1. Various Significations of the word Reason.
THE word REASON in the English language has different significations:
sometimes it is taken for true and clear principles: sometimes for clear
and fair deductions from those principles: and sometimes for the cause,
and particularly the final cause. But the consideration I shall have of
it here is in a signification different from all these; and that is, as
it stands for a faculty in man, that faculty whereby man is supposed
to be distinguished from beasts, and wherein it is evident he much
surpasses them.
2. Wherein Reasoning consists.
If general knowledge, as has been shown, consists in a perception of the
agreement or disagreement of our own ideas, and the knowledge of
the existence of all things without us (except only of a God, whose
existence every man may certainly know and demonstrate to himself from
his own existence), be had only by our senses, what room is there
for the exercise of any other faculty, but OUTWARD SENSE and INWARD
PERCEPTION? What need is there of REASON? Very much: both for the
enlargement of our knowledge, and regulating our assent. For it hath to
do both in knowledge and opinion, and is necessary and assisting to all
our other intellectual faculties, and indeed contains two of them, viz.
SAGACITY and ILLATION. By the one, it finds out; and by the other, it so
orders the intermediate ideas as to discover what connexion there is
in each link of the chain, whereby the extremes are held together; and
thereby, as it were, to draw into view the truth sought for, which is
that which we call ILLATION or INFERENCE, and consists in nothing but
the perception of the connexion there is between the ideas, in each step
of the deduction; whereby the mind comes to see, either the certain
agreement or disagreement of any two ideas, as in demonstration, in
which it arrives at KNOWLEDGE; or their probable connexion, on which it
gives or withholds its assent, as in OPINION. Sense and intuition reach
but a very little way. The greatest part of our knowledge depends upon
deductions and intermediate ideas: and in those cases where we are fain
to substitute assent instead of knowledge, and take propositions for
true, without being certain they are so, we have need to find out,
examine, and compare the grounds of their probability. In both these
cases, the faculty which finds out the means, and rightly applies them,
to discover certainty in the one, and probability in the other, is
that which we call REASON. For, as reason perceives the necessary and
indubitable connexion of all the ideas or proofs one to another, in
each step of any demonstration that produces knowledge; so it likewise
perceives the probable connexion of all the ideas or proofs one to
another, in every step of a discourse, to which it will think assent
due. This is the lowest degree of that which can be truly called reason.
For where the mind does not perceive this probable connexion, where it
does not discern whether there be any such connexion or no; there men's
opinions are not the product of judgment, or the consequence of reason,
but the effects of chance and hazard, of a mind floating at all
adventures, without choice and without direction.
3. Reason in its four degrees.
So that we may in REASON consider these FOUR DEGREES: the first and
highest is the discovering and finding out of truths; the second, the
regular and methodical disposition of them, and laying them in a clear
and fit order, to make their connexion and force be plainly and easily
perceived; the third is the perceiving their connexion; and the fourth,
a making a right conclusion. These several degrees may be observed in
any mathematical demonstration; it being one thing to perceive the
connexion of each part, as the demonstration is made by another; another
to perceive the dependence of the conclusion on all the parts; a third,
to make out a demonstration clearly and neatly one's self; and something
different from all these, to have first found out these intermediate
ideas or proofs by which it is made.
4. Whether Syllogism is the great Instrument of Reason.
There is one thing more which I shall desire to be considered concerning
reason; and that is, whether SYLLOGISM, as is generally thought, be
the proper instrument of it, and the usefullest way of exercising this
faculty. The causes I have to doubt are these:--
First Cause to doubt this.
FIRST, Because syllogism serves our reason but in one only of the
forementioned parts of it; and that is, to show the CONNEXION OF THE
PROOFS in any one instance, and no more; but in this it is of no great
use, since the mind can perceive such connexion, where it really is, as
easily, nay, perhaps better, without it.
Men can reason well who cannot make a Syllogism.
If we will observe the actings of our own minds, we shall find that we
reason best and clearest, when we only observe the connexion of the
proof, without reducing our thoughts to any rule of syllogism. And
therefore we may take notice, that there are many men that reason
exceeding clear and rightly, who know not how to make a syllogism. He
that will look into many parts of Asia and America, will find men reason
there perhaps as acutely as himself, who yet never heard of a syllogism,
nor can reduce any one argument to those forms: [and I believe scarce
any one makes syllogisms in reasoning within himself.] Indeed syllogism
is made use of, on occasion, to discover a fallacy hid in a rhetorical
flourish, or cunningly wrapt up in a smooth period; and, stripping an
absurdity of the cover of wit and good language, show it in its naked
deformity. But the mind is not taught to reason by these rules; it has a
native faculty to perceive the coherence or incoherence of its ideas,
and can range them right without any such perplexing repetitions. Tell
a country gentlewoman that the wind is south-west, and the weather
lowering, and like to rain, and she will easily understand it is not
safe for her to go abroad thin clad in such a day, after a fever: she
clearly sees the probable connexion of all these, viz. south-west wind,
and clouds, rain, wetting, taking cold, relapse, and danger of death,
without tying them together in those artificial and cumbersome fetters
of several syllogisms, that clog and hinder the mind, which proceeds
from one part to another quicker and clearer without them: and the
probability which she easily perceives in things thus in their native
state would be quite lost, if this argument were managed learnedly, and
proposed in MODE and FIGURE. For it very often confounds the connexion;
and, I think, every one will perceive in mathematical demonstrations,
that the knowledge gained thereby comes shortest and clearest without
syllogism.
Secondly, Because though syllogism serves to show the force or fallacy
of an argument, made use of in the usual way of discoursing, BY
SUPPLYING THE ABSENT PROPOSITION, and so, setting it before the view
in a clear light; yet it no less engages the mind in the perplexity of
obscure, equivocal, and fallacious terms, wherewith this artificial way
of reasoning always abounds: it being adapted more to the attaining of
victory in dispute than the discovery and confirmation of truth in fair
enquiries.
5. Syllogism helps little in Demonstration, less in Probability.
But however it be in knowledge, I think I may truly say, it is OF FAR
LESS, OR NO USE AT ALL IN PROBABILITIES. For the assent there being
to be determined by the preponderancy, after due weighing of all the
proofs, with all circumstances on both sides, nothing is so unfit to
assist the mind in that as syllogism; which running away with one
assumed probability, or one topical argument, pursues that till it has
led the mind quite out of sight of the thing under consideration; and,
forcing it upon some remote difficulty, holds it fast there; entangled
perhaps, and, as it were, manacled, in the chain of syllogisms, without
allowing it the liberty, much less affording it the helps, requisite to
show on which side, all things considered, is the greater probability.
6. Serves not to increase our Knowledge, but to fence with the Knowledge
we suppose we have.
But let it help us (as perhaps may be said) in convincing men of their
errors and mistakes: (and yet I would fain see the man that was forced
out of his opinion by dint of syllogism,) yet still it fails our reason
in that part, which, if not its highest perfection, is yet certainly its
hardest task, and that which we most need its help in; and that is
THE FINDING OUT OF PROOFS, AND MAKING NEW DISCOVERIES. The rules of
syllogism serve not to furnish the mind with those intermediate ideas
that may show the connexion of remote ones. This way of reasoning
discovers no new proofs, but is the art of marshalling and ranging the
old ones we have already. The forty-seventh proposition of the first
book of Euclid is very true; but the discovery of it, I think, not owing
to any rules of common logic. A man knows first and then he is able to
prove syllogistically. So that syllogism comes after knowledge, and then
a man has little or no need of it. But it is chiefly by the finding out
those ideas that show the connexion of distant ones, that our stock of
knowledge is increased, and that useful arts and sciences are advanced.
Syllogism, at best, is but the art of fencing with the little knowledge
we have, without making any addition to it. And if a man should employ
his reason all this way, he will not do much otherwise than he who,
having got some iron out of the bowels of the earth, should have it
beaten up all into swords, and put it into his servants' hands to fence
with and bang one another. Had the King of Spain employed the hands of
his people, and his Spanish iron so, he had brought to light but little
of that treasure that lay so long hid in the dark entrails of America.
And I am apt to think that he who shall employ all the force of his
reason only in brandishing of syllogisms, will discover very little of
that mass of knowledge which lies yet concealed in the secret recesses
of nature; and which, I am apt to think, native rustic reason (as it
formerly has done) is likelier to open a way to, and add to the common
stock of mankind, rather than any scholastic proceeding by the strict
rules of MODE and FIGURE.
7. Other Helps to reason than Syllogism should be sought.
I doubt not, nevertheless, but there are ways to be found to assist
our reason in this most useful part; and this the judicious Hooker
encourages me to say, who in his Eccl. Pol. 1. i. Section 6, speaks
thus: 'If there might be added the right helps of true art and learning,
(which helps, I must plainly confess, this age of the world, carrying
the name of a learned age, doth neither much know nor generally regard,)
there would undoubtedly be almost as much difference in maturity of
judgment between men therewith inured, and that which men now are, as
between men that are now, and innocents.' I do not pretend to have found
or discovered here any of those 'right helps of art,' this great man of
deep thought mentions: but that is plain, that syllogism, and the logic
now in use, which were as well known in his days, can be none of those
he means. It is sufficient for me, if by a Discourse, perhaps something
out of the way, I am sure, as to me, wholly new and unborrowed, I shall
have given occasion to others to cast about for new discoveries, and
to seek in their own thoughts for those right helps of art, which will
scarce be found, I fear, by those who servilely confine themselves to
the rules and dictates of others. For beaten tracks lead this sort of
cattle, (as an observing Roman calls them,) whose thoughts reach only to
imitation, NON QUO EUNDUM EST, SED QUO ITUR. But I can be bold to say,
that this age is adorned with some men of that strength of judgment and
largeness of comprehension, that, if they would employ their thoughts on
this subject, could open new and undiscovered ways to the advancement of
knowledge.
8. We can reason about Particulars; and the immediate object of all our
reasonings is nothing but particular ideas.
Having here had occasion to speak of syllogism in general, and the use
of it in reasoning, and the improvement of our knowledge, it is fit,
before I leave this subject, to take notice of one manifest mistake in
the rules of syllogism: viz. that no syllogistical reasoning can be
right and conclusive, but what has at least one GENERAL proposition in
it. As if we could not reason, and have knowledge about particulars:
whereas, in truth, the matter rightly considered, the immediate object
of all our reasoning and knowledge, is nothing but particulars. Every
man's reasoning and knowledge is only about the ideas existing in his
own mind; which are truly, every one of them, particular existences: and
our knowledge and reason about other things, is only as they correspond
with those our particular ideas. So that the perception of the agreement
or disagreement of our particular ideas, is the whole and utmost of all
our knowledge. Universality is but accidental to it, and consists only
in this, that the particular ideas about which it is are such as more
than one particular, thing can correspond with and be represented by.
But the perception of the agreement or disagreement of our particular
ideas, and consequently our knowledge, is equally clear and certain,
whether either, or both, or neither of those ideas, be capable of
representing more real beings than one, or no.
9. Our Reason often fails us.
REASON, though it penetrates into the depths of the sea and earth,
elevates our thoughts as high as the stars, and leads us through the
vast spaces and large rooms of this mighty fabric, yet it comes far
short of the real extent of even corporeal being. And there are many
instances wherein it fails us: as,
First, In cases when we have no Ideas.
I. It perfectly fails us, where our ideas fail. It neither does nor can
extend itself further than they do. And therefore, wherever we have no
ideas, our reasoning stops, and we are at an end of our reckoning: and
if at any time we reason about words which do not stand for any ideas,
it is only about those sounds, and nothing else.
10. Secondly, Because our Ideas are often obscure or imperfect.
II. Our reason is often puzzled and at a loss, because of the obscurity,
confusion, or imperfection of the ideas it is employed about; and there
we are involved in difficulties and contradictions. Thus, not having any
perfect idea of the LEAST EXTENSION OF MATTER, nor of INFINITY, we are
at a loss about the divisibility of matter; but having perfect, clear,
and distinct ideas of NUMBER, our reason meets with none of those
inextricable difficulties in numbers, nor finds itself involved in any
contradictions about them. Thus, we having but imperfect ideas of the
operations of our minds, and of the beginning of motion, or thought how
the mind produces either of them in us, and much imperfecter yet of the
operation of God, run into great difficulties about FREE CREATED AGENTS,
which reason cannot well extricate itself out of.
11. III. Thirdly, Because we perceive not intermediate Ideas to show
conclusions.
Our reason is often at a stand, because it perceives not those ideas,
which could serve to show the certain or probable agreement or
disagreement of any other two ideas: and in this some men's faculties
far outgo others. Till algebra, that great instrument and instance of
human sagacity, was discovered, men with amazement looked on several of
the demonstrations of ancient mathematicians, and could scarce forbear
to think the finding several of those proofs to be something more than
human.
12. IV. Fourthly, Because we often proceed upon wrong Principles.
The mind, by proceeding upon false principles, is often engaged in
absurdities and difficulties, brought into straits and contradictions,
without knowing how to free itself: and in that case it is in vain to
implore the help of reason, unless it be to discover the falsehood and
reject the influence of those wrong principles. Reason is so far from
clearing the difficulties which the building upon false foundations
brings a man into, that if he will pursue it, it entangles him the more,
and engages him deeper in perplexities.
13. V. Fifthly, Because we often employ doubtful Terms.
As obscure and imperfect ideas often involve our reason, so, upon the
same ground, do dubious words and uncertain signs, often, in discourses
and arguings, when not warily attended to, puzzle men's reason, and
bring them to a nonplus. But these two latter are our fault, and not
the fault of reason. But yet the consequences of them are nevertheless
obvious; and the perplexities or errors they fill men's minds with are
everywhere observable.
14. Our highest Degree of Knowledge is intuitive, without Reasoning.
Some of the ideas that are in the mind, are so there, that they can be
by themselves immediately compared one with another: and in these the
mind is able to perceive that they agree or disagree as clearly as that
it has them. Thus the mind perceives, that an arch of a circle is less
than the whole circle, as clearly as it does the idea of a circle: and
this, therefore, as has been said, I call INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE; which is
certain, beyond all doubt, and needs no probation, nor can have any;
this being the highest of all human certainty. In this consists the
evidence of all those MAXIMS which nobody has any doubt about, but every
man (does not, as is said, only assent to, but) KNOWS to be true, as
soon as ever they are proposed to his understanding. In the discovery of
and assent to these truths, there is no use of the discursive faculty,
NO NEED OF REASONING, but they are known by a superior and higher degree
of evidence. And such, if I may guess at things unknown, I am apt to
think that angels have now, and the spirits of just men made perfect
shall have, in a future state, of thousands of things which now either
wholly escape our apprehensions, or which our short-sighted reason
having got some faint glimpse of, we, in the dark, grope after.
15. The next is got by Reasoning.
But though we have, here and there, a little of this clear light, some
sparks of bright knowledge, yet the greatest part of our ideas are such,
that we cannot discern their agreement or disagreement by an immediate
comparing them. And in all these we have NEED OF REASONING, and must, by
discourse and inference, make our discoveries. Now of these there are
two sorts, which I shall take the liberty to mention here again:--
First, through Reasonings that are Demonstrative.
First, Those whose agreement or disagreement, though it cannot be seen
by an immediate putting them together, yet may be examined by the
intervention of other ideas which can be compared with them. In this
case, when the agreement or disagreement of the intermediate idea, on
both sides, with those which we would compare, is PLAINLY DISCERNED:
there it amounts to DEMONSTRATION whereby knowledge is produced, which,
though it be certain, yet it is not so easy, nor altogether so clear
as intuitive knowledge. Because in that there is barely one simple
intuition, wherein there is no room for any the least mistake or doubt:
the truth is seen all perfectly at once. In demonstration, it is true,
there is intuition too, but not altogether at once; for there must be
a remembrance of the intuition of the agreement of the medium, or
intermediate idea, with that we compared it with before, when we compare
it with the other: and where there be many mediums, there the danger of
the mistake is the greater. For each agreement or disagreement of the
ideas must be observed and seen in each step of the whole train, and
retained in the memory, just as it is; and the mind must be sure that
no part of what is necessary to make up the demonstration is omitted or
overlooked. This makes some demonstrations long and perplexed, and too
hard for those who have not strength of parts distinctly to perceive,
and exactly carry so many particulars orderly in their heads. And even
those who are able to master such intricate speculations, are fain
sometimes to go over them again, and there is need of more than one
review before they can arrive at certainty. But yet where the mind
clearly retains the intuition it had of the agreement of any idea with
another, and that with a third, and that with a fourth, &c., there the
agreement of the first and the fourth is a demonstration, and produces
certain knowledge; which may be called RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE, as the other
is intuitive.
16. Secondly, to supply the narrowness of Demonstrative and Intuitive
Knowledge we have nothing but Judgment upon probable reasoning.
Secondly, There are other ideas, whose agreement or disagreement can no
otherwise be judged of but by the intervention of others which have not
a certain agreement with the extremes, but an USUAL or LIKELY one:
and in these is that the JUDGMENT is properly exercised; which is the
acquiescing of the mind, that any ideas do agree, by comparing them with
such probable mediums. This, though it never amounts to knowledge,
no, not to that which is the lowest degree of it; yet sometimes the
intermediate ideas tie the extremes so firmly together, and the
probability is so clear and strong, that ASSENT as necessarily follows
it, as KNOWLEDGE does demonstration. The great excellency and use of the
judgment is to observe right, and take a true estimate of the force and
weight of each probability; and then casting them up all right together,
choose that side which has the overbalance.
17. Intuition, Demonstration, Judgment.
INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE is the perception of the CERTAIN agreement or
disagreement of two ideas immediately compared together.
RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE is the perception of the CERTAIN agreement or
disagreement of any two ideas, by the intervention of one or more other
ideas.
JUDGMENT is the thinking or taking two ideas to agree or disagree,
by the intervention of one or more ideas, whose certain agreement or
disagreement with them it does not perceive, but hath observed to be
FREQUENT and USUAL.
18. Consequences of Words, and Consequences of Ideas.
Though the deducing one proposition from another, or making inferences
in WORDS, be a great part of reason, and that which it is usually
employed about; yet the principal act of ratiocination is THE FINDING
THE AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT OF TWO IDEAS ONE WITH ANOTHER, BY THE
INTERVENTION OF A THIRD. As a man, by a yard, finds two houses to be of
the same length, which could not be brought together to measure their
equality by juxta-position. Words have their consequences, as the signs
of such ideas: and things agree or disagree, as really they are; but we
observe it only by our ideas.
19. Four sorts of Arguments.
Before we quit this subject, it may be worth our while a little to
reflect on FOUR SORTS OF ARGUMENTS, that men, in their reasonings with
others, do ordinarily make use of to prevail on their assent; or at
least so to awe them as to silence their opposition.
First, Argumentum ad verecundiam.
I. The first is, to allege the opinions of men, whose parts, learning,
eminency, power, or some other cause has gained a name, and settled
their reputation in the common esteem with some kind of authority. When
men are established in any kind of dignity, it is thought a breach
of modesty for others to derogate any way from it, and question the
authority of men who are in possession of it. This is apt to be
censured, as carrying with it too much pride, when a man does not
readily yield to the determination of approved authors, which is wont to
be received with respect and submission by others: and it is looked upon
as insolence, for a man to set up and adhere to his own opinion against
the current stream of antiquity; or to put it in the balance against
that of some learned doctor, or otherwise approved writer. Whoever backs
his tenets with such authorities, thinks he ought thereby to carry the
cause, and is ready to style it impudence in any one who shall stand out
against them. This I think may be called ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM.
20. Secondly, Argumentum ad Ignorantiam.
II. Secondly, Another way that men ordinarily use to drive others, and
force them to submit their judgments, and receive the opinion in debate,
is to require the adversary to admit what they allege as a proof, or to
assign a better. And this I call ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM.
21. Thirdly, Argumentum ad hominem.
III. Thirdly, A third way is to press a man with consequences drawn from
his own principles or concessions. This is already known under the name
of ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM.
22. Fourthly, Argumentum ad justicium. The Fourth alone advances us in
knowledge and judgment.
IV. The fourth is the using of proofs drawn from any of the foundations
of knowledge or probability. This I call ARGUMENTUM AD JUSTICIUM. This
alone, of all the four, brings true instruction with it, and advances us
in our way to knowledge. For, 1. It argues not another man's opinion to
be right, because I, out of respect, or any other consideration but that
of conviction, will not contradict him. 2. It proves not another man to
be in the right way, nor that I ought to take the same with him, because
I know not a better. 3. Nor does it follow that another man is in the
right way, because he has shown me that I am in the wrong. I may be
modest, and therefore not oppose another man's persuasion: I may be
ignorant, and not be able to produce a better: I may be in an error, and
another may show me that I am so. This may dispose me, perhaps, for the
reception of truth, but helps me not to it: that must come from proofs
and arguments, and light arising from the nature of things themselves,
and not from my shamefacedness, ignorance, or error.
23. Above, contrary, and according to Reason.
By what has been before said of reason, we may be able to make some
guess at the distinction of things, into those that are according
to, above, and contrary to reason. 1. ACCORDING TO REASON are such
propositions whose truth we can discover by examining and tracing those
ideas we have from sensation and reflection; and by natural deduction
find to be true or probable. 2. ABOVE REASON are such propositions whose
truth or probability we cannot by reason derive from those principles.
3. CONTRARY TO REASON are such propositions as are inconsistent with or
irreconcilable to our clear and distinct ideas. Thus the existence of
one God is according to reason; the existence of more than one God,
contrary to reason; the resurrection of the dead, above reason. ABOVE
REASON also may be taken in a double sense, viz. either as signifying
above probability, or above certainty: and in that large sense also,
CONTRARY TO REASON, is, I suppose, sometimes taken.
24. Reason and Faith not opposite, for Faith must be regulated by
Reason.
There is another use of the word REASON, wherein it is OPPOSED TO FAITH:
which, though it be in itself a very improper way of speaking, yet
common use has so authorized it, that it would be folly either to oppose
or hope to remedy it. Only I think it may not be amiss to take notice,
that, however faith be opposed to reason, faith is nothing but a firm
assent of the mind: which, if it be regulated, as is our duty, cannot be
afforded to anything but upon good reason; and so cannot be opposite to
it. He that believes without having any reason for believing, may be in
love with his own fancies; but neither seeks truth as he ought, nor pays
the obedience due to his Maker, who would have him use those discerning
faculties he has given him, to keep him out of mistake and error. He
that does not this to the best of his power, however he sometimes lights
on truth, is in the right but by chance; and I know not whether
the luckiness of the accident will excuse the irregularity of his
proceeding. This at least is certain, that he must be accountable for
whatever mistakes he runs into: whereas he that makes use of the light
and faculties God has given him, and seeks sincerely to discover truth
by those helps and abilities he has, may have this satisfaction in doing
his duty as a rational creature, that, though he should miss truth, he
will not miss the reward of it. For he governs his assent right, and
places it as he should, who, in any case or matter whatsoever, believes
or disbelieves according as reason directs him. He that doth otherwise,
transgresses against his own light, and misuses those faculties which
were given him to no other end, but to search and follow the clearer
evidence and greater probability. But since reason and faith are by some
men opposed, we will so consider them in the following chapter.