page 40.)--The Baislan Tasch is a mountain on the right bank of the
Bielaja River, which flows into the Kama. There is a large cave in the
mountain in which ice has been found.
Cave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II.,
page 38.)--The Muinak Tasch is a mountain on the Bielaja River. There
is a large cave in it, in which a little ice has been found.
Cave of Kungur. (Lepechin, _Tagebuch der Reise_, etc., II., page 137;
Rosenmüller and Tilesius, I., page 79.)--The Cavern of Kungur is near
the town of Kungur in the Government of Perm. There are in it many
passages and grottoes connecting with one another, some of which
contain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest length is 400
meters.
Mines of Kirobinskoy. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 65.)--These mines are
53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the Ural; they have been abandoned.
One of them contains ice all the year round.
Caves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul and Keyserling,
_The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains_, 1845, vol.
I., page 186.)--72 kilometers southeast from Orenburg. The caves are in
the Kraoulnaïgora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst
of an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock salt. Only
one of the caves contains ice. There are strong draughts in places.
SIBERIA.
Cave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A
small cave, 17 kilometers east of Kajilskoi, 192 kilometers from
Petropaulowsk, 605 kilometers from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open
plain, and sometimes contains ice.
Wrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--Near the village
Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Krasnojarsk, on the right bank of
the Yenisei. Large glacière cave.
Glacière Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A narrow
cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilometers downstream from Irkutsk on the
left bank of the Angora River; at a distance of 2 kilometers from the
river.
Glacière Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 66.)--A
small cave; 48 kilometers from the Borsja Mountain.
Mines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--In the Altai
Mountains, on the Buchtorma River, an affluent of the Irtysch.
Magnificent ice formations have been found in these mines.
Mines of Seventui. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 126.)--Near Nertschinsk,
on the Amoor River. Two of the levels contain perennial ice and hence
are called _Ledenoi_. These are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous
lava. The rest of the mine is in more solid rock.
Glacière Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, _Eishöhlen_, page 67.)--Near
the confluence of the Lurgikan and Schilka Rivers, in the province
Nertschinsk. From 2 meters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters.
Basins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, _Ueber die Eismülden im
Östlichen Siberien_; Middendorff, _Zusatz_; _Bulletin de la classe
physico-mathématique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.
Pétersbourg_, 1853, vol. XI., pages 305-316.)--These troughs are nearly
akin to gorges and gullies, but their water supply seems to come
from a cause which is not usually present in gorges. Their principal
observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold and snowy winter would add
materially to the supply of ice, but he also thought that a necessity
to the existence of the ice in these troughs was an abundant water
supply from a spring, whose temperature should be so high as not to
freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the winter temperatures.
Some of the most important are reported--
In the Turachtach Valley.
Near Kapitanskji Sasiek.
In the valley of the River Belvi.
In the valley of the River Antscha.
In the Kintschen Valley.
In the neighborhood of Kolymsk.
In the Werchojanski Mountains.
In the Stanowáj Mountains.
KONDOOZ.
Cave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, _A peep into Toorkisthan_, 1846, chaps.
X., XI.)--In the valley of the Doaub, northwest of Kabul. The entrance
is half way up a hill, and is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high.
This is a large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In the
centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a mass of clear ice,
smooth and polished as a mirror, and in the form of a beehive, with its
dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the
jagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into the interior of
this cone, whose walls were about 60 centimeters thick and which was
divided into several compartments. Some distance from the entrance of
this cave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short distance
beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of skeletons of men,
women and children, in a perfectly undisturbed state, also the prints
of a naked human foot and the distinct marks of the pointed heel of an
Afghan boot. The moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons
were the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh tribe who took
refuge in the cave with their wives and children during the invasion of
Genghis Khan, and who defended themselves so stoutly, that after trying
in vain to smoke them out, the invader built them in with huge natural
blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some of the Afghans
said that the cave was inhabited by Sheitan, a possibility denied by
the moollah who guided Captain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that
the cave was too cold for such an inhabitant.
HIMÁLAYA.
Glacière Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of Philadelphia showed me
a copy of a letter of Dr. Wilhelmine Eger describing a visit to this
cave.)--It lies three days' journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the
borders of Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one crosses
snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging up a grassy slope
leads to the cave and is a stiff climb from the valley. The cave opens
on the side of a mountain and has a large, almost square mouth at
least as big as the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the
continuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and backwards to the
back wall, the only case of the kind so far reported. This cave is most
curiously connected with religion. Dr. Eger says that there are two
small blocks of ice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these
blocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who worship them--as
re-incarnations--under the names of Shiva and Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw
offerings of rice and flowers on them. Thousands of pilgrims come every
year at the end of July or beginning of August from all parts of India.
Thousands of miles have been traversed and hundreds of lives laid down
through this journey. Every year people die either before reaching
the cave or after. The trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days
up and two days down, if one returns by a shorter route where the way
is unsafe because of avalanches. So many have perished there that the
pass is called "The Way of Death." This must be taken by one class of
pilgrims, _Sardhas_ or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit, but
the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go straight to heaven.
Icicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard Strachey,
_Geographical Journal_, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.)--On the Balch pass
of the Balch range in Tibet, General Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of
which he says: "On the rocks exposed to the south were very curious
incrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out horizontally
like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to understand how they
were caused, nor can I tell why they were confined to particular spots.
The thermometer stood at 41°[F.], and though the dew point at the
time would probably have been below 32°[F.], and the cold produced by
evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water, yet it is evident
that no condensation could ever take place simultaneously with the
evaporation. * * * It has since occurred to me that these icicles were
formed by radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat similar
position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and simply exposed
to the sky in front of it, was depressed as much as 20° F. below the
true temperature of the surrounding air. This result was, of course,
due to the radiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmosphere
at the great elevation at which the thermometer was exposed. As
radiation takes place freely from a surface of ice, the growth of such
icicles as those described might be due to the condensation of vapour
brought up by the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over
these passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on the exposed
extremity of the icicle, the temperature of which might thus have been
greatly reduced."
INDIA.
Ice Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, _Nature_, vol. V., page 189; R.
H. Scott, _Elementary Meteorology_, Third Ed., pages 61, 62.)--Mr.
Bunford Samuel called my attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by
radiation in India. It is as follows:--
"A very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been made from time
immemorial in India in the preparation of ice, and on such a scale that
about 10 tons of ice can be procured in a single night from twenty
beds of the dimensions about to be given, when the temperature of the
air is 15° or 20° [F.] above the freezing point. * * * The locality
referred to is the immediate neighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular
piece of ground is marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120
by 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet and filled with
rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six inches of the surface of
the ground. The ice is formed in shallow dishes of porous earthenware,
and the amount of water placed in each is regulated by the amount of
ice expected.
"In the cold weather, when the temperature of the air at the ice fields
is under 50°, ice is formed in the dishes. The freezing is most active
with N. N. W. airs, as these are driest; it ceases entirely with
southerly or easterly airs, even though their temperature may be lower
than that of the N. N. W. wind.
"No ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to be called a
breeze, for the air is not left long enough at rest, above the bed, for
its temperature to fall sufficiently, by the action of radiation.
"The rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry, cuts off the
access of heat from the surface of the ground below it, and, when the
sun goes down, the straw being a powerful radiator, the temperature
of the air in contact with the dishes is reduced some 20° below that
prevailing some two or three feet above them. The rapid evaporation of
the water into the dry air above creates also an active demand for heat
to be rendered latent in the formation of steam, and the result of all
these agencies is the formation of ice, under favorable circumstances,
on the extensive scale above mentioned."
KOREA.
Glacière Cave on the Han Gang.--Messrs. J. Edward Farnum and George
L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me that they saw a small cave
containing ice on the banks of one of the Korean rivers. It is about
75 kilometers from Seoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the
old road leading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the Han
Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The entrance is small; perhaps
2 meters wide. The cave is not thoroughly explored. Ice lies near the
entrance, and as far back as the Messrs. Farnum could see.
JAPAN.
Glacière Lava Cave near Shoji. (_Evening Telegraph, Philadelphia,
January 2d, 1896._)--The cave is about 12 kilometers from Shoji, and is
in lava. First there is a pit in the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15
meters deep. The cave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters
long and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an ice floor in
places, also many ice stalagmites. At the furthest point reached there
is a strong air current, which extinguishes torches and so far has
prevented further exploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the
country people for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant.
PART IV.
SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.
SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIÈRES.
Benigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of winter produced the
ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.[69]
[69] See Part III.: page 193.
Reichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited the caves on the
Ötscher in 1591.[70]
[70] See Part III.: page 231.
Gollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the cause of the ice
at Chaux-les-Passavant.[71]
[71] See Part III.: page 202.
In the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, 1686, Tome
II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author's name, of
Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that in winter the cave is
filled with thick vapors and that after some trees were cut down near
the entrance, the ice was less abundant than formerly: that people
come for ice with carts and mules, but that the ice does not become
exhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than could be
carried away in eight days in carts and wagons: and that when a fog
forms in the cave, there is assuredly rain the following day, and that
the peasants in the neighborhood consult this curious "almanac" to know
the weather which is coming.
Freiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the glacières of the
Krain.[72]
[72] See Part III.: pages 238, 239.
Behrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer than in winter in the
caves near Questenberg in the Harz.
M. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passavant it is
really colder in summer than in winter; and that the ice is harder than
river ice, and this he thinks is due to the presence of a nitrous or
ammoniacal salt, which he says he found in the rocks.
M. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on the 15th of May
and 8th of November, 1725; and the 8th of March and 20th of August,
1726. His memoir says that his observations tend to disprove those
of M. de Billerez, and that "the cause for the great cold, which is
less great in summer, although always remaining, is quite natural."
He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to the north-north-east;
the rock portal sheltering the entrance, and all the forest covering
the surrounding lands; and adds that some veracious persons told him
that since some of the big trees above the grotto had been cut down
there was less ice than before. He found no traces of salt, nor any
springs, and that the water supply came from the rains and melted snows
filtering through the ground.
In 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account of Szilize.[73]
[73] See Part III.: page 254.
J. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the Ötscher in 1747. He
concluded that the ice was made in winter and preserved in summer as in
an ice house.
M. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passavant. He made
a plan of the cave and took many observations in April, August and
October, and concluded that the interior condition of the cave does not
change noticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the external
conditions of temperature may be; that what people say of greater cold
in summer, vanishes before actual experience and that, as a state
of freezing reigns more or less continuously in the cave, it is not
surprising if the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to
notice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave through
cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of observations disproving
those of M. de Billerez, as to the presence of any kinds of salts in
the rocks or ice.
Hacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at Lazhna-gora
formed in winter, but he also thought that there must undoubtedly be
some salt in the water. He says he found ice in the cave in the spring,
and that his companion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He
therefore concluded that by that time it had all melted.
Romain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-Passavant on the
19th of September (year not given). His account seems largely borrowed
from the one in the _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_, in
1686. He says: "This ice is formed by the drops of water which fall
from the roof, and which freeze because of the chill of the cave.
In the winter there is no ice, but running water." He says nothing,
however, about the ice forming in summer.
The _Citoyen_ Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Passavant in August,
1783, and reached the conclusion, from all he saw and heard, that the
cave did not freeze in summer nor thaw in winter, and that it was
really a natural ice house. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring
physician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the cave, and among
others, had placed stakes of wood, on the 8th of January, 1779, in
the heads of the columns he had found in the cave; and on the 22d of
February, 1780, had found these stakes completely covered with ice,
forming columns 30 centimeters in diameter.
Hablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near Karassoubazar
formed in the spring by the snows which melt, run into the cave, and
refreeze. He also thought that there was less ice there in the fall
than in the spring, that it diminishes in July and August, and that the
idea, current in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in summer,
is a mistake.
Professor Pierre Prévost, in 1789, gave an accurate explanation of
the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passavant. He says: "Weighing
carefully the local circumstances, one discovers in truth a few causes
of permanent cold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a
great freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to produce a
cold such as that which reigns in the cavern. First of all, big trees
throw shade over the entrance; it is, I was told, forbidden under
severe penalties to cut down any of them, for fear of depriving the
grotto of a necessary shelter. In the second place, this entrance is
situated almost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the
coolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited to help the
effect of the icy winds which blow from that quarter. Finally the slope
is steep and the grotto deep and covered with a thick vault. These
three conditions united constitute, as it seems to me, a very good _ice
house_; by which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the summer,
the ice which may bank up in winter.
"But how does this ice bank up? One knows that the outside waters
above form on the roof, during the winter, long drops and stalactites
of ice. These icicles, which hang down and increase constantly by the
drip from the same source which formed them, fall at last, carried away
by their own weight, and form so many centres, around which freeze
the waters with which the floor of the grotto is always inundated. At
the same time, the blowing of the north wind accumulates snow at the
base of the slope, which is uncovered in part and exposed above to all
the vicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is formed an
irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first heats of spring begin
to make run, but which the heats of summer cannot finish dissolving.
The winter following has therefore even more facility to augment the
mass of these ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And if
men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that it would fill
the entire cavern at last to a great height.
"I am therefore strongly inclined to think that the process of nature
is here precisely similar to that of art; that without any especial
cause of cold, the natural glacière of Besançon conserves in the
moderate temperature of deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which
the winds and the outside waters accumulate there during the winter;
and that the melting of these snows and of these accumulated ices
forms little by little the ice floor, scattered over with blocks and
pyramids, which one observes there during the summer."
Horace Bénédict de Saussure, the great Swiss scientist and mountaineer,
in 1796, published a number of observations about cold current caves
in various parts of the Alps. He found that in summer the air blows
outward at the lower end, and that in winter it draws inward. His
explanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is heavier
than the outside air and displaces it by gravity; while in winter the
rupture takes place in the other direction, since the column within the
tube is warmer than the outside air and therefore is pushed upwards by
the heavy air flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the air
passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain the phenomenon
of low temperatures and that such caves have a rather lower temperature
in the Alps than in Italy owing to the greater natural cold of the
Swiss lake region. An experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed
a current of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in diameter,
filled with moistened stones, and found that the air current which
entered with a temperature of 22.5° came out with a temperature of
18.75°, that is with a loss of 3.75° of heat.
Robert Townson, LL.D., in 1797, published an account, perhaps the first
in English, of a glacière cave. He says of Szilize: "Ice I truly found
here in abundance, and it was mid-summer, but in a state of thaw; the
bed of ice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly covered
with water and everything announced a thaw. I had no need to use my
thermometer: however I placed it in the ice and it fell to 0° of
Réaumur: I then wiped it and placed it in a niche in the rock, at the
furthest part of the cavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained
near an hour: when I returned I found it at 0°. * * * Everything
therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neighborhood had the same
temperature, and that was the temperature of melting ice: 0° Réaumur.
"When then is the ice which is found here, and in such quantities
that this cavern serves the few opulent nobility in the neighborhood
as an ice house, formed? Surely in winter, though not by the first
frost, not so soon as ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from
the little communication this cavern has with the atmosphere, it will
be but little and slowly affected by the change. Should therefore,
Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have come here to verify the common
report at the commencement of a severe frost, when the whole country
was covered with ice and snow, they might still have found nothing here
but water, or the ice of the preceding winter in a state of thaw, and
the cavern relatively warm; and likewise, should they have visited it
in a warm spring, which had succeeded to a severe winter, they might
have found nothing here but frost and ice; and even the fresh melted
snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern, might again have
been congealed to ice. I observed frequently in Germany in the severe
winter of 1794-5, on a sudden thaw, that the walls of churches and
other public buildings, on the outside were white and covered with a
hoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered with a rime."
Dr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the summer ice
theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats, the bats and the owls,
and the foxes and the hares coming to Szilize to winter.
Alexander von Humboldt, in 1814, says about the Cueva del Hielo on the
Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow and ice are stored up in winter
that the summer heat cannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent
snow in caves must depend more on the amount of winter snow, and the
freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute altitude of the cave.
Dewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen at Williamstown
was a winter formation.
Professor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon and Montarquis
and in 1822 endeavored to prove that they are cold current caves and
that the ice in them is due entirely to draughts causing evaporation.
He believed in the theory of the ice forming in summer more than in
winter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit. He
therefore argued that it must be due to descending currents of air
which he thought would be most energetic in summer; that they would
become at least as low as the mean annual temperature of the place
and be still further cooled by evaporation. The strange thing about
his theories is that he does not seem to have personally observed any
draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but the fact that the
ice was evidently not an accumulation of winter snow led him to try to
reconcile what he had himself seen with de Saussure's theories about
windholes.
Jean André Deluc in 1822 published a paper discussing the theories of
MM. de Cossigny, Prévost and Pictet. Deluc had never visited a glacière
himself, but he explains clearly the impossibility of Professor
Pictet's cold current theory, on the simple ground that Professor
Pictet himself did not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor
Prévost's theories warmly; using also the manuscript notes of Mons.
Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave de Montarquis. Deluc says:
"that the winter's cold penetrates into these caves, freezes the water
which collects there and that the ice thus formed has not the time to
melt during the following summer." He says further: "It seems that in
the three glacières with which we have been occupied there is a flat
or rather hollow bottom, where the waters can form a more or less deep
pond, and whence they therefore cannot flow away; it is there they
flow in winter; and as these are shut in places where the air cannot
circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate very feebly. The ice
once formed in such cavities, only melts slowly; for one knows that ice
in melting, absorbs 60° of heat; and where find this heat in an air
always very cold and nearly still? During a great cold, the ice forms
with great promptness, while it melts with much slowness, even when
the temperature of the air is several degrees above zero; what must
then not be this slowness when the temperature of the interior air only
rises in summer one degree above freezing point. It would need several
summers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter."
C. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfshollow near
Salisbury was a winter formation.
G. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the statement that
the cave of Roth was filled with ice in summer, but that it was
warm during the winter. In 1827, he explained the presence of ice at
Pontgibaud as follows: "The water is apparently frozen by means of the
powerful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air issuing from
some long fissures or arched galleries which communicate with the cave,
and owing its dryness to the absorbent qualities of the lava through
which it passes."
F. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible causes which
might produce subterranean ice: 1, the difference in specific gravity
between warm and cold air; 2, evaporation. He thought the cold air a
sufficient cause in most caves, but he considered that evaporation also
played a part not infrequently.
Professor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the negative,
about compressed air as a cause for subterranean ice. He said about
Owego that if one could suppose that compressed gases or a compressed
atmosphere were escaping from the water or near it, this would indicate
a source of cold, but that as there is no indication of this in the
water, the explanation is unavailable.
Professor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told that ice formed on
the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge in summer. Continuing, he says:
"The author is therefore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion,
that the ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer formation, and
one formed by the cold of evaporation. * * * The basalt is, as a thick
stone, a good conductor for the heat, and takes up therefore easily
the sun's warmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring bodies.
In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is found, as I already
mentioned, rotting moss, which forms a spongy mass, which is wet
through with water. The basalt heated by the sun's rays now causes a
part of the water in the spongy mass to vaporize; for this evaporation
the water needs heat, which it withdraws from the neighboring bodies
and in part from water, and makes the water so cold, that it freezes
into ice, as, under the bell of an air pump--Nature therefore makes
here a physical experiment on the largest scale."
Much stress appears to have been laid on the paper of Professor
Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two others. The weak point in
it is that Pleischl did not see the ice form in summer, but was only,
as usual, told that it did so. There is nothing in the facts given to
show that the places mentioned are different from any other taluses,
where ice does not form as the result of heat.
Mr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Mountain in Virginia,
and held that the porous nature of the rocks makes them poor conductors
of heat, and that the mountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator.
Dr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed at Wallingford,
Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator.
Sir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about the salt mine and
freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. He visited them during a hot
August, and was assured that the cold within is greatest when the
external air is hottest and driest; that the fall of rain and a moist
atmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the cave and that on
the setting in of winter the ice disappears entirely. He accepted these
statements evidently only in a half hearted way, submitting them to
Sir John Herschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were true,
of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchison at first thought
that the ice was due to the underlying bed of salt, but soon recognized
that this explanation could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel's
"heat and cold wave" theory. Shortly after this he came across
Pictet's memoir, and on the strength of it concluded that the ice in
Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue of a winter deposit, but
must be due to descending currents of air; to the previously wet and
damp roof affording a passage to water; and to the excessive dryness of
the external air of these southern steppes contributing powerfully to
the refrigerating effects of evaporation.
Professor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at Owego admitted
large quantities of snow which melts, but not readily, because it
is not accessible to the sun. It therefore goes through the same
process as glaciers, of partly melting and refreezing; and we have the
formation of a glacier without movement.
Professor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at Owego became the
recipient of the coldest air of the neighborhood, and the temperature
remained abnormal because the bad conducting power of the materials of
the well retained the cold.
Professor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego that cold air exists
in the interior of the earth which may have found a ventilating shaft
in the well.
Professor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following requirements
necessary for a glacière: A high altitude above the sea; a decided drop
into the interior of the mountain; absence of all draught; protection
against all warm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north and
east. He also says about the glacière on the Pograca: that it is in
shadow; that the thick forest round the mouth keeps the temperature
down; that it begins to freeze below when it does above; that the cold
remains there into the spring; and that the water from rain or other
sources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and the ice form
in greater quantities than the heat of summer can melt away.
Mr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: "The question now arises, why it
was that such a congealed mass of earth was found in Brandon at the
time the frozen well was dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting
property of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending
currents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of water in this
particular locality favored such a result; and that the bad conducting
property of clay, as well as that of the porous gravel associated
with it, taken in connection with the highly inclined porous strata,
and the disposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain
below, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a _mammoth
refrigerator_, embracing essentially the same principle as that
involved in the justly celebrated refrigerator known as 'Winship's
Patent.'
"Clay is not only nearly impervious to air and water, but it is one of
the worst conductors of heat in nature. (Note.--To test the question
whether clay was a poor conductor of heat or not, I took two basins
of equal size, and in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick,
into which I put water of a temperature of 52° Fahrenheit. Into the
other dish, which was clean, I put water of the same temperature, and
subjected the two basins to equal amounts of heat; and in five minutes
the water in the clean dish indicated a temperature of 70° while that
of the one coated with clay was raised only to 56°.) If we can rely
upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen earth, it rested
upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the bed of pebbles in which the
water was found, for it was described as being a very sticky kind of
hard pan.
"This being the case, if the water contained in the pebbly mass had a
temperature above the freezing point, the heat would be but imperfectly
transmitted to the frost, through the clay, provided there was no other
way for its escape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that
overlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit was not
horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an angle of 25°. Now if
this drip was continued to the well, and existed there (which is highly
probable), it will be seen that the ascending current of heated air, in
the pebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the overlying barrier of
clay and be deflected out of its upward course. The tendency of heated
air is to rise, hence it would continue its course along the under
side of the clay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till
it found a place of escape at the surface, which in this case may have
been at the gravel pit before named."
Professor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861: "The presence of a mass of
frozen gravel deep beneath the surface in Brandon, was first made known
by digging a well in it in the autumn of 1858. * * * The gravel, also,
rises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just such
a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many places along the
western side of the Green Mountains; and indeed, all over New England.
It is what we call modified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having
been the result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift period. * *
* The well was stoned up late in the autumn of 1858, and during the
winter, ice formed upon the water in one night, two inches thick. It
continued to freeze till April; after which no ice was formed on the
surface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the stones of
the well for four or five feet above the surface of the water were
mostly coated with ice; nay, it had not wholly disappeared July 14th.
The temperature of the water was only one degree of Fahrenheit above
freezing point. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but was
formed again (how early we did not learn) in the winter, and so thick
too that it was necessary to send some one into the well to break it.
We visited the well August 18th, 1860, and found the temperature 42°.
Yet only the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and we were
even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice had been drawn up
the day before in the bucket. * * * These frozen deposits may have been
produced during the glacial period that accompanied the formation of
drift, and continued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified
drift. * * * But in all the excavations both gravel and clay occur:
and how almost impervious to heat must such a coating 20 feet thick,
be! It would not, however, completely protect the subjacent mass from
solar heat. But there is another agency still more powerful for this
end, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated here, as we shall
more fully describe further on; and we think that these two agencies,
namely, non-conduction and evaporation, may have preserved this frozen
deposit for a very long period, from exterior influences."
Professor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges: "Such is the
_résumé_, concise but exact, of the results of our winter excursion.
They furnish proof to the fact generally borne witness to by the
mountaineers, that ice does not form in winter in the interior of
caverns. But if this is so, it is for a very simple reason: two things
are necessary for the formation of ice: cold and water. In winter, the
cold is not wanting: but if there is no spring opening in the cave, the
water is absent, and then no ice forms.
"It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of the snows,
that the ice must form. Then water at 0° pours over the surface, and
penetrates by the fissures of the rock and by the large openings into
the chilled cavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the
nights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of ice, which after
this could only diminish little by little during the whole duration of
the warm season."
Professor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Montarquis: "Here it
must be when water and cold meet, that is autumn and especially spring,
the time of the first melting of the snows."
"During the winter * * * the colder, heavier air comes to freeze the
water of the grotto, and chill the ice and the wall of rock."
"During the summer, the radiation of the vaults and the proper heat of
the ground only melt a small quantity of ice because this absorbs much
heat to pass into a liquid state."
"The heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice; it does not
therefore manifest itself as sensible heat."
"The contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain way, towards
the air a little warmer than itself, the rôle of an extremely absorbing
body, or one which has an excessive caloric conductibility."
"Here the formation of the ice could not possibly be attributed to the
cold caused by evaporation. The psychrometer indicated ninety-two per
cent, of relative humidity: the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore
almost saturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of cold
caused by evaporation was not over half a degree centigrade."
About prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says: "The prismatic
(_aréolaire_) structure is produced later on in the ice, by a new and
particular arrangement of the molecules of the already solidified
water. Therefore the recent stalactites are never crystallized."
"In the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric temperature of
the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero by some tenths of a degree,
it produces first on the surface, in the stalactites, the prismatic
structure. The temperature continues to rise, the central portions
of the stalactites, still composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if
the melting water finds some issue, either by accidental openings
left between some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite or by
some point of its surface which had escaped the action of the regular
crystallization; by this opening the water escapes, and the tubular
stalactite has been formed."
"The column was composed of a very special ice, perfectly dry,
perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose appearance could only
be compared to that of the most beautiful porcelain. I am inclined
to believe that we had under our eyes a special molecular state of
congealed water. This state would be produced under the influence of
a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note--perhaps not far from
4°--the actual temperature of the grotto) long prolonged. These causes
can be realized more completely in glacières than anywheres else."
The Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in 1865, _Ice Caves in
France and Switzerland_, one of the most delightful books of travel
ever written, on account of the scientific accuracy and the humor of
the author. He visited La Genollière, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres,
Chaux-les-Passavant, Monthézy, Arc-sous-Çicon, the Schafloch,
Haut-d'Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-d'Urle.
He says: "The view which Deluc adopted was one which I have myself
independently formed. * * * The heavy cold air of winter sinks down
into the glacières, and the lighter warm air of summer cannot on
ordinary principles of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very
slowly spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does
reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for ice absorbs 60° C.
of heat in melting; and thus, when ice is once formed, it becomes a
material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this
explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the
ice is formed should be below the level of the entrance to the cave;
otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its
prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived. In every single case that
has come under my observation, this condition has been emphatically
fulfilled. It is necessary, also, that the cave should be protected
from direct radiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to
do with resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat. This
condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the glacières I have
visited, excepting that of S. Georges; and there art has replaced the
protection formerly afforded by the thick trees which grew over the
hole of entrance. The effect of the second hole in the roof of this
glacière is to destroy all the ice which is within range of the sun.
A third and very necessary condition is, that the wind should not be
allowed access to the cave; for if it were, it would infallibly bring
in heated air, in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored
within. It will be understood from my description of such glacières as
that of the Grand Anu, of Monthézy, and the lower glacière of the Pré
de S. Livres, how completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to
those caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the large surfaces
which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a
somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where
the cave occurs."
Browne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says of it: "M. Thury
suggests also, as a possibility, what I have found to be the case by
frequent observations, that the prismatic ice has greater power of
resisting heat than ordinary ice. * * * A Frenchman who was present
in the room in which the Chemical Section of the British Association
met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read there on this prismatic
structure, suggested that it was probably something akin to the
rhomboidal form assumed by dried mud; and I have since been struck by
the great resemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits
of mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer, of course
on a very large scale. This led me to suppose that the intense dryness
which would naturally be the result of the action of some weeks or
months of great cold upon subterranean ice might be one of the causes
of its assuming this form, and the observations at Jena would rather
confirm than contradict this view: competent authorities, however, seem
inclined to believe that warmth, and not cold, is the producing cause."
Mr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genollière, for which he accounted
as follows: "In the loftier part of the cave * * * ninety six drops
of water in a minute splashed on to a small stone immediately under
the main fissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable area
of the floor which was clear of ice. * * * I found that the edge
of the ice round this clear area was much thicker than the rest of
the ice on the floor, and was evidently the remains of the swelling
pedestal of the column. * * * When the melted snows of spring send
down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock, an abundance of
water at a very low temperature and the cave itself is stored with the
winter's cold, these thicker rings of ice catch first the descending
water, and so a circular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the
area of stones; the remaining water either running off through the
interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness, which yields
to the next summer's drops. In the course of time, this conical wall
rises, narrowing always, till a dome-like roof is at length formed and
thenceforth the column is solid." From what I have observed myself,
this explanation seems to fairly meet the facts.
Professor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe that there was
some connection between glacières and a glacial period.
Mr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own observations about
the lava cave in Washington: that the cold air of winter freezes up the
percolating waters from the surface, layer upon layer, solid from the
bottom, and the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being retarded
by the covering which keeps out the direct rays of the sun, and by the
fact that the melting ice at one end of the cave, through which the
summer draught enters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a
freezing temperature at the other end.
Dr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Decorah: "The formation
of the ice is probably due to the rapid evaporation of the moisture
of the earth and rocks, caused by the heat of the summer sun upon the
outer wall of the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten
to twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be most abundant.
The water for its production seems to be supplied by slow exudation
from the inner wall of the cave."
Dr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dóbsina as "a natural ice cellar of
giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in winter, the summer does
not succeed in melting."
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: "The apparent anomaly that one
only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperature should
be a glacière, may be explained by the fact that these conditions
[those formulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in combination
but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of
perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in
these caves, as in an ice house, has been ultimately derived from the
great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period."
Mr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the State of
Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered that the ice in the
smaller ones were simply remains of the winter's cold. He thought
that the ice in the large cave where there is a draught could not be
accounted for in the same way, so he concluded that the ice must be due
to the draught.
Mr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed Air or Capillary
theory[74] about the Cave at Decorah.
[74] See Part II., page 142.
Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear exposition of
the theory in the same journal.
Mr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observations about
Decorah. He found that there was no water falling in the cave to
compress the air, that there was no water falling near enough to be
heard, nor any aperture giving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought
that the cold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees
below freezing point and that these rocks are so far underground that
it would take a long season of hot weather to raise this temperature to
the melting point of ice. In the spring the water percolates through
the soil and drips on to the yet freezing rocks; on which it freezes
and remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a sufficient depth
to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0° remain so until the
following winter and consequently if there are heavy autumn rains there
is water on the rocks but no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was
nothing more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if you drop
water on a cold stone it will freeze.
Professor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about glacières "that as
moreover they were generally protected against warm winds and strong
draughts and as their entrances look towards the north or east, there
is consequently more ice formed under these conditions in winter than
can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes however show the remarkable
characteristic, that it is warm in them in winter, in the summer on the
contrary it becomes so cold that all the dripping water freezes. They
are found near snow clefts and gorges; when in the hot summer months
the snow melts, then the cold which has become free presses down the
temperature in the cave so much that the water freezes into ice. Such
grottoes are in Austria at * * * Frauenmauer, * * * Brandstein, * * *
Teplitz, * * * Scilize, * * * Dobschauer."
Herr Körber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the stored-up
winter's cold stands out as permanent adversary of the higher
temperature of the earth. The thermometer proved this by its action at
the end of the cave in a rock cleft, which is warmer than the rest of
the cave. In September Herr Körber found the masses of ice less and
the stalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column which in
January had become a stately mountain of transparent ice.
Professor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied the caves of the
Untersberg carefully, having paid over eighty visits to them. He
classifies freezing caverns into the following types, according to
their position and their shape:
According to position: 1, open caves, that is those whose entrance is
free on a rock wall; 2, pit caves, where the entrance is at the bottom
of a pit; 3, pit caves, where the pit is covered and the opening is in
the roof.
According to shape: 1, _sackhöhlen_ or chamber caverns, into which one
enters immediately at the entrance; 2, _ganghöhlen_, or passage caves
terminating in a chamber; 3, _röhrenhöhlen_, or passage caves where
the passages continue further than the chamber.
He is a strong advocate of the winter's cold theory. He says: "The ice
of caves is formed by the cold of winter, and remains despite the heat
of summer, as through local circumstances the quantity of heat brought
to the ice is not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and snow
in the open at the same altitude have already disappeared."
"In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two factors are
necessary. There must be water present in some form or other, and in
some way the outside cold air must be able to sink into the cave."
"When the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the outside cold
winter air sinks into the cave from its weight, when the temperature of
the cave air is higher than that of the outside air; and it will remain
there during the warmer weather, as the warm outside air on account of
its lighter weight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air."
"The most important factor for the formation of ice is the drip water.
The more drip flows into a cave during the cold season, the more ice is
formed; the more drip, on the contrary, flows into the cave during the
warm season, the more ice is destroyed."
"The warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is also a cause
which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in fact which works the
harder, the higher the temperature of the roof and the dirtier the ice
floor."
"If direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely warm up the
air which they traverse, but they raise the temperature of the floor
or of the walls, which they touch. They are therefore a very important
factor, which may bring about the melting of the ice."
"The snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some protection against
the rays of the sun, especially if it is no longer white, but covered
with all sorts of dirt."
"The larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration." "A certain
thickness to the roof is of importance in preserving the ice. If it
is less than 8 meters, then it is well if it is covered with outside
vegetation."
I entirely agree with these _dicta_ of Professor Fugger.
In 1893, Fugger writes: "The peculiar readings of temperature, which
I made in August 1877, in the Kolowratshöhle, namely on the 13th at
12 M., 0.5°, on the 15th at 4 P. M., 0.35°, on the 23d at 10 A. M.,
0.12°, on the 26th at 10 A. M., 0.17°, and on the 30th at 2.15 P.
M., -0.10°, I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds. In
the observations themselves there could scarce be an error. All five
observations were made at the same place, with the same thermometer,
after at least half an hour's exposure. In the time from the 13th to
the 30th of August, the temperature minimum in the town of Salzburg,
was 12°; before the 30th were several cloudless nights. During the
whole of August scarcely any but southeast and northwest winds were
blowing. The Kolowratshöhle opens in a rock wall to the east; the above
named winds therefore affected during the entire month the entrance
to the cave and may have produced a lively evaporation in the cave,
through a sort of sucking up of the cave air, and thus have created the
rather decided cooling off of 0.6° within seventeen days."
This statement, coming from Professor Fugger, deserves particular
attention, because it would go to show: first, that the air in
the Kolowratshöhle, a _sackhöhle_ with only one entrance, is only
apparently stagnant in summer and not really so; and second, that
evaporation may act to a limited extent in a cavern where there is
almost no running water.
Captain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about
Chaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder inside than
outside, the internal air was nearly cut off from the outside; when it
was coldest outside there was a lively disturbance. He called these
two classes _périodes fermées_ and _périodes ouvertes_. He says:
"The duration of a _closed period_ is measured then on the curves
[of a maximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior temperatures,
between a minimum and the following maximum; that of an _open period_
is between a minimum and the preceding maximum. One can thus count
from the 25th November to the 31st December 25 _open periods_ of a
total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours: which gives for each
a duration of 7½ hours. The shortest lasted 2 hours and the longest
16 hours. During the same interval, the _closed periods_ numbered 26,
making a total duration of about 28 days; the longest, which lasted
from the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long."
Trouillet also says: "From the 23d to the 30th December, the grotto
was completely isolated from the external air, and yet during three
consecutive nights, the interior had three marked chills. Such is
the phenomenon whose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the
introduction of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between
north and east. This air on entering comes in contact with the ice
and the humid roof of the cave; it saturates itself in producing a
formation of vapors, and therefrom a consumption of heat which may be
considerable."
There are some discrepancies in this last paragraph which must be
noted, for the reason that Trouillet's observations are so valuable. He
does not mention having seen the vapors himself, in fact the production
of these vapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to understand
how the grotto could be "completely isolated from the external air" if
the phenomenon lay "in the introduction of the dry air driven to the
cave by the winds north and east."
Dr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that "all my observations point to
the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in summer, and that the
cold goes out from it." He says also that "when I saw for the first
time the little cave of Roth, which was filled with fairly numerous
ice formations, it was precisely the smallness of the volume of air
and the strange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold air
theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening the theory and
observing the localities from the basis of DeLuc's theory, accept it.
It always seemed by all my observations that in the rock there must be
a lasting source of cold. There must be a cause present, which prevents
the rapid warming of the cave wall through the temperature of the
ground, which also keeps the stone cool in summer and induces the main
ice formation in the spring." He also hints that Mr. Lowe's compressed
air theory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe's work, _Über Eishöhlen
und Eislöcher_, is one of the four or five most important contributions
to glacière literature, and his opinion is entitled to great respect on
account of his many observations.
Professor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice beds on the
Yukon: "It is thought by some observers, to be an inheritance from a
former period of extreme cold; but under existing climatic conditions,
when ice forms beneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the
short summer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to an
astonishing thickness."
In 1897, Professor Russell says: "It is not probable that all the
subsoil ice of northern regions has been formed in one way. Along the
flood plains and on the deltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are
interbedded with sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is
frequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of the deposit is
due, in some instances, to the flooding of previously frozen layers,
and the freezing and subsequent burial of the sediment thus added to
their surfaces. When spring freshets spread out sheets of débris over
the flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when streams in high
latitudes flow northward, the previously frozen soil and the ice of
ponds and swamps may be buried and indefinitely preserved." "There is
still another process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in high
latitudes: this is, the effects of the cold during the long winters
are not counteracted by the heat during the short summers. Under the
conditions now prevailing in northern Alaska, where the mean annual
temperature is below 32° Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase
the thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen soil in
more temperate latitudes may increase from month to month during the
winter season. During the short northern summers, especially where the
ground is moss covered, melting only extends a few inches below the
surface."
Mons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-Percé: "I incline
only, as in all the pits which narrow at the bottom (_avens à
rétrécissement_) to attribute the chilling to the fall of the cold
air of winter and to its non-renewal in summer." And at page 564 of
_Les Abimes_ he says: "One knows that _evaporation_ is an active cause
of cooling; therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips of
water. * * * I have positively noted this influence of evaporation
near the drips of Tabourel (8° instead of 9.5°), of Dargilan, of the
Cerna Jama, and in abysses with double mouths where there were strong
draughts (Rabanel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.)." In December, 1897,
Mons. Martel writes: "In short, the action of the winter's cold is
the real cause accepted by * * * and recently confirmed by Fugger,
Trouillet and Martel." And also: "It is probable that this influence
[evaporation] is only real at rather high altitudes; this is at least
what seems the result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to 1900
meters) begun by Professor Dutoit."
In 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glacière de Naye. In this
paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice, salts and the capillary
theory as possible causes of underground ice. He considers that there
are four causes: 1, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in
winter; 3, high altitude; 4, evaporation due to wind currents. The last
two causes he thinks are not necessarily always present. For instance
he considers that, at the Creux-Percé, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the
ice is due especially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows
where the summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness. At the
Glacière de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated at an altitude of
1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks that the ice is formed by the
snow and cold of winter, but that its preservation is assured by the
evaporation caused by the action of the windhole.
Dr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form in Szilize in
winter, and that the ice first forms in the winter in the upper part
of rock fissures and that in the spring, at the time of an increase of
temperature, this fissure ice is brought to the melting point by the
successive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives at
the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This theory about
fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that the ice in the upper
parts of fissures, near the surface of the ground, melts before the ice
in the lower parts of fissures. The drip would then naturally run into
the cave and, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help to
form cave ice.
Dr. Hans Lohmann, in 1895, published some valuable notes about several
glacières. While considering the cold of winter as the main cause of
the ice, he thought evaporation a secondary cause of cold. He says:
"That the cold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave,
will not be denied. * * * The air saturated with aqueous vapor makes
one think of constant evaporation. The aqueous vapor spreads itself
by diffusion throughout the entire cave, and if the outside air is
driest, goes to that. Through this, more ice and water can always be
vaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished a cooling
one. If dry winds get into the cave, then must evaporation be very
lively and the chilling especially strong. Through this cause alone
can be explained the remarkably low temperature of +6.3° in the new
part of the Garischen Stollen, in contrast to the temperature of +7.9°
in the old part. The strong draught in the last drew out through its
suction the damp air of the new adit, so that there had to be a strong
evaporation."
Dr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about prismatic ice. He found
it a product of the fall months. He thinks all the observations show
that "the beginning of all prismatic formation in the ice may be looked
for in the changes of temperature in the cave at the time of the
formation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recognized splitting,
vertically to the outer surface. The further development hangs, as
shown by Hagenbach and Emden, on the attempt of the neighboring cells,
to join into larger unities. The increase of the larger crystals is
finally prevented by the melting out of the openings between the
separate crystals. Through this may be explained the difference in the
prismatic ice in different parts of the same cave."
Regierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short essay on glacières
in _Höhlenkunde_. He seems to have seen but few glacières himself, and
considers the scientific side of the question by no means solved as
yet. He says: "The last word will not be spoken by the geographers and
the Alpine climbers * * * but by the physicists, in whose field both
questions really belong. Only then, when the physical circumstances
of the formation of the ice in glacières have been so thoroughly
understood, that under the same circumstances it may be possible to
build artificial glacières, only then could one say: the glacière
question is definitely settled. The best proof is always experiment."
He lays down several dicta which he says are universally recognized,
among which is this: "2. The ice formations in the débris heaps of
basaltic mountains are summer ice formations. The evaporation of the
infiltration water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this
ice." I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this matter, and think
that, on the contrary, every proof shows that the ice of basaltic
taluses is not a summer formation and is not due to evaporation.
Herr Kraus also says: "The _Eishöhlen_ resemble so little the
_Windröhren_, that for these a proper name is quite correct. Just
as one cannot draw a sharp line between _Einstürzschlünden_ and
_Einstürzdolinen_, so one cannot draw a sharp line between _eishöhlen_
and _windröhren_. A stagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave
student would pretend to say it existed. The circulation of air may in
certain caves take place almost entirely through the mouth and it then
depends largely on the shape of the latter; in other caves are crevices
and erosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in other
caves air may come through the floor into the cave, as is proved by
certain places always remaining free from ice."
He also says: "The formation of dripstone is also diminished about
thick roofs, when the cracks are too broad to permit a slow dripping
process. In caves with sufficient air movements, that is ventilation,
the dripstone formation takes place faster than in those in which
the air is only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the air
is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone formation process
is materially hindered. Therefore in water caves and in _eishöhlen_
one finds only rarely dripstone formations, and these mainly of poor
appearance. But in all cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration
water plays an important part."
In 1896, a Western newspaper published the following explanation about
the presence of ice in the cave at Elkinsville, Indiana; and it shows
how the idea--long since exploded--of the ice being due to chemical
causes, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave: "Some have
advanced the theory that the air is forced through under passages
of the earth with such pressure as to make the strange formation;
some have attributed the cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose
chemical change to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon. Others
have thought that the interior heat of the earth, acting upon the
iron pyrites, or fool's gold, which largely abounds in this country,
is the true source of this unparalleled discovery. Still others think
that the sudden expansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the
heated limestone, which is also common in this country, could have
easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories are nothing more
than speculation, and further than the fact that the ice cave exists,
and is, indeed, a remarkable phenomenon, none has been able to further
determine."
In 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter is the source
of cold in the glacières of Servia. The mountains have so little water
that the shepherds constantly take the ice out in summer for their own
use.
In 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the _Philadelphia Press_
of August 1st, romanced as follows about the cave at Decorah: "In the
summer its temperature is far below freezing. * * * From some unknown
source in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a blast of cold air
as chill as from the Arctic region. In the winter the temperature of
the cave is like summer. * * * We followed the winding passage in and
out for more than 1000 feet. * * * I took out the thermometer and laid
it upon the floor of the cavern for three minutes. When I took it up
again I found that the mercury had fallen to 5 degrees below zero."
"What is it that causes this phenomenon? Scientific men are said to
have visited the cave within the last day or two who have declared that
it had in some manner a subterranean connection with the polar regions,
and that the cold air from the North coming in contact with the warm
moist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into water on the
walls of the cavern where it straightway congealed. * * * It seems to
me possible after thinking the matter over carefully, that in some
mysterious manner the same influences that work the changes in climate
in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this cave. It is
a well-known fact that in the regions referred to the seasons are the
reverse of what they are here."
Mr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: "We also notice the working of
the same principle during summer days. The hottest part does not occur
at the noon hour--when the sun is on the meridian--but several hours
later in the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat arrive more
rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radiation, however, keeps
on apace, and, at last attaining the mastery, temperature falls. Ice
caves furnish another example of the gradual procession in the seasons."
Mr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898 that "the length of
duration of the ice in the cave during the spring and summer depends
upon the quantity of cold stored up in the walls and this again upon
the coldness and the length of coldness of the previous winter. If
the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a great supply
of cold for the gradual dissipation in the spring and summer and
consequently the phenomenon of the ice in the ice chambers will last
longer. Last winter, with an exception of the fore part of December,
was quite mild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the latter
part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of July. * * * The
time of the lowest temperature in the cave depends upon how soon the
cold spells of the winter begin; for the sooner the walls begin to
freeze to a greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the greatest
amount of cold. * * * February 28th, 1898, when the walls contained
the greatest amount of cold, there was no ice in the cave, for the
reason that no water made appearance. Could water have appeared, no
doubt a great amount of ice would have formed; but as the conditions
are, the water has to come from the ground outside, and this being
frozen at the time, water could not in any natural way appear. If in
early spring, sufficiently warm days should come to melt the snow and
open the ground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow and
seep through crevices into the cave and ice consequently would appear
early. Somewhat such conditions prevailed this year, for warm days
appeared quite early in the spring. If _per contra_ the ground does not
open until in April, as was the case in 1895 and 1896, the appearance
of the ice is consequently delayed. * * * Naturally this opening [the
entrance] was small, but to give easier entrance, it was enlarged to
its present size. * * * If the entrance had been left a small opening,
as it naturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the
interior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is, and the ice
would not disappear as soon as it does."
Mr. Robert Butler, of San José, Cal., investigated the question of cold
air draughts coming from the glacière cave and from the freezing shaft
he examined in Montana. He wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one
notices or imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot days.
Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air without to the rapidly
cooling air within produces the same nervous sensations as though one
were to remain stationary and the air were to pass by from the warm to
the colder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a difference
in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade. Twelve meters can be
walked quickly, so quickly that the nerves cannot become accustomed
gradually to the change of temperature. The rapidly cooling air does
actually produce the sensation of cool air passing by one's face. It
produces somewhat the same sensation as the evaporation of ether on
the surface of the body. Mr. Butler satisfied himself that as far as
he had observed all the seemingly peculiar conditions and places where
the ice has been found do not indicate any other causes when carefully
investigated than those of the seasons of the year, and that the ice
was formed by no other cause than the natural cold of winter.
Professor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important contributions to our
knowledge of freezing caverns. All his work goes to prove the winter's
cold theory, but he has brought out some new details. He found warm and
cold periods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The coldest
air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave stratified itself
according to its specific gravity and its temperature. During a cold
period, the outside air sank into the cave only to the air stratum,
whose temperature, from the preceding warm period, was as much higher
as that of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sinking to that
stratum. The air which enters falls down the slope and displaces an
equal volume of air which streams out under the roof.
Water will sometimes drip through a crack in winter until that crack
freezes up, when the water may then find some other crack to drip
through; at this second place a stalagmite may then grow, while at the
first place the stalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish
from evaporation.
Ice begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave, if the cave
temperature is below 0°; ice begins to melt as soon as the temperature
is over 0°.
Professor Cranmer found that occasionally small quantities of ice form
in caves in the summer months: this was in mountain caves, where there
was snow on the mountains and the temperature of the nights at least,
had sunk below freezing point: in fact when the conditions were those
of the winter months.
PART V.
LIST OF AUTHORS.
LIST OF AUTHORS.[75]
[75] This list of authors includes all the authorities which I
have personally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe's
"_Uebersichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber
Eishöhlen_" and the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in
any library.
Allen, Levi. _Scientific American, New Series_, October 27th, 1883,
page 259.
_American Journal of Science and Arts_, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184.
Auchincloss, W. S., C. E. _Waters within the Earth and the Laws of
Rainflow_, Philadelphia, 1897.
Badin, Adolphe. _Grottes et Cavernes_, Paris, Hachette, 1867.
Baedeker, Karl. _Handbook of Austria._ _Handbook of the Eastern
Alps._ _Handbook of South Eastern France._ _Handbook of
Switzerland._ _Handbook of the United States._
Baker, M. S. _The Lava Region of Northern California: Sierra Club
Bulletin_, San Francisco, Cal., 1899, vol. II., page 318.
Balch, Edwin Swift. _Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean
Ice_: Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia, November, 1896, and
_The Journal of the Franklin Institute_, Philadelphia, March,
1897, vol. CXLIII., pages 161-178. _Ice Cave Hunting in Central
Europe: Appalachia_, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209.
_Subterranean Ice Deposits in America: Journal of the Franklin
Institute_, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol. CXLVII., pages
286-297.
Baltzer, Dr. A. _Eine Neue Eishöhle im Berner Oberland: Jahrbuch des
Schweizer Alpen Club_, Bern, 1892-1893, pages 358-362.
Behrens, Dr. Georg Henning. _Hercynia Curiosa_, Nordhausen, 1703.
Bel, Matthias. _Philosophical Transactions_, London, 1739, vol. XLI.,
page 41 _et seq._
Benedict, Aiden S. _Decorah Republican_, June 19th, 1881.
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Billerez, Mons. de. _Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences_,
1712, page 22 _et seq._
Bonney, T. G. _The Alpine Regions, 1868._ _Nature_, vol. XI., pages
310, 327, 328.
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_Sitzungsbericht der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien_,
1864, I. Theil, page 321 _et seq._
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Sciences_, 1726, pages 16, 17.
Browne, The Reverend G. F. _Ice Caves in France and Switzerland_,
London, Longmans, 1865. _Ice Caves of Annecy: Good Words_,
Edinburgh, November, 1866.
_Bulletin, The Evening_, Philadelphia, March 1st, 1899.
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C. B. A. _Scientific American_, May 3d, 1879.
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XXXIV., page 196.
_Christian Herald_, March 24th, 1897.
Colladon. His manuscript notes were used by J. A. Deluc in _Annales
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_Dispatch_: Frankford, Pennsylvania, 22d January, 1897.
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INDEX.
INDEX.
PAGE
Adirondack guides, Opinions of, 81
Alaska, Subsoil ice in, 166, 167
Allmen, Emil von, guide, 21
Altitude of glacières, 150
Amarnath, Cave of, 262
Apparently static caves, 122
Arizona, Glacières in, 175, 176
Auchincloss, Mr. W. S., 307
Auersperg, Prince, 52
Ausable Pond, Freezing talus at, 79
Balch, Mrs. Geo. B., 189
Balch Pass, The, 263
Bargy, Mont, 71
Basins, Ice, 20, 130
Behrens, 270
Beilstein, Caves on the, 234
Bel, Matthias, 254, 271
Benedict, Mr. A. S., 293
Benner, Mr., 90
Berthoule, Mons., 206
Besançon, 8
Billerez, Mons. de, 270
Bonney, Professor T. G., 216, 222, 291
Boston Natural History Society, 138, 182
Boué, Dr. A., 242
Boulder heaps, 116
Boz, Mons. de, 270
Brandon, Freezing well of, 77, 182, 283, 284
Brinckerhoff, Mr. F. H., 177
Briot, Mons., 204
Brisons, Glacière de, 2
Browne, The Rev. G. F., 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288
_Bulletin, The Evening_, 253
Buried glaciers, 165
Burslem, Captain, 261
Butler, Mr. R., 171, 172, 308
California, Glacières in, 170, 171
Canfield, Mr. N. M., 76
Capillary or Compressed Air Theory, 142
Carbonic acid gas, 133
Carrel, Chanoine, 212
Caucasus, Glacières in the, 257
Cesi, Don Giuseppe, 209
Chapuis, Glacière de, 5, 216
Chatham, Mr. I. C., 94
Chaux-les-Passavant, Glacière de, 8, 193
Chemical causes theory, 140
Cliff caves, 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120
Clothes for glacière exploration, 53
Cold caves, 117
Colladon, Mons, 278
Color effects, 131
Colorado, Glacières in, 174, 175
Cossigny, Mons. de, 202, 271
Cotterlaz, S. J., guide, 71
Coxe, Miss Mary, 262
Cranmer, Professor H., 232, 234, 235, 309
Creux-de-Souci, Le, 206
Crevasses, 4
Crimea, Glacières in the, 256
Cushing, Mr. F. H., 176
Cvijic, Dr. A., 243, 305
Dante, 135
Daubuisson, 248
Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, 292
Decorah, Freezing cave of, 88, 177
Decorah, Freezing well of, 89
Deluc, Mons. J. A., 277
Démenyfálva Jegbarlang, 24
Dewey, Mr., 183, 277
Dimensions of glacières, 120
Dittmar, Mons. de, 260
Dóbsina Jegbarlang, 13, 252
Dóbsina, Village of, 13
Dornburg, Freezing talus at the, 59, 247
Dornburg, Freezing cellar at the, 60
Draughts, 8, 45, 47, 58, 80
Dripstone formations in glacières, 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304
Duc de Lévy, 202
Dunant, Mons. C., 215, 216
Dutoit, Professor, 221
Eastern Alps, Glacières in the, 224-236
Eastern United States, Glacières in the, 180-189
Eger, Dr. W., 262
Ehrlicher, Mr., 86
Eisenerz, 37
Elkinsville, Glacière at, 180, 305
Ellenville, Freezing gorge at, 91, 185
Émery, Aymon, guide, 62, 65
Enfer, Glacière de l', 215
England, Glacières in, 192, 193
Entrances of glacières, 121
Eschholz, Dr., 167
Evaporation, 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304
Farrandsville, Cave at, 93
Farnum, Mr. G. L., 266
Farnum, Mr. J. E., 266
Fauna of glacières, 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246
Fee Glacier, Ice Cave in, 68
Flora of glacières, 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240
Fondurle, Glacière de, 213
Forms of Ice, 126
Frainer Eisleithen, The, 33, 251
France, Glacières in, 193-208, 213-218
Frauenmauerhöhle, The, 37
Freezing mines and tunnels, 117
Freezing wells, 74, 77, 89, 117, 206
Friedrichsteinerhöhle, 51
Fugger, Professor E., 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294
Genollière, Glacière de la, 48, 219
Geographical distribution of glacières, 149
Germany, Glacières in, 246-250
Giant of the Valley, Talus of the, 81
Girardot, Mons. A., 204
Girod-Chantrans, Le citoyen, 272
Glacial period theory, The, 136
Glacière, Advantage of term, 110
Glacière caves, 118
Glaciers, 145
Gollut, Lois, 202, 269
Gorges and troughs, 146, 260
Great Barrington, Icy gulf near, 99
Gruber, J., guide, 18
Gsoll-Alp, 38
Guyot, Professor A., 281
Hablizl, 272
Hacquet, 271
Hager, Mr. A. D., 182, 282
Hall, Mr. W. Coleman, 187
Hart, Mr. B., 76
Hartenstein, Professor, 249
Haut-d'Aviernoz, Glacière de l', 2, 215
Hayden, Professor C. B., 280
Heilprin, Professor A., 93, 185
Herschel, Sir John, 141
Hitchcock, Professor E., 284
Hoar frost, 16, 30, 129
Holes in ice, 4, 42, 64, 130
Hollow ice stalagmites, 23, 127, 287, 290
Holschuh, Mr. F., 188
Hovey, The Rev. H. C., 186
Howell, Mr. E. I. H., 80, 83
Humboldt, Alexander von, 276
Ice floors, 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72
Ice formed by radiation, 263-266
Iceland, Glacières in, 190, 191
Ice near entrance of caves, 152
Ice sheets, Subterranean, 115
Ice slabs on floor, 20
Ice slopes, 4, 17, 19, 23, 52, 67
Ice Spring, Oregon, The, 169
Ice stalactites and stalagmites, 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127
Italy, Glacières in, 208-213
Japan, Glacière in, 266
Jayne, Mrs. Horace, 189
Joly, Capucin Romain, 272
Karst, Glacières in the, 236-242
King's Ravine, Subterranean ice in, 1
Kirchhoff, Mr. T., 292
Klenka, S., guide, 51
Kolowratshöhle, The, 18, 226
Körber, Herr B., 222, 294
Korea, Glacière in, 266
Kovarik, Mr. A. F., 89, 178, 180, 307
Krain, Glacières in the, 236-242
Krauss, Regierungsrath F., 303
Krenner, Dr., 292
Lakes, Subterranean, 7, 43
Lamb, Mr. C., guide, 81
Lathrop, Mr. S. P., 280
Lava caves, Washington, 168
Learned, Mr., 86
Lee, Mr. C. A., 278
Legends about glacières, 135, 216
Lepechin, 258
Lerchenfeld, Freiherr von, 227
Lewis, Miss J. F., 93
Lewis, Mr. J. F., 129
Liptós Szt Miklós, 24
Lohmann, Dr. H., 302
Lowe, Mr. C. E., Jr., 83
Lowe, Mr. C. E., Sr., 1, 85
Lowe, Mr. N. M., 142, 292
Luce, Mr. C. O., 78
Lyell, Sir Charles, 116, 210
Manchester, Marble freezing cave at, 76
Marinitsch, Herr J., 236
Martel, Mons. E. A., 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300
McCabe, Mr. E., 94
Meehan, Mr. W. E., 165
Mercer, Mr. H. C., 143, 187
Metric system, 3
Mist in caves, 18, 55
Misura, F., forester, 27
Montana, Glacières in, 171-173
Montarquis, Grand Cave de, 70, 217, 286
Montarquis, Petite Cave de, 71
Moonlight effects, 24, 33, 132
Morin, Mons., 218
Motion in subterranean ice, 131
Movements of air, 122, 156
Murchison, Sir R. I., 141
Nagel, J. N., 271
Naye, Glacière de, 221
Nicholson, Mr. C. J., 95
Niles, Mr., 81
Nixloch, The, 57, 226
Oetscher, The Seelücken on the, 231
Olmstaed, Professor D., 282
Otis, Mr., 81
Oudot, Dr., 272
Owego, Freezing well of, 74, 186
Paleontological remains, 134
Parmelan, Mont, 3, 5
Parrot, G. F., 125
Peasants, Opinions of, 33, 70, 139
Pelech, Dr. J. E., 252
Periods in glacières, Open and closed, 297
Peters, K. F., 246
Petruzzi, Professor, 241, 282
Phillips, Mr. G. B., 185
Pictet, Professor M. A., 277
Pit caves, 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119
Pleischl, Professor A., 250, 279
Poissenot, Benigne, 193, 269
Poprád, 13
Pralong du Reposoir, 70
_Press, The Philadelphia_, 306
Preston, Mr., 74
Prestwich, Mr., 248
Prévost, Professor P., 273
Prismatic ice, 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303
_Public Ledger, The_, 169
Randolph, The Ice Gulch,, 83
Raymond, Mr. W. R., 291
Reich, F., 279
Religious feeling about ice, 135, 176, 262
Ritchie, Mr. John, Jr., 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292
Rogers, Professor W. B., 281
Roth, Eishöhle bei, 35
Rudolf II., Kaiser, 232
Ruffiny, Herr E., 252
Rumney, Freezing talus at, 85
Russell, Professor I. C., 166, 299
Saint-Georges, Glacière de, 62, 219, 285
Saint-Georges, Village of, 62
Saint-Livres, Glacière de, 65
Saint-Livres, Pré de, 66
Sakharov, Dr. A., 257
Samuel, Mr. B., 192, 209, 264
Sartori, Dr. F., 276
Satter, Professor H., 241
Saussure, H. B. de, 209, 274
Scandinavia, Glacières in, 191
Schafloch, The, 21, 222
Schallenberger, C., 232, 269
Schellenberger Eisgrotte, The, 227
Schwalbe, Dr. B., 241, 253, 298
Scott, Professor W. B., 176
Scrope, Mr. G. P., 278
Seelisberg, The Milchhaüser of, 45
Selby-Hill, Mr. W. D., 88
Servia, Glacières in, 242-245
Skerizora, Cave of, 245
Skinner's Cave, 76
Siberia, Glacières in, 259-261
Sieger, Professor, 232
Silliman, Professor, 279
Sirar, J., guide, 56
Snow, Subterranean, 16, 129, 206, 247
South America, Subsoil ice in, 189, 190
Spruce Creek, Freezing talus at, 90, 188
Stockbridge, Icy glen near, 75
Strachey, Gen. Sir R., 263
Strein, R., 232, 269
Suchenreuther Eisloch, The, 55
Summer's heat theory, The, 138
Summit, Glacières near, 95
Switzerland, Glacières in, 219-223
Szilize, Cave of, 253
Tablerloch, The, 233
Taluses, 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116
Temperatures, Subterranean, 112
Teneriffe, Glacière on the Peak of, 190
Terlanday, Dr., 301
Terminology, 109
Thermometric observations, 151, 178, 219, 227, 228,
233, 237, 252, 253
Thury, Professor, 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285
Time of formation of ice, 159
Townson, R., 275
Trouillet, Captain, 202, 297
Turrian, A. A., gendarme, 48
Umlauft, Professor F., 293
Ural, Glacières in the, 257-259
Valvasor, Freiherr, 238, 240, 270
Villard, Mons. L., 133, 214
Viré, Mons. A., 134
Wachtl, Forester, 252
Wagner, Mr. W. W., 173
Wallingford, The ice beds of, 99
Watertown, Cave at, 87
Watertown, Windholes at, 86
Waves of heat and cold, Theory of, 141
White, Dr. C. A., 291
Williams, Mr. W. F., 101
Williamstown, Caves near, 101
Williamstown, The snow hole near, 98, 183
Winter's cold theory, The, 147
Windholes, 61, 111, 117
Windholes, The theory of, 124
Wordsworth, Verses by, 192
Yeermallik, Cave of, 261
Ziegler, Herr J. M., 45
* * * * *
Transcriber Note
Images were moved so as to not split paragraphs. Accents were
standardized. Obvious punctuation errors and typos repaired.