Among the remarkable men of modern times, there is perhaps none, whose
fame is purer from reproach, than that of Thaddeus Kosciusko. His name
is enshrined in the ruins of his unhappy country, which, with heroic
bravery and devotion, he sought to defend against foreign oppression,
and foreign domination. Kosciusko was born at Warsaw, about the year
1755. He was educated at the school of Cadets, in that city, where he
distinguished himself so much in scientific studies as well as in
drawing, that he was selected as one of four students of that
institution, who were sent to travel at the expense of the state, with a
view of perfecting their talents. In this capacity he visited France,
where he remained for several years, devoting himself to studies of
various kinds. On his return to his own country he entered the army, and
obtained the command of a company. But he was soon obliged to expatriate
himself again, in order to fly from a violent but unrequited passion,
for the daughter of the Marshal of Lithuania, one of the first officers
of state of the Polish court.
He bent his step to that part of North America, which was then waging
its war of independence against England. Here he entered the army, and
served with distinction, as one of the adjutants of General Washington.
While thus employed, he became acquainted with La Fayette, Lameth, and
other distinguished Frenchmen, serving in the same cause; and was
honoured by receiving the most flattering praises from Franklin, as well
as the public thanks of the Congress of the United Provinces. He was
also decorated with the new American order of Cincinnatus, being the
only European, except La Fayette, to whom it was given.
At the termination of the war he returned to his own country, where he
lived in retirement till the year 1789, at which period he was promoted
by the Diet to the rank of Major-General. That body was at this time
endeavouring to place its military force upon a respectable footing, in
the vain hope of restraining and diminishing the domineering influence
of foreign powers, in what still remained of Poland. It also occupied
itself in changing the vicious constitution of that unfortunate and
ill-governed country—in rendering the monarchy hereditary—in declaring
universal toleration—and in preserving the privileges of the nobility,
while at the same time it ameliorated the condition of the lower orders.
In all these improvements, Stanislas Poniatowski, the reigning king,
readily concurred; though the avowed intention of the Diet was, to
render the crown hereditary in the Saxon family. The King of Prussia
(Frederic William II.), who, from the time of the Treaty of Cherson in
1787, between Russia and Austria, had become hostile to the former
power, also encouraged the Poles in their proceedings; and even gave
them the most positive assurances of assisting them, in case the changes
they were effecting occasioned any attacks from other sovereigns.
Russia at length, having made peace with the Turks, prepared to throw
her sword into the scale. A formidable opposition to the measures of the
Diet had arisen, even among the Poles themselves, and occasioned what
was called the confederation of Targowicz, to which the Empress of
Russia promised her assistance. The feeble Stanislas, who had proclaimed
the new constitution, in 1791, bound himself in 1792 to sanction the
Diet of Grodno, which restored the ancient constitution, with all its
vices and all its abuses. In the meanwhile, Frederic William, King of
Prussia, who had so mainly contributed to excite the Poles to their
enterprises, basely deserted them, and refused to give them any
assistance. On the contrary, he stood aloof from the contest, waiting
for that share of the spoil, which the haughty Empress of the north
might think proper to allot to him, as the reward of his
non-interference.
But though thus betrayed on all sides, the Poles were not disposed to
submit without a struggle. They flew to arms, and found in the nephew of
their king, the Prince Joseph Poniatowski, a general worthy to conduct
so glorious a cause. Under his command Kosciusko first became known in
European warfare. He distinguished himself in the battle of Zielenec,
and still more in that of Dubienska, which took place on the 18th of
June, 1792. Upon this latter occasion, he defended for six hours, with
only four thousand men, against fifteen thousand Russians, a post which
had been slightly fortified in twenty-four hours, and at last retired
with inconsiderable loss.
But the contest was too unequal to last; the patriots were overwhelmed
by enemies from without, and betrayed by traitors within, at the head of
whom was their own sovereign. The Russians took possession of the
country, and proceeded to appropriate those portions of Lithuania and
Volhynia, which suited their convenience; while Prussia, the friendly
Prussia, invaded another part of the kingdom.
Under these circumstances, the most distinguished officers in the Polish
army retired from the service, and of this number was Kosciusko.
Miserable at the fate of his unhappy country, and at the same time an
object of suspicion to the ruling powers, he left his native land, and
retired to Leipsic; where he received intelligence of the honour which
had been conferred upon him by the Legislative Assembly of France, who
had invested him with the quality of a French citizen.
But his fellow-countrymen were still anxious to make another struggle
for independence; and they unanimously selected Kosciusko as their chief
and generalissimo. He obeyed the call, and found the patriots eager to
combat under his orders. Even the noble Joseph Poniatowski, who had
previously commanded in chief, returned from France, whither he had
retired, and received from the hands of Kosciusko the charge of a
portion of his army.
The patriots had risen in the north of Poland, to which part Kosciusko
first directed his steps. Anxious to begin his campaign with an action
of vigour, he marched rapidly towards Cracow, which town he entered
triumphantly on the 24th of March, 1794. He forthwith published a
manifesto against the Russians; and then, at the head of only five
thousand men, he marched to meet their army. He encountered, on the 4th
of April, ten thousand Russians at a place called Wraclawic; and
entirely defeated them, after a combat of four hours. He returned in
triumph to Cracow, and shortly afterwards marched along the left bank of
the Vistula to Polaniec, where he established his head quarters.
Meanwhile the inhabitants of Warsaw, animated by the recital of the
heroic deeds of their countrymen, had also raised the standard of
independence, and were successful in driving the Russians from the city,
after a murderous conflict of three days. In Lithuania and Samogitia an
equally successful revolution was effected, before the end of April;
while the Polish troops stationed in Volhynia and Podolia, marched to
the reinforcement of Kosciusko.
Thus far fortune seemed to smile upon the cause of Polish freedom—the
scene was, however, about to change. The undaunted Kosciusko, having
first organised a national council to conduct the affairs of government,
again advanced against the Russians. On his march, he met a new enemy,
in the person of the faithless Frederic William of Prussia; who, without
having even gone through the preliminary of declaring war, had advanced
into Poland, at the head of forty thousand men.
Kosciusko, with but thirteen thousand men, attacked the Prussian army on
the 8th of June, at Szcekociny. The battle was long and bloody; at
length, overwhelmed with numbers, he was obliged to retreat towards
Warsaw. This he effected in so able a manner, that his enemies did not
dare to harass him in his march; and he effectually covered the capital,
and maintained his position for two months against vigorous and
continued attacks. Immediately after this reverse the Polish General
Zaionczeck lost the battle of Chelm, and the Governor of Cracow had the
baseness to deliver the town to the Prussians, without attempting a
defence.
These disasters occasioned disturbances among the disaffected at Warsaw,
which, however, were put down by the vigour and firmness of Kosciusko.
On the 13th of July, the forces of the Prussians and Russians, amounting
to fifty thousand men, assembled under the walls of Warsaw, and
commenced the siege of that city. After six weeks spent before the
place, and a succession of bloody conflicts, the confederates were
obliged to raise the siege; but this respite to the Poles was but of
short duration.
Their enemies increased fearfully in number, while their own resources
diminished. Austria now determined to assist in the annihilation of
Poland, and caused a body of her troops to enter that kingdom. Nearly at
the same moment, the Russians ravaged Lithuania; and the two corps of
the Russian army, commanded by Suwarof and Fersen, effected their
junction in spite of the battle of Krupezyce, which the Poles had
ventured upon with doubtful issue, against the first of these
commanders, on the 16th of September.
Upon receiving intelligence of these events, Kosciusko left Warsaw and
placed himself at the head of the Polish army. He was attacked by the
very superior forces of the confederates on the 10th of October, 1794,
at a place called Macieiowice; and for many hours supported the combat
against overwhelming odds. At length he was severely wounded, and as he
fell, he uttered the prophetic words, “_Finis Poloniæ_.” It is asserted,
that he had exacted from his followers an oath, not to suffer him to
fall alive into the hands of the Russians, and that in consequence the
Polish cavalry, being unable to carry him off, inflicted some severe
sabre wounds on him, and left him for dead on the field; a savage
fidelity, which we half admire even in condemning it. Be this as it may,
he was recognised and delivered from the plunderers by some Cossack
chiefs; and thus was saved from death to meet a scarcely less harsh
fate—imprisonment in a Russian dungeon.
Thomas Wawrzecki became the successor of Kosciusko in the command of the
army; but with the loss of their heroic leader, all hope had deserted
the breasts of the Poles. They still, however, fought with all the
obstinacy of despair, and defended the suburb of Warsaw, called Praga,
with great gallantry. At length this post was wrested from them. Warsaw
itself capitulated on the 9th of November, 1794; and this calamity was
followed by the entire dissolution of the Polish army on the 18th of the
same month.
During this time, Kosciusko remained in prison at Petersburgh; but, at
the end of two years, the death of his persecutress the Empress
Catherine released him. One of the first acts of the Emperor Paul was to
restore him to liberty, and to load him with various marks of his
favour. Among other gifts of the autocrat was a pension, by which,
however, the high-spirited patriot would never consent to profit. No
sooner was he beyond the reach of Russian influence than he returned to
the donor the instrument, by which this humiliating favour was
conferred. From this period the life of Kosciusko was passed in
retirement. He went first to England, and then to the United States of
America. He returned to the Old World in 1798, and took up his abode in
France, where he divided his time between Paris, and a country-house he
had bought near Fontainbleau. While here he received the appropriate
present of the sword of John Sobieski, which was sent to him by some of
his countrymen serving in the French armies in Italy, who had found it
in the shrine at Loretto.
Napoleon, when about to invade Poland in 1807, wished to use the name of
Kosciusko, in order to rally the people of the country round his
standard. The patriot, aware that no real freedom was to be hoped for
under such auspices, at once refused to lend himself to his wishes. Upon
this the Emperor forged Kosciusko’s signature to an address to the
Poles, which was distributed throughout the country. Nor would he permit
the injured person to deny the authenticity of this act in any public
manner. The real state of the case was, however, made known to many
through the private representations of Kosciusko; but he was never able
to publish a formal denial of the transaction till after the fall of
Napoleon.
When the Russians in 1814 had penetrated into Champagne, and were
advancing towards Paris, they were astonished to hear that their former
adversary was living in retirement in that part of the country. The
circumstances of this discovery were striking. The commune in which
Kosciusko lived was subjected to plunder, and among the troops thus
engaged he observed a Polish regiment. Transported with anger he rushed
among them, and thus addressed the officers: “When I commanded brave
soldiers they never pillaged; and I should have punished severely
subalterns who allowed of disorders such as those which we see around.
Still more severely should I have punished older officers, who
authorized such conduct by their culpable neglect.”—“And who are you,”
was the general cry, “that you dare to speak with such boldness to
us?”—“I am Kosciusko.” The effect was electric: the soldiery cast down
their arms, prostrated themselves at his feet, and cast dust upon their
heads according to a national usage, supplicating his forgiveness for
the fault which they had committed. For twenty years the name of
Kosciusko had not been heard in Poland save as that of an exile; yet it
still retained its ancient power over Polish hearts; a power never used
but for some good and generous end.
The Emperor Alexander honoured him with a long interview, and offered
him an asylum in his own country. But nothing could induce Kosciusko
again to see his unfortunate native land. In 1815, he retired to
Soleure, in Switzerland; where he died, October 16th, 1817, in
consequence of an injury received by a fall from his horse. Not long
before he had abolished slavery upon his Polish estate, and declared all
his serfs entirely free, by a deed registered and executed with every
formality that could ensure the full performance of his intention. The
mortal remains of Kosciusko were removed to Poland at the expense of
Alexander, and have found a fitting place of rest in the cathedral of
Cracow, between those of his companions in arms, Joseph Poniatowski, and
the greatest of Polish warriors, John Sobieski.
[Illustration]
[Illustration:
_Engraved by R. Woodman._