in the bishopric of Ermeland,
enrolled him as one of the canons of his chapter. The cathedral church
of the diocese of Ermeland is situated at Frauenburg, a small town built
near one of the mouths of the Vistula, on the shore of the lake called
Frische Haff, separated only by a narrow strip of land from the Gulf of
Dantzig. In this situation, rendered unfavourable to astronomical
observations by the frequent marshy exhalations rising from the river
and lake, Copernicus took up his future abode, and made it the principal
place of his residence during the remainder of his life. Here those
astronomical speculations were renewed and perfected, the results of
which have for ever consigned to oblivion the subtle contrivances
invented by his predecessors to account for the anomalies of their own
complicated theories.
But we should form a very erroneous opinion of the life and character of
Copernicus, if we considered him, as it is probable that by most he is
considered, the quiet inhabitant of a cloister, immersed solely in
speculative inquiries. His disposition did not unfit him for taking an
active share in the stirring events which were occurring around him, and
it was not left entirely to his choice whether he would remain a mere
spectator of them.
The chapter of Ermeland, at the time when he became a member of it, was
the centre of a violent political struggle, in the decision of which
Copernicus himself was called on to act a considerable part. In the
latter half of the fifteenth century, a bitter war was carried on
between the King of Poland and a military religious fraternity, called
the Teutonic or German Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, who were
incorporated towards the end of the twelfth century. Having been called
into Prussia, they established themselves permanently in the country,
built Thorn and several other cities, and gradually acquired a
considerable share of independent power. On the death of Paul von
Segendorf, bishop of Ermeland, Casimir, king of Poland, in pursuance of
a design which he was then prosecuting, to get into his own hands the
nomination to all the bishoprics in his dominions, appointed his
secretary, Stanislas Opporowski, to the vacant see. The chapter of
Ermeland proceeded notwithstanding to a separate nomination, and elected
Nicolas von Thungen. Opporowski, backed by Casimir, entered Ermeland at
the head of a powerful army. From this period the new Bishop of Ermeland
necessarily made common cause with the German Knights; they renounced
their allegiance to the crown of Poland, and threw themselves on the
protection of Matthias king of Hungary. At length, Casimir finding
himself unable to master the confederacy, separated Nicolas von Thungen
from it, by agreeing to recognise him as Prince-Bishop of Ermeland, on
the usual condition of homage. Nicolas thus became confirmed in his
dignity, but his unhappy subjects did not fare better on that account,
the country being now exposed to the fury of the German Knights, as it
had suffered before from the violence of the Polish soldiery. These
disturbances were continued during the life of Luke Watzelrode, and the
city of Frauenburg, as well as its neighbour Braunsburg, frequently
became the theatre of warlike operations.
The management of the see was often committed to the care of Copernicus
during the absence of his uncle, who on political grounds resided for
the most part at the Court; and his activity in maintaining the rights
of the chapter rendered him especially obnoxious to the Teutonic Order.
In one of the short intervals of tranquillity, they took occasion to
cite him before the meeting of the States at Posen, on account of some
of his reports to his uncle concerning their encroachments. Gassendi,
who mentions this circumstance, merely adds that at length his own and
his uncle’s merit secured the latter in the possession of his dignity.
In 1512 Watzelrode died, and Copernicus was chosen as administrator of
the see until the appointment of the new bishop, Fabian von Losingen. In
1518 the knights under their grand master, Albert of Brandenburg, took
possession of Frauenburg and burnt it to the ground.
During the following year hostilities continued in the immediate
neighbourhood of Frauenburg, but in the course of that summer,
negotiations for peace between the Teutonic Order and the King of Poland
were begun, through the mediation of the bishop. At last a truce was
agreed upon for four years, during which Fabian von Losingen died, and
Copernicus was again chosen administrator of the bishopric. In 1525
peace was concluded with the Teutonic Knights, Albert having consented
to receive Prussia as a temporal fief from the King of Poland. It was
probably on this occasion that Copernicus was selected to represent the
chapter of Ermeland at the Diet at Graudenz, where the terms of peace
were finally settled; and by his firmness the chapter recovered great
part of the possessions which had been endangered during the war. This
service to his chapter was followed by another of more widely extended
importance. During the struggle, which had continued with little
interruption for more than half a century, the currency had become
greatly debased and depreciated; and one of the most important subjects
of deliberation at the meeting at Graudenz related to the best method of
restoring it. There was a great difference of opinion whether the
intended new coinage should be struck according to the old value of the
currency, or according to that to which it had fallen in consequence of
its adulteration. To assist in the settlement of this important
question, Copernicus drew up a table of the relative value of the coins,
then in circulation throughout the country. He presented this to the
States, accompanied by a memoir on the same subject, an extract from
which may be seen in Hartknoch’s History of Prussia. Throughout the
troublesome period of which we have just given an outline, Copernicus
seems to have displayed much political courage and talent. When
tranquillity was at length restored, he resumed the astronomical studies
which had been thus interrupted by more active duties.
There appears to be little doubt that the philosopher began to meditate
on the ideas which led him to the true knowledge of the constitution of
the solar system, at least as early as 1507. Every one, who has heard
the name of Copernicus mentioned, is aware that before him the general
belief was, that the earth occupies the centre of the universe; that the
changes of day and night are produced by the rapid revolution of the
heavens, such as our senses erroneously lead us to believe, until more
accurate and complicated observation teaches us the contrary; that the
change of seasons and apparent motions of the planetary bodies are
caused by the revolution of the sun and planets from west to east round
the earth, in orbits of various complexity, subject to the common daily
motion of all from east to west.
Instead of the daily motion of the heavens from east to west, Copernicus
substituted the revolution of the earth itself from west to east. He
explained the other phenomena of the planetary motions by supposing the
sun to be fixed, and the earth and other planets to revolve about him;
not, however, in simple circular orbits, according to the popular view
of the Copernican theory. It was absolutely necessary to retain much of
the old machinery of deferent and epicycle so long as the prejudice
existed, from which Copernicus himself was not free, that nothing but
circular motion is to be found in the heavens. Another step was made by
the following generation, and astronomers were taught by Kepler to
believe that the circular motion which they were so anxious to preserve
in their theories, has no real existence in the planetary orbits. The
advantage of the new system above the old, was, that by not denying to
the earth the motion which it really possesses, the author had to invent
epicycles to explain only the real irregularities of the motions of the
other planets, and not those apparent ones which arise out of the motion
of the orb from which they are viewed.
It is commonly said that besides the two motions already mentioned,
Copernicus attributed to the earth a third annual revolution on its
axis. This was necessary from the idea which he had formed of its motion
in its orbit. He conceived the earth to be carried round as if resting
on a lever centred in the sun, which would cause the poles of the daily
motion to point successively to different parts of the heavens; the
third motion was added to restore these poles to their true position in
every part of the orbit. It was afterwards seen that these two annual
motions might be considered as resulting from one of a different kind,
and in this simpler form they are now always considered by astronomical
writers.
It would be an interesting inquiry to follow Copernicus through the
train of reasoning which induced him to venture upon these changes; but
it is impossible to attempt this, or to explain his system, within the
limits to which this sketch is necessarily confined. In one point of
view, his peculiar merit appears not to be in general sufficiently
insisted upon. If he had merely suggested the principles of his new
theory, he would doubtless have acquired, as now, the glory of lighting
upon the true order of the solar system, and of founding thereupon a new
school of astronomy: but his peculiar and characteristic merit, that by
which he really earned his reputation, and which entitles him to take
rank by the side of Newton in the history of astronomy, was the result
of his conviction, that if his principles were indeed true, they would
be verified by the examination of details, and the persevering
resolution with which he thereupon set himself to rebuild an
astronomical theory from the foundation. This was the reason, at least
as much as the fear of incurring censure, why he delayed the publication
of his system for thirty-six years. During the greater part of that time
he was employed in collecting, by careful observation, the materials of
which it is constructed: the opinions on which it is based, comprising
the whole of what was afterwards declared to be heretical and impious,
were widely known to be entertained by him long before the work itself
appeared. He delayed to announce them formally, until he was able at the
same time to show that they were not random guesses, taken up from a
mere affectation of novelty; but that with their assistance he had
compiled tables of the planetary motions, which were immediately
acknowledged even by those whose minds revolted most against the means
by which they were obtained, to be far more correct than any which till
then had appeared.
Copernicus’s book seems to have been nearly completed in 1536, which is
the date of a letter addressed to him by Cardinal Schonberg, prefixed to
the work. So far at this time was the church of Rome from having decided
on the line of stubborn opposition to the new opinions, which, in the
following century, so much to her own disgrace, she adopted, that
Copernicus was chiefly moved to complete and publish his work by the
solicitations of this cardinal, and of Tindemann Giese, the bishop of
Culm; and the book itself was dedicated to Pope Paul III. It is
entitled, ‘De Revolutionibus Orbium Cœlestium, Libri VI.’ The dedication
is written in a very different strain from that to which his followers
were soon afterwards restricted. He there boldly avows his expectation
that his theory would be attacked as contrary to the Scriptures, and his
contempt of such ill-considered judgment. A more timid preface, in which
the new theory is spoken of as a mere mathematical hypothesis, was added
to this dedication by Osiander, to whom Copernicus had entrusted the
care of preparing the book for publication. It has been said that the
author was far from approving this, and if his death had not followed
closely upon its publication, it is not improbable that he would have
suppressed it.
The revolution of opinion that has followed the publication of this
memorable work was not immediately perceptible: even to the end of the
sixteenth century, as Montucla observes, the number of converts to its
doctrines might be easily reckoned. The majority contented themselves
with a disdainful sneer at the folly of introducing such ridiculous
notions among the grave doctrines of astronomy: but although
impertinent, it was as yet considered harmless; and all those who were
at the pains to examine the reasoning on which the new theory was
grounded, were allowed, unmolested, to own themselves convinced by it.
It was not until the spirit of philosophical inquiry was fully awakened,
that the church of Rome became sensible how much danger lurked in the
new doctrines; and when the struggle began in earnest between the
partisans of truth and falsehood, the censures pronounced upon the
advocates of the earth’s motion, were in fact aimed through them at all
who presumed, even in natural phenomena, to see with other eyes than
those of their spiritual advisers.
Copernicus did not live to witness any part of the effect produced by
his book. A sudden attack of dysentery and paralysis put an end to his
life, within a few hours after the first printed copy had been shown to
him, in his seventy-second year, on the 24th May, 1543, one century
before the birth of Newton. The house at Thorn, in which he is said to
have been born, is still shown, as well as that at Frauenburg, in which
he passed the greater part of his life. An hydraulic machine, of which
only the remains now exist, for supplying the houses of the canons with
water, and another of similar construction at Graudenz, which is still
in use, are said to have been constructed by him. An account of them may
be seen in Nanke’s Travels. From the little that is known of
Copernicus’s private character, his morals appear to have been
unexceptionable; his temper good, his disposition kind, but inclining to
seriousness. He was so highly esteemed in his own neighbourhood, that
the attempt of a dramatic author to satirise him, by introducing his
doctrine of the earth’s motion upon the stage at Elbing, was received by
the audience with the greatest indignation. He was buried in the
cemetery of the chapter of Ermeland, and only a plain marble slab,
inscribed with his name, marked the place of his interment. Until this
was rediscovered in the latter half of the last century, an opinion
prevailed that his remains had been transported to Thorn, and buried in
the church of St. John, where the portrait of him is preserved, from
which most of the prints in circulation have been taken. It is engraved
in Hartknoch’s Prussia, and, according to that author, copies of it were
frequently made. The portrait prefixed to Gassendi’s life, is a copy of
that given in Boissard, with the addition of a furred robe. There is a
good engraving of the same likeness, by Falck, a Polish artist, who
lived about a century later than Copernicus. In the year 1584, Tycho
Brahe commissioned Elia Olai to visit Frauenburg, for the purpose of
more accurately determining the latitude of Copernicus’s observatory,
and, on that occasion, received as a present from the chapter the
Ptolemaic scales, made by the astronomer himself, which he used in his
observatory, and also a portrait of him said to have been painted by his
own hand. Tycho placed these memorials, with great honour, in his own
observatory, but it is not known what became of them after his death,
and the dispersion of his instruments. The portrait, from which the
engraving prefixed to this account is taken, belongs to the Royal
Society, to which it was sent by Dr. Wolff, from Dantzig, in 1776. It
was copied by Lormann, a Prussian artist, from one which had been long
preserved and recognised as an original in the collection of the Dukes
of Saxe Gotha. In 1735, Prince Grabowski, bishop of Ermeland, exchanged
for it the portrait of an ancestor of the reigning duke, who had been
formerly bishop of that see. Grabowski left it to his chamberlain, M.
Hussarzewski, in whose possession it remained when the copy was made.
Dr. Wolff, in the letter accompanying his present, (inserted in the
Phil. Trans. vol. lxvii.) declares that this original had been compared
with the Thorn portrait, and that the resemblance of the two is perfect.
It does not appear very striking in the engravings. A colossal statue of
Copernicus, executed by Thorwaldsen, was erected at Warsaw in 1830, with
all the demonstrations of honour due to the memory of a man who holds so
distinguished a place in the history of human discoveries.
[Illustration]
[Illustration:
_Engraved by T. Woolnoth._