AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF DENTISTRY.
_Rude Dentistry of Prehistoric Times. Early Instruments for Extraction
Made of Lead. Dentistry on the Same Low Plane as Medicine during the
First Half of the Christian Era. Dentistry Taught at the School
of Salernum. Progress of the Art on the Continent. Prosthesis and
Substitutes for Human Teeth. Introduction of Porcelain for Artificial
Teeth; of Metal and of Vulcanized Rubber for Plates; of Plaster for
Impressions. From being a Trade, Dentistry is now a Profession, in which
Americans lead the World. Statistics._
The{330} following is a _synopsis of an address_ delivered at the
opening of the session of the Dental Department of the University of
Buffalo, in October, 1895. It is appended here because it is certainly
apropos of the topics herein considered, the colloquial form being
retained.
Called upon at short notice to welcome you here, and to offer remarks of
general professional interest, it occurs to me to be retrospective
for awhile and to consider the steps by which that which was once
an exceedingly crude art has been developed until now it is an exact
science. In other words, I would invite your attention, for a time, to
the history of dentistry. At a time even before our combined art and
science had a definite history we find that gold was used among the
Egyptians for the purpose both of filling teeth and of supporting and
directing them. In the bodies of many Egyptian mummies, especially of
the higher class, there have been found teeth filled with gold or with
wood which was covered with gold. It is known, also, that the Hindoos
and Egyptians inserted artificial teeth and that some of these were made
of wood, often covered with gold, and held in place by gold or silver
bands and wires. Herodotus, who traveled so extensively in Egypt and
wrote most entertainingly of his travels, has noted the division of
medicine among the Egyptians into special branches and the existence of
physicians, each of whom{331} applied himself to one disease and not to
more. "Some," said he, "are for the eyes, others for the head, _others
for the teeth_, and others for internal disorders."
It is known, also, that about 300 B.C. Erasistratus deposited in the
temple of the Delphian Apollo an _odontogogue_, or tooth-forceps, made
of _lead_, intimating thereby that only those teeth should be drawn
which were loose enough to be extracted with such an instrument.
Celsus, who was a contemporary of Christ and of Cæsar, was the first to
recommend the use of a file within the mouth for the purpose of removing
irritating edges and points of teeth. He also recommended bursting
hollow teeth by putting into them pepper-corns, which should absorb
moisture, swell, and thus break the teeth in pieces. He also recommended
to take particular pains to try to shake or manipulate teeth loose
before extracting them.
Galen, about 150 A.D., taught that teeth were true bones and that the
canine teeth should be called "eye" teeth, because they were supplied by
a branch of the optic nerve. Aëtius, 300 A.D., apparently discovered the
foramina at the roots of the teeth through which the nerves enter.
In Rome false teeth and sets of teeth constructed of ivory and fastened
with gold wire existed as early as the Laws of the XII Tables, and
before the days of Roman civilization it is known that the Etruscans
were skilled in manipulation of gold within the mouth, while your dean
has described and has, I believe, in his possession beautiful examples
of Etruscan work of this kind.
Among the Arabs, after the Arabian domination of the then civilized
world, attention was paid to the teeth, although this was considered a
very inferior part of the physician's work. Among these Arabians
much later, and in spite of their study of Greek writers and their
translations from the Greek, there may still be met such passages
as{332} this from Garriopontus, 1045 A.D.: "On the island of Delphi a
painful molar tooth, which was extracted by an inexperienced physician,
occasioned the death of a philosopher, for the marrow of the tooth,
which originates from the brain, ran down into the lungs and killed that
philosopher." For all that I know, this is the first record of a death
after extraction of a tooth. Albucassis, 1100 A.D., gave directions
for replacing lost teeth by natural or ivory substitutes. For centuries
extraction of teeth had been and was considered a critical and dangerous
operation, although itinerant quacks drew them without hesitation.
The Roman poets and satirists made many allusions, in their day, to the
teeth and to operations performed upon them.
During the Middle Ages the most celebrated medical school that the world
ever saw was founded at Saleraum, and was for several centuries the
headquarters to which resorted men who desired to study medicine and
patients from all parts of the world who desired to be cured of various
diseases. It was a favorite stopping-place for crusaders on their way
to and from the Orient, and history relates many interesting episodes
pertaining to such visits. Under the influence of this school dentistry
was more or less cultivated by those who practiced surgery. Bruno, of
Langoburo (about 1250), mentions various operations upon the teeth and
the antrum, although that was nearly four hundred years before Highmore
carefully described this cavity. Johannes Arculanus (Giovanni d'Arcoli),
in the fifteenth century, filled teeth with gold. I must digress for
a moment to speak of another suggestion of Arculanus's. You know that
quite recently the use of the magnet has once more come into vogue among
oculists for the removal of foreign particles of iron or steel from the
anterior chamber or the globe of the eye. It was Arculanus who, some
five hundred years ago, suggested extraction of iron splinters from the
eye by means of the _attraction of amber electrified by friction_. (For
School of Salernum{333} see page 72.)
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the French surgeons,
especially Dionis and Verduc, made many practical contributions to
dentistry. In 1728 Fauchard wrote in Paris the first complete work on
dentistry,--_Le Chirurgien Dentiste, ou Traité des Dents_. Auzebi, of
Lyons, wrote another. Le Cluse first mentioned the English turnkey
for extraction. Jourdain introduced a number of new and appropriate
instruments and new forms of artificial teeth. Bourdet, dentist to the
king, made artificial palates. Porcelain teeth were first introduced in
France in 1774.
Among the Germans cosmetic dentistry, though still the favorite field of
charlatans, was greatly cultivated. Serré wrote a treatise on _Toothache
in the Fair Sex During Pregnancy_, but the first public dental clinic
in Germany was not established until 1855, by Professor Albrecht, and
in Vienna. It has been in Vienna, among the Germans, that dentistry
has been in time past most honored, and was taught when it was scarcely
recognized in the other German universities. Private dental institutions
were also first established in Vienna.
Of all the tooth-extracting instruments, the dental forceps in crude
form is the earliest, the first on record, perhaps, being that deposited
by Erasistratus in the Delphian temple, as already mentioned. For
hundreds of years these instruments scarcely changed in shape. It was
Garengeot who invented the _key_, early during the last century. Before
that, and for awhile, dentists who had abandoned the forceps used an
instrument known as _the pelican_,--said to much resemble the skid used
by lumbermen.
Before artificial (porcelain) teeth came into use the following
substitutes were employed, their estimated value being in accordance
with the order in which I name them:
Human{334} teeth, animal teeth, hippopotamus tusk and teeth,
elephant-ivory, and bone.
_Human Teeth_.--Transplantation of teeth was at one time very common.
After being inserted, they were held in place by pivots and ligatures,
springs, and upon bases. The pivot method also included the use
of screws. Ligatures for fastening teeth were made of silk-worm
gut,--which, now so common in surgery, was used for this purpose,
perhaps, two hundred years ago,--of gold wire, etc. The method by
ligatures is the earliest of all. Human teeth have always been more or
less expensive if fresh, few people being willing to part with sound
teeth except for a money consideration. In 1784 a Philadelphia dentist
offered, in an advertisement, two guineas each for sound front teeth.
_Animal Teeth_.--These were largely used, being held in place the same
way as above, the principal objection being that it was difficult, often
impossible, to match human with animal teeth. It was found, also, that
the latter decayed very much more easily.
_Hippopotamus-ivory_.--This was at one time very extensively used. It
was carved into the shape of the missing teeth, and was held upon a
base; or it was carved into shape as a base upon which to rest human
teeth. Most often it was used as a base for pivoting. Not infrequently a
block was carved out which represented gum, teeth, and all, and partial
dentures of this complex type were often so deftly fashioned as to
be very realistic, the part representing the gum being colored.
Unfortunately no dye nor color in the mouth could be made permanent.
_Elephant-ivory_.--This was used for the cheaper grades of work, being
less durable.
_Bone_.--Bone was still more objectionable, and was used for only the
cheapest work.
Artificial porcelain teeth were first introduced in France in 1774 and
in America in 1817. Those which were first made{335} were so large,
awkward, rough, and ill-fashioned, without attempt to represent the gum,
as to bear no comparison to the artistic products of to-day. They were
intended for the most part for attachment to ivory bases. The artificial
dentures made for George Washington were of this general character,
and, although they called forth his encomiums in a letter to his dentist
expressing his gratitude, they would pass for very shabby productions
today. One of the greatest advances in dentistry was the introduction of
gold bases as a substitute for the baseplates previously made of ivory
or bone. This is distinctly an American invention, and is to be credited
to Gardette, of Philadelphia, who produced the first bases of this kind
in 1787. Since then other metals have been used only because cheaper,
none having the valuable properties of gold.
Gutta-percha was introduced for this and various dental purposes in
England, in 1851, by Trueman. In 1851, too, came Goodyear's process of
vulcanizing, which the dental profession were at first slow to avail
themselves of, but which led, as its value was recognized later, to
expensive and almost endless litigation.
Another most valuable American invention was that of taking impressions
by the use of plaster. This was introduced about 1844-'45. This method
permitted the making of socket-plates, which, of itself, was a long step
in advance.
So much for a very brief epitome of some of the most interesting facts
in the history of dentistry. Did time permit, the matter would warrant
treatment at much greater length. But what now is to be said of the
condition of dentistry to-day? First of all, that it is no longer
relegated to charlatans and itinerants, but is studied, practiced, and
honored by men of the ablest minds and of the highest type. There is
to-day scarcely any branch of applied science which calls for greater
qualifications or for greater combination{336} of mental endowment and
manual dexterity than does dentistry. We, in New York, find ourselves
now in position where the State has assumed not only to regulate the
practice of dentistry, but even to pass upon the qualifications of those
who propose to study it. In the assumption of this task by the State
there is paid, perhaps, the greatest possible compliment to its dignity
and to its importance.
The great field of medicine is now altogether too vast, and the various
branches which pertain to it are too complex, to permit a mastery of
all its details by any one mind. The man does not live who to-day can be
considered _facile princeps_ in more than a few departments of medicine.
Life is too short to permit of it, and the study is altogether too
extensive. There is also a growing public demand for specialization
of work, and there is probably more excuse for the perpetuation of
dentistry as a specialty than for almost any other branch. Nevertheless,
it is necessary constantly to repress a tendency toward a failure to
comprehend the general principles underlying all medical specialties,
and it has been hard, at least until recently, to impress upon the men
of the dental profession that they were really only practicing a branch
of medicine, and that, in disregarding a general and comprehensive
knowledge of the fundamental branches, they were but poorly preparing
themselves for the practice of a dignified specialty. Certainly
dentistry makes as many demands for mechanical training, digital
dexterity, familiarity with the properties of materials, etc., as does.
surgery, and in some respects even more. Of course, to a certain extent
in these respects it is like a mechanical trade. The great trouble
with the dental profession, until very recent times, is that they have
regarded their work too much as a trade and not enough as a profession.
By taking the latter view of it the work is ennobled and their interest
for it cultivated. By taking the trade view of it they have lost those
finer features which{337} lift mechanical work out of the mere level of
a trade. Moreover, men in time past have been guilty of altogether too
much trades-union tactics, which are vehemently opposed to professional
ethics, and this has been another feature to degrade rather than elevate
dentistry.
This has been indeed a great misfortune, for men have been misled by the
need for cultivation of their hands, or their manual powers, and have
been persuaded away from a finer study of fundamental principles upon
which the whole practice of dentistry should be based. And so it has
happened that men have been so ambitious to become perfect operators
that they have neglected anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and pathology,
have even neglected odontology, sacrificing everything else to their
work as mere artificers.
If one scrutinizes the subject properly, there is no reason why there
should not grow up a class of men fitted to attend to any lesion of the
mouth or of the parts adjoining. In other words, there is no reason why
there is not more excuse for true oral surgeons than there is for any
other class of specialists, save possibly those who treat the eye. Aural
surgery, nasal surgery, pelvic surgery, rectal surgery, etc., are simply
voluntary limitations and applications of general surgery to special
parts; but he who attends to the teeth has to do so much work of a
character which the surgeon is not called upon to perform in any other
area, that I have always claimed the oral surgeon deserved a place, as
he had a field, by himself. Nevertheless, the knowledge which shall fit
a man for such work is not to be obtained in the ordinary dental course,
nor in three years of study, even under the best of auspices. The man
who would be an ideal oral surgeon must be not only generally familiar
with anatomy and physiology, but must thoroughly know the embryology of
the face and teeth, the physiology not alone of the organs of the
mouth, but of all the secreting glands and the chemistry of all their
secretions;{338} not only the anatomy of the cranium, but general
anatomy as well, and even comparative anatomy. He must be well informed
in the explanations of all the congenital defects met about the face
and mouth; he must be familiar not only with the ordinary principles
of pathology and bacteriology, but he will find in the fluids about the
mouth such a fertile opportunity for bacteriological study that, be he
ever so expert or erudite, he has still much left to investigate in
this direction. There is no disease-germ with which he can afford to
be unfamiliar, and, as any form of tumor may be found in or about the
mouth, he should be familiar with the entire subject of tumors and their
surgical treatment.
Then, again, he must be familiar not only with the physical properties
of metals and the various materials used in plastic dentistry, nor
expert alone in the operations about the teeth, but, inasmuch as he has
to cope with various wounds, injuries, and operations about the
soft parts, he must be thoroughly familiar with the principles of
wound-healing; with the causes of sepsis and the agents which produce
it, and the means of avoiding it; in other words, he must have a general
training in operative surgery, and, according to my ideal, which may
be high, he should be a man able to do almost any operation in surgery
before he limits himself to surgery of the mouth. Unless he have this
ability, he will not do such operation as well as a general surgeon can,
because the underlying principles are the same, and the latter will have
the greater command over them.
When, then, this perhaps ideal man has become thoroughly familiar
with the principles of surgical anatomy, operative surgery, surgical
pathology, and bacteriology, in addition to the things already
mentioned, then, and not until then, may he and should he assume to
operate for harelip, cleft palate, cancer of the tongue, and various
other lesions in the parts about the mouth.
I{339} wish I could say and demonstrate more to impress upon you the
important bearing of modern surgical pathology to dentistry. Perhaps I
can give you no better illustrations than you can see in the studies
and writings of Prof. W. D. Miller, of Berlin, of whom I am proud to
say that he is an American, and that he is the only American occupying
a professorship in a German university. In his studies on the causes of
dental caries and upon the bacteria of the mouth he has identified and
named nearly a hundred species of the bacteria, many of which he has
shown to be the active causes of dental decay. He has done, then, for
dental pathology in this direction what other eminent observers have
done for the processes of suppuration and ulceration in other textures
and tissues, and has helped to show that they are all evidences of
pernicious germ activity. By his researches, also, upon inflammation in
elephant-tusks, and the results of injury, mainly by bullet wounds,
he has shown us that the phenomena attending these changes in dental
tissues are practically identical with those in bone. His researches
have done very much to explain the pathology of that common disease,
pyorrhoea alveolaris, which is known to be but one expression of local
infection, while the possibility of migration of infectious organisms
and of metastatic lesions in other parts of the body, having their
origin in infectious disease in or near the teeth, has been brilliantly
demonstrated by his interpretation of well-known clinical facts.
That American dentists are most highly regarded abroad is more than a
matter of every-day knowledge. It has got to be so now that a foreigner
will purchase instruments of American make, and then advertise himself
as an American dentist for the purpose of getting business,--a purpose
in which, as a rule, he is quite successful. But let me stop here to do
honor to another American dentist who is more highly honored abroad
than one ever can be at home, and of whom it might be said, perhaps,
that{340} he has had more friends among the royalty and nobility of
Europe than any other man of his time. This is Dr. Evans, who has lived
for years in Paris, who was the personal friend of Napoleon III and the
trusted guide and companion of the Empress Eugenie when she fled from
Paris. While it may be said of him that the qualities that made him so
universally popular were personal qualities, rather than professional
knowledge, it must be said in reply that it was his eminent professional
attainment which first brought him such influential friends.
But time presses, and I want, before closing, to say a little about
dentistry in America. It was about 1835 that Dr. Harris, then residing
in Baltimore, though born near Syracuse, conceived the modern idea
of the scope and practice of dentistry. He was ambitious to put the
dentists of his time upon a higher professional level, and to make of
dentistry a specialty in medicine. He applied to various medical schools
to found dental chairs, and to teach oral pathology along with dental
mechanics, as one of the branches of medicine, the graduating degree to
be M.D., as with other medical specialties. But the men of his time
were so short-sighted and of such constricted mental calibre, and the
dentists were so uneducated, that the Baltimore schools declined. He
therefore established a separate school, being forced to take this step.
This school was the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, established in
1839,--the first in any country. The dentistry of that day was crude,
and its teaching was comparatively inefficient. It was not until six
years later that the next, the Cincinnati College of Dental Surgery was
organized,--in 1845. Then, in time, followed Philadelphia. But all these
colleges were separate institutions, teaching only those branches which
it was held necessary that a _dentist_ should know and having very
little of medicine in their curriculum. They conferred the degree of
D.D.S.
In 1868 Harvard University did what she ought to have{341} done at
the outset. She opened a dental department and began the teaching of
dentistry as a branch of medicine, establishing therefor a separate
degree,--D.M.D.,--_Den-tarioe Meclicince_ Doctor. In 1874 the University
of Michigan established a dental department, and a little later the
University of Pennsylvania did the same. These university schools gave
an immensely widened scope to the study, which was made broader with
each succeeding year.
There are now forty-five dental colleges in the United States. Forty
of these are members of the National Association of Dental Faculties,
organized for the purpose of securing uniformity in teaching and in
graduating men. Membership in this association is a certificate of high
standing and of comprehensive advantages.
Last year (1894) the number of students in dental colleges was 4979,
while the number of graduates was 1208. At present nearly all the States
have legislation governing the practice of dentistry, and often more
strict than that regulating the practice of medicine. In New York
the law places dentistry on precisely the same plane as
medicine,--prescribes the same qualifications for matriculation, the
same length of study, exactions for graduation, examination, etc. In
other words, the law is quite as strict regarding admission to dental
colleges as to medical. After 1897 at least a full high-school course
will be demanded for matriculation, and from now on we may look forward
to having a really educated dental profession.
INDEX.
Advances in other sciences, 153
Ægidius, 077
Æsclepiadæ, 011
Æsculapius, 007
Ætius, 049
Age of foundation, 012
Age of renovation, 012
Age of transition, 012
Agnew, D. Hayes, 295
Akenside, 213
Albiuus, 164
Albucassis, 063
Alchemists and charlatans, the, 187
Alchemy, 141
Alexander of Tralles, 050
Alexandria, library of, 031
school of, 032
Alkindus, 060
Ambulant physicians, 017
Amendment in medical affairs, 151
American teaching of to-dav, 298
Amphitheatres, dissecting, 111
Amussat, 269
Anæsthesia, history of, 300
Anatomic period, 012, 030
Anatomy and physiology of Galen, 039
Anatomy, chairs of, 111
Andral, 245
Andry, 177
Anel, 215
Animalculists, 183
Animism, 196
Animists, 183
Antiseptics, history of, 317
Antyllus, 051
Arabic period, 012, 057
review of the, 097
Archiaters, 053
Aretæus, 034
Argentier, John, 0146
Aristotle, 028
Arlt, 253
Arnold de Villeneuve, 088
Asclepiades of Bytlunia, 044
Aselli, 160
Astrology, 141
Astruc, 138, 214
Aubrey, 183
Auscultation, 262
Avenbrugger, Leopold, 210
Avenzoar, 064
Averroës, 064
Avicenna, 061
Bache, Franklin, 287
Baclitischua, 059
Bacon, Lord, 153
Bacon, Roger, 068
Baglivi, 162, 172
Baillie, 213, 224
Barba, 165
Barthez, 201
Bartholin, 161, 184
Barton, John Rhea, 293
Baseilliac, 214
Bayle, 245
Bell, Benjamin, 219
Bell, John, 219
Bell, Sir Charles, 219, 274
Bellini, 172
Benivieni, 114
Bernard, Claude. 247
Bernard the Provincial, 077
Bhang, 301
Bichat, 160, 162, 164, 208
Bienaise, 177
Bigelow, Henry J., 295
Bilguer, 215
Billroth, Theodor, 264
Blumenbach, 222
Boerhaave, 193
influence of, 168
Boerhaave's, clinics, 167
system of medicine, 194
theory of inflammation, 164
Bonnet, 270
Bordeu, 201
Borelli, 160, 172
Borri, 176
Botal, Leonard, 146
Boucliut, 259
Boyer, 267
Boylston, Dr., 279
Bouillaud, 244
Boulot, 177
Bourgeois, Louise, 166
Braid, Dr. James, 204
Braidism, 204
Brainard, Daniel, 295
Brasdor, 214
Brigham, 290
Brisseau, 178
Brissot, practice of bleeding by, 118
British surgeons, modern, 275
Brodie, Sir Benjamin, 273
Bronssais, 243
Brown, Dr. John, 200
Browne, Sir Thomas, 175
Brunner, 183
Brunonian doctrine, 205
Buck, Gurdon, 293
Bumstead, Freeman J., 289
Burking, 231
Cabalistic theory, 141
Cæsareau operation, 134
Camper, Peter, 219
Cardan, Jerome, 142
Cardinal powder, 165
Carion, Stellwag von, 253
Casserius, 162
Cataract, 178
Cathedral medical schools, 089
Cell, the term, 153
Cellular pathology, 256
Celsus, Cornelius, 036
Cesalpinus, 155
Chamberlain's obstetric forceps, 166
Chapman, Nathaniel, 286
Charitable institutions, ancient, 055
Chemical system of medicine, 169
Cheselden, 216
Cheyne, John, 248
Chinese, medicine of the, 005
Chiron, 007
Chloroform, discovery of, 303
Simpson's introduction, 313
Chopart, 314
Circulation, capillary, discovery of, 158
discovery of the, 155, 160
lesser, 112
failure to discover the, 113
Civiale, 269
Clark, Alonzo, 288
Classification of the history of medicine, 012
Clinical teaching, earliest systematic, 167
Cloquet, 269
Cnidus, Temple of Æsculapius at, 009
Cocaine, 314
Coction, doctrine of, 024
Colics, Abram, 248
Collot family of lithotomists, 177
Colonial physicians, 276
Columbus, 107, 155
Compass, invention of the, 099
Constantine the African, 074
Contrastimolo, 210
Cooper, Bransby, 273
Samuel, 273
Sir Astley, 271
Cornelius Agrippa, 139
Corpuscles of the blood, 158
Corvisart, 168
Cos, 019
Temple of Æsculapius at, 009
Cosmogony, Greek, 013
Countess's powder, 165
Cowper, 158, 182, 183
Cox, John R., 286
Crisis, doctrine of, 025
Cruveilhier, 245
Cullen, William, 198
Currie, 229
Czermak, 253
Dalton, John C., 288
Darwin, Charles, 237
Erasmus, 202
Daviel, 215
De Graaf, 183
De Haën, 200
De la Marche, Marguerite, 182
Delafield, Edward, 290
De Launay, 177
Delamotte, 166, 182
Delpech, 268
De Marque, 177
Denis, Jean Baptiste, 176
Denman, Thomas, 220
Dental surgery, the first college of, 341
Dentistry, ancient and mediaeval, 332
as a specialty of medicine, 337
in America, 341
of prehistoric times, 331
relation of, to modern surgical pathology, 340
Desault, P. J., 214, 267
Devanter, 166
Dewees, William P., 288
Diagnosis, exact methods in, 263
Dionis, Pierre, 177
Dissection, ceremonials previous to, 149
difficulties attending, 103
of human bodies, 32
Doctor's mob in New York, 284
Dodart, 172
Eberle, John, 286
Eclectics, 014, 046
Embalming, 003
Empedocles, 017
Empirics, 014
Engraving, 100
Engravings, first anatomical, 112
Epidanrus, Temple of Æsculapius at, 010
Erasistratus, 034
Erudite period, 013
Esquirol, 228
Ether, sulphuric, as an anæsthetic, 302
Eustachius, 107
Eve, Paul F., 291
Fabre, 164
Fabricius ab Aquapeiulente, 109
Fabricius Hildanus, 110, 178
Fallopius, 109
Faust, 100
Fermentation, the causes of, 319
Fernel, Jean, 115
Fidelis, on legal medicine, 167
Filkin, 217
First hospitals in United States, 283
First medical schools in the United States, 281
Flint, Austin, 288
Fothergill, John, 212
Francis, John W., 286
Frank, J. P., 212
Frère Come, 214
Frère Jacques, 177
Frick, 290
Fuchs, 253
Functions of the spinal nerves, discovery of the, 248
Gaddesden, John, 087
Galen, anatomy and physiology of, 039
Galen, Claudius, 036
Galen's, influence, 043
theories, 039
Gardiner, 199
Garengeot, 213
Gaub, 195
Gerard of Cremona, 090
Gerdy, 270
Germicides, internal use of, 329
Germ-theory of disease, 259
what it means, 323
Gibson, William, 263
Gilbert, of England, 087
Gimbernat, 215
Glisson, 163, 183
Goerter, 163
Goode, John Mason, 247
Goodwin, 160
Goursaud, 177
Graves, Robert, 248
Gray, John P., 290
Greece, medicine of, 016
Greek period, 012, 049
Gregory, 199
Griesinger, 254
Gross, Samuel P., 294
Guillemeau, Jacob, 131
Gunn, Moses, 295
Guthrie, 273
Guttenberg, 100
Guy de Chauliac, 093
Gymnasia, the, 018
Gymnasiarch, 018
Gymnast, 018
Hahn, 229
Hahnemann, 241
Haller, 160, 162, 163, 220
Ilaly-Abbas, 061
Hamilton, Frank H., 293
Harvey, Gideon, 175
J. William, 155
Hasheesh, 301
Hasner, 253
Havers, 183
Heberden, 212
Hebra, 253
Hebrews, medicine of the, 003
Heister, 215
Helvetius, 160
Henle, 254
Henri de Mondeville, 088
Herophilus, 033
Hessenfratz, 160
Heurne, Otto de, bedside instruction by, 167
Hewson, 161
Hiera sacra, 003
Highmore, 183
Hippocrates, 019
Hirudinomania, 244
Hoboken, 183
Hodgen, John T., 294
Hoffmann, Christopher Ludwig, 200
Hoffmann, Friedrich, 197
Hoffmann's dynamic system, 197
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 290
Home, Sir Everard, 224
Homoeopathy, 241
Horner, W. E., 287
Hospitals and clinics, 231
Howard, John, 212
Hufeland, 240
Humanization of vaccine-virus, 228
Hunter, John, 164, 218
William, 218
Hunters' study of the lymphatic system, the, 161
Huxham, John, 212
Hydrotlierapeutic system, 255
Hydrotherapy, 229
Iatrocliemical system, 169
Iatroliptes, 018
Iatromechanical school, 171
Infarctus, doctrine of, 201
Influence,
of botany on medicine, 237
of chemistry on medicine, 238
of Darwin and Spencer on medicine, 237
of Harvey's discovery, 159
of physics on medicine, 238
of the art of printing, 100
of the French Revolution, 191
of the Northern invaders, 071
of the occult sciences, 139
of the Salernian school, 081
of zoology on medicine, 238
Inoculation, against small-pox, in America, 279
Inoculation, preventive, against smallpox, 225
with cow-pox, the first, 226
Irritability of tissues, discovery of, 163
Isopathy, 241
Jackson, Charles T., 310
Jacobus Sylvius, 103
Jager, 253
Jaxtthal, 253
Jenner, Edward, 226
Jesuit powder, 165
Jews, prejudice against the, 233
John Actuarius, 066
John of Procida, 079
Joubert's Popular Errors, 147
Kampf, 201
Kepler, 162
Keyes, 289
Kirkbride, 290
Laennec, 262
Lamballe, Joubert de, 270
Lancisi's clinic, 168
Lanfranc, 091
Langenbeck, Bernhard von, 264
Larrey, 267
Lavoisier, 160, 191
Lawrence, Sir William, 274
Le Boe, 167, 169
Le Cat, 214
Le Dran, 213
Léonicenus, Nicholas, 101
Lettsom, 213
Leuwenhoek, 158
Levret's modification of obstetrical forceps, 166
Ligatures, first use of, in amputations, 127
Linacre, Thomas, 101
Linnæus, 191
Lisfrauc, 269
Lister, 261
Lister's, studies and methods, 325
work, benefits of, 327
Liston, Robert, 274
Lithotomy, lateral, inventor of, 177
Lizars, John, 271
Long, Crawford, 301
Lorry, 228
Louis, 216
Lymph, diseovery of the circulation of, 158
Machaon, 010
McClellan, George. 293
Me Dowell, Ephraim, 267, 292
Magati, 176
Magendie. 216
Magie, 111
Magnetism, animal, 203
Maimonides, 065
Maitre, Jean, 178
Malgaigne, 270
Malpighi, 158
Mandragora, 301
Marcellus Donatus, 115
March, Alden. 295
Marchetti, 158, 176
Mareschal, Georges, 178
Marinus, 042
Marjoliu, 269
Mascagni, 161
Mauriceau, 166, 182
Mauthner, 253
Mayow, 160
Mead, Richard, 213
Meclianico-dynamic system of medicine, 197
Meckel, 162
Medical, journals in the United States,
first, 285
jurisprudence, beginning of, 166
school of the natural sciences, 258
study under preceptors, 277
systems, promulgation of, 152
Medici puri, pretensions of, 189
Medicine, and surgery, approach of, 147
dogmatic school of, 013
Imperial school of, at Pekin, 006
physiological theory of, 243
of priesthood from, 147
Meiboni, 184
Meigs, John Forsyth, 289
Melainpus, 006
Mesmer, Frank, 203
Mesmerism, 203
Mesue, 060
Methodism, 013, 045
Microscope, 100
Midwifery during the seventeenth century, 182
Midwives, 165
Mondino, 092
Monro, Alexander, Sr., 216
Alexander, second and third, 216
Donald, 216
Monroes, the two, 164
Montpellier, the school of, 086
Morarnl, 213
Morel, 176
Morgagni, 224
Morton, Richard, 175
William T. G., 306
Mott, Valentine, 293
Muller, 222
Munich Clinical School, 258
Muralt, 180
Mutter, Thomas D., 293
Mystic period, 012
Natural history, the school of, 219
Natural philosophy, the school of, 249
Needham, 183
Nélaton, 270
Nepenthe, 301
New Vienna School, 250
Nitrous-oxide gas, 303
Nominalist, 069
Nuck, 183
Obstetrical forceps, invention of the, 166
Obstetricians and gynaecologists, American, 295
Obstetrics, development of, 166
Oken, 249
Ophthalmoscope, 263
Oppolzer, 253
Oribasins, 048
Orthopaedics, origin of name, 177
Ovariotomy, the first, 267
Pacchioni, 183
Palfyn's obstetrical forceps, 166
Paracelsus, 143
Paré, Ambroise, 123
Paré and the surgeons of St. Come, 131
Park, Henry, 217
Parker, Willard, 293
Paulas Ægineta, 051
Pecquet, 161
Percussion, invention of the art of, 210
Pergamos, library of, 030
Periodic physicians, 017
Peruvian bark, discovery of, 164
Petit, J. L., 213
Pen, 166
Peyer, 183
Peyronie, 213
Pfeufer, 254
Pharmacopolists, 054
Philosophic period, 012, 018
Phrenology, 163, 242
Physical examination, methods of, 263
Physick, Philip S., 291
Physiological medicine, 253
Pinel, 163, 196, 206, 228
Piorry, 262
Pitard, John, 092
Plater, Felix, 118
Plato, 027
Pleximeter, 263
Podalirius, 010
Porta, Giovanni Batista, 118
Portal, 223
Paul, 166, 182
Pott, Percival, 217
Pravaz, 269
Praxagoras, 027
Priessnitz, 255
Primitive period, 012
Pringle, Sir John, 212
Ptolemy Soter, 031
Purkinje, 222
Purmann, 180
Pythagoras, 015
Quesnay, 173, 214
Quintus, 042
Radcliffe, 213
Rademacher, 254
Rapid multiplication of scientific literature, 239
Rasori, 240
Rau, 180
Ray, Isaac, 290
Raymond Lulli, 087
Realism, 206
Realist, 069
Receptaculum chyli, discovery of, 161
Reflex action, discovery of, 248
Reform period, 013
Regulation of practice in colonial times, 285
Reil, 202
Religious orders and the sick, 095
Rembert Dodoens, 115
Reuss, 253
Rhazes, 060
Rhinoplasty, 176
Rhodes, Temple of Æsculapius at, 008
Richerand, 267
Richter, August Gottlieb, 216
Riolan, 128
Rivinius, 183
Rodger, J. K., 293
Roeschlaub, 240
Roger of Parma, 078
Roland of Parma, 078
Rolfink, 188
Rome during the Greek period, 053
Rokitansky, 250
Roser, 253
Rousset and the Cæsarean operation, 134
Roux, 269
Rufus of Ephesus, 042
Rush, Benjamin, 206, 283
Ruysch, 158
Sabatier, 214
Sacred period, 012
Salernum, school of, 072
Sandifort, 219
Sands, Henry B., 293
Sanson, 269
Santoro, 171
Santoro's thermometer, 171
Sauvage, 196
Saviard, 177
Scalpel, first use of, in dissecting, 112
Scarpa, 162, 215
Schaf hausen, 183
Schneider, 162, 184
School of rational medicine, 254
Scientific societies and journals, origin of, 151
Scultetus, 180
Seminalism, 259
Serapion, 060
Servetus, Michael, 112, 155
Severino, 119, 176
Shoeffer, 100
Shot wounds, the new teaching of Paré concerning, 132
Siegemundin, Justine, 182
Sigmund, 253
Simpson, Sir James Y., 274
Sims, J. Marion, 296
Skoda, 251
Smellie, William, 220
Smellie's modification of the obstetrical forceps, 166
Smith, Nathan R., 292
Societies and academies, foundation of, 235
Soemmering, 162, 222
Sol id ism, 198
Spontaneous generation of life disproven, 321
St. Come, College of, 92, 122
Stahl, 195
Stahl's pietistic system, 195
Steno, Nicholas, 159
Steno's duct, 159
Stethoscope, 262
Stimolo and contrastimolo, 240
Stoerck, 200
Stokes, William, 248
Stoll, 200
Student-life during the 15th and 16th centuries, 148
Surgery, achievements of, 263
reasons for neglect of, 120
Swammerdam, 153, 183
Sydenham, 152, 165, 173
Sylvius, 167
Syme, James, 274
Syphilis, wide-spread outbreak of, 136
Teeth, substitutes for human, 335
Telescope, invention of the, 099
Tenon, 215
Thaer, 199
Themison, 011
Theory of excitement, 210
Theosophy, 111
Thermometer, discovery of the, 171
Thoth, 002
Tourniquet, invention of, 176
Tourniquet, screw, invention of, 213
Transfusion of blood in man, the first, 176
Travers, Benjamin, 248, 273
Treatment of the insane, improvement in, 228
Troja, 228
Trotula, 079
Trousseau, 247
Türck, 253
Tyrrel, 273
Universities and royal scientific societies, 192
Vaccination,
compulsory, 228
in the United States, the first, 279
the first, 227
Vagadasastir, 004
Valsalva, 176
Van Buren, William H., 289
Van Helmont, 168
Van Helmont's svstem of medicine, 168
Van Siebold, 216
Van Swieten, 168
Van Swieten and the Old Vienna School, 199
Velpeau, 270
Venesection, first account of, 010
revival of, 118
Verulam, Lord, 153
Vesalius, Andreas, 104
Vicq d'Azvr, 162, 164, 223
Vidal, 269
Vieussens, 162, 186
Virchow, Rudolph, 255
Vitalism, 201
modern, 255
Wainman, 217
Warren, John Collins, 291
Waterhouse, Dr., 279
Wells, Horace, 305
Werlhof, 211
Wharton, 183
White, Anthony, 216
Charles, 216
Wiehman, 211
William of Salicet, 091
Willis, Thomas, 163, 170
Winslow, 164, 223
Winternitz, 255
Wirsnng, 183
Wiseman, Richard, 180
Wistar. Caspar, 286
Wolf, 222
Wood, George R, 287
Wren, Sir Christopher. 182
Wunderlich, 250, 254
Zeissel, 253