_Pompey, Cæsar, and Antony in Egypt--Cleopatras extravagance and
intrigues--Octavianus annexes Egypt--Retrospect._
Ptolemy Neus Dionysus had by his will left his kingdom to Cleopatra and
Ptolemy, his elder daughter and elder son, who, agreeably to the custom
of the country, were to marry one another and reign with equal power.
He had sent one copy of his will to Rome, to be lodged in the public
treasury, and in it he called upon the Roman people, by all the gods and
by the treaties by which they were bound, to see that it was obeyed.
He had also begged them to undertake the guardianship of his son. The
senate voted Pompey tutor to the young king, or governor of Egypt; and
the Alexandrians in the third year of his reign sent sixty ships of war
to help the great Pompey in his struggle against Julius Cæsar for the
chief power in Rome. But Pompeys power was by that time drawing to an
end, and the votes of the senate could give no strength to the weak:
hence the eunuch Pothinus, who had the care of the elder Ptolemy, was
governor of Egypt, and his first act was to declare his young pupil
king, and to set at nought the will of Auletes, by which Cleopatra was
joined with him on the throne.
Cleopatra fled into Syria, and, with a manly spirit which showed what
she was afterwards to be, raised an army and marched back to the borders
of Egypt, to claim her rights by force of arms. It was in the fourth
year of her reign, when the Egyptian troops were moved to Pelusium to
meet her, and the two armies were within a few leagues of one another,
that Pompey, who had been the friend of Auletes when the king wanted a
friend, landed on the shores of Egypt in distress, and almost alone. His
army had just been beaten at Pharsalia, and he was flying from Cæsar,
and he hoped to receive from the son the kindness which he had shown
to the father. But gratitude is a virtue little known in palaces, and
Ptolemy had been cradled in princely selfishness. In this civil war
between Pompey and Cæsar, the Alexandrians would have been glad to be
the friends of both, but that was now out of the question; Pompeys
coming made it necessary for them to choose which they should join, and
Ptolemys council, like cowards, only wished to side with the strong.
[Illustration: 317.jpg PILLAR OF POMPEY AT ALEXANDRIA]
Pothinus the eunuch, Achilles the general, who was a native Egyptian,
and Theodotus of Chios, who was the princes tutor in rhetoric, were the
men by whom the fate of this great Roman was decided. By putting him to
death, said Theodotus, you will oblige Cæsar, and have nothing to
fear from Pompey; and he added with a smile, Dead men do not bite.
So Achilles and Lucius Septimius, the head of the Roman troops in the
Egyptian army, were sent down to the seaside to welcome him, to receive
him as a friend, and to murder him. They handed him out of his galley
into their boat, and put him to death on his landing. They then cut off
from his lifeless trunk the head which had been three times crowned with
laurels in the capitol; and in that disfigured state the young Ptolemy
saw for the first time, and without regret, the face of his fathers
best friend.
When Cæsar, following the track of Pompey, arrived in the roadstead of
Alexandria, all was already over. With deep agitation he turned away
when the murderer brought to his ship the head of the man who had been
his son-in-law and for long years his colleague in rule, and to get
whom alive into his power he had come to Egypt. The dagger of the rash
assassin precluded an answer to the question, how Cæsar would have dealt
with the captive Pompey; but, while the human sympathy which still found
a place in the great soul of Cæsar, side by side with ambition, enjoined
that he should spare his former friend, his interest also required that
he should annihilate Pompey otherwise than by the executioner. Pompey
had been for twenty years the acknowledged ruler of Rome; a dominion so
deeply rooted does not end with the rulers death. The death of Pompey
did not break up the Pompeians, but gave to them instead of an aged,
incapable, and worn-out chief, in his sons Gnacus and Sextus, two
leaders, both of whom were young and active, and the second of them of
decided capacity. To the newly founded hereditary monarchy, hereditary
pretendership attached itself at once like a parasite, and it was very
doubtful whether by this change of persons Cæsar did not lose more than
he gained.
Meanwhile in Egypt Cæsar had now nothing further to do, and the Romans
and Egyptians expected that he would immediately set sail and
apply himself to the subjugation of Africa, and to the huge task of
organisation which awaited him after the victory. But Cæsar, faithful
to his custom--wherever he found himself in the wide Empire--of finally
regulating matters at once and in person, and firmly convinced that no
resistance was to be expected either from the Roman garrison or from
the court; being, moreover, in urgent pecuniary embarrassment, landed
in Alexandria with the two amalgamated legions accompanying him to the
number of thirty-two hundred men and eight hundred Celtic and German
cavalry, took up his quarters in the royal palace, and proceeded
to collect the necessary sums of money and to regulate the Egyptian
succession, without allowing himself to be disturbed by the saucy remark
of Pothinus that Cæsar should not for such petty matters neglect his own
so important affairs. In his dealings with the Egyptians he was just
and even indulgent. Although the aid which they had given to Pompey
justified the imposing of a war contribution, the exhausted land was
spared from this; and, while the arrears of the sums stipulated for in
B.C. 59, and since then only about half paid, were remitted, there was
required merely a final payment of ten million denarii (two million
dollars). The belligerent brother and sister were enjoined immediately
to suspend hostilities, and were invited to have their dispute
investigated and decided before the arbiter. They submitted; the royal
boy was already in the palace and Cleopatra also presented herself
there. Cæsar adjudged the kingdom of Egypt, agreeably to the testament
of Auletes, to the intermarried brother and sister Cleopatra and
Ptolomoreus Dionysus, and further gave unasked the kingdom of
Cyprus--cancelling the earlier act of annexation--as the appanage of
the second-born of Egypt to the younger children of Auletes, Arsinoë and
Ptolemy the younger. But a storm was secretly preparing. Alexandria
was a cosmopolitan city as well as Rome, hardly inferior to the Italian
capital in the number of its inhabitants, far superior to it in stirring
commercial spirit, in skill of handicraft, in taste for science and
art: in the citizens there was a lively sense of their own national
importance, and, if there was no political sentiment, there was at any
rate a turbulent spirit, which induced them to indulge in their street
riots regularly and heartily. We may conceive their feeling when they
saw the Roman general ruling in the palace of the Lagids, and their
kings accepting the award of his tribunal. Pothinus and the boy-king,
both, as may be conceived, very dissatisfied at once with the peremptory
requisition of all debts and with the intervention in the throne-dispute
which could only issue, as it did, in the favour of Cleopatra, sent--in
order to pacify the Roman demands--the treasures of the temple and the
gold plate of the king with intentional ostentation to be melted at the
mint; with increasing indignation the Egyptians--who were pious even
to superstition, and who rejoiced in the world-renowned magnificence
of their court as if it were a possession of their own--beheld the bare
walls of their temples and the wooden cups on the table of their
king. The Roman army of occupation also, which had been essentially
denationalised by its long abode in Egypt and the many intermarriages
between the soldiers and Egyptian women, and which moreover numbered a
multitude of the old soldiers of Pompey and runaway Italian criminals
and slaves in its ranks, was indignant at Cæsar, by whose orders it had
been obliged to suspend its action on the Syrian frontier, and at his
handful of haughty legionaries. The tumult even at the landing, when
the multitude saw the Roman axes carried into the old palace, and the
numerous instances in which his soldiers were assassinated in the city,
had taught Cæsar the immense danger in which he was placed with his
small force in presence of the exasperated multitude. But it was
difficult to return on account of the northwest winds prevailing at this
season of#the year, and the attempt of embarkation might easily become
a signal for the outbreak of the insurrection; besides, it was not the
nature of Cæsar to take his departure without having accomplished his
work. He accordingly ordered up at once reinforcements from Asia,
and meanwhile, till these arrived, made a show of the utmost
self-possession. Never was there greater gaiety in his camp than during
this rest at Alexandria, and while the beautiful and clever Cleopatra
was not sparing of her charms in general and least of all towards her
judge, Cæsar also appeared among all his victories to value most those
won over beautiful women. It was a merry prelude to graver scenes. Under
the leadership of Achilles and, as was afterwards proved, by the secret
orders of the king and his guardian, the Roman army of occupation
stationed in Egypt appeared unexpectedly in Alexandria, and, as soon
as the citizens saw that it had come to attack Cæsar, they made common
cause with the soldiers.
With a presence of mind, which in some measure justifies his
foolhardiness, Cæsar hastily collected his scattered men; seized the
persons of the king and his ministers; entrenched himself in the royal
residence and adjoining theatre; and gave orders, as there was no time
to place in safety the war-fleet stationed in the principal harbour
immediately in front of the theatre, that it should be set on fire and
that Pharos, the island with the light-tower commanding the harbour,
should be occupied by means of boats. Thus at least a restricted
position for defence was secured, and the way was kept open to procure
supplies and reinforcements. At the same time orders were issued to the
commandant of Asia Minor as well as to the nearest subject countries,
the Syrians and the Nabatæans, the Cretans and the Rhodians, to send
men and ships in all haste to Egypt. The insurrection, at the head of
which the Princess Arsinoë and her confidant, the eunuch Ganymedes, had
placed themselves, meanwhile had free course in all Egypt and in the
greater part of the capital. In the streets of the latter there was
daily fighting, but without success either on the part of Cæsar in
gaining freer scope and breaking through to the fresh water lake of
Mariut which lay behind the town, where he could have provided himself
with water and forage; or on the part of the Alexandrians in acquiring
superiority in besieging and depriving them of all drinking water; for,
when the Nile canals in Cæsars part of the town had been spoiled by the
introduction of salt water, drinkable water was unexpectedly found in
wells dug on the beach.
As Cæsar was not to be overcome from the landward side, the exertions
of the besiegers were directed to destroy his fleet and cut him off from
the sea, by which supplies reached him. The island with the lighthouse
and the mole by which this was connected with the mainland divided the
harbour into a western and an eastern half, which were in communication
with each other through two arch-openings in the mole. Cæsar commanded
the island and the east harbour, while the mole and the west harbour
were in possession of the citizens; and, as the Alexandrian fleet
was burnt, his vessels sailed in and out without hindrance. The
Alexandrians, after having vainly attempted to introduce fire-ships from
the western into the eastern harbour, equipped with the remnant of their
arsenal a small squadron, and with this blocked up the way of Cæsars
vessels, when these were towing in a fleet of transports with a legion
that had arrived from Asia Minor; but the excellent Rhodian mariners
of Cæsar mastered the enemy. Not long afterwards, however, the citizens
captured the lighthouse-island, and from that point totally closed the
narrow and rocky mouth of the east harbour for larger ships; so that
Cæsars fleet was compelled to take its station in the open roads before
the east harbour, and his communication with the sea hung only on a
weak thread. Cæsars fleet, attacked in that roadstead repeatedly by
the superior naval force of the enemy, could neither shun the unequal
strife, since the loss of the lighthouse-island closed the inner harbour
against it, nor yet withdraw, for the loss of the roadstead would
have debarred Cæsar wholly from the sea. Though the brave legionaries,
supported by the dexterity of the Rhodian sailors, had always hitherto
decided these conflicts in favour of the Romans, the Alexandrians
renewed and augmented their naval armaments with unwearied perseverance;
the besieged had to fight as often as it pleased the besiegers, and,
if the former should be on a signal occasion vanquished, Cæsar would be
totally hemmed in and probably lost.
It was absolutely necessary to make an attempt to recover the
lighthouse-island. The double attack, which was made by boats from the
side of the harbour and by the war-vessels from the seaboard, in reality
brought not only the island but also the lower part of the mole into
his power; it was only at the second arch-opening of the mole that
Cæsar ordered the attack to be stopped, and the mole to be there closed
towards the city by a transverse wall. But while a violent conflict
arose here round the entrenchers, the Roman troops left the lower
part of the mole adjoining the island bare of defenders; a division
of Egyptians landed there unexpectedly, attacked in the rear the Roman
soldiers and sailors crowded together on the mole of the transverse
wall, and drove the whole mass in wild confusion into the sea. A part
were taken on board by the Roman ships; but more were drowned. Some
four hundred soldiers and a still greater number of men belonging to the
fleet were sacrificed on this day; the general himself, who had shared
the fate of his men, had been obliged to seek refuge in his ship, and,
when this sank from having been overloaded with men, he had to save
himself by swimming to another. But, severe as was the loss suffered,
it was amply compensated by the recovery of the lighthouse-island, which
along with the mole as far as the first arch-opening remained in the
hands of Cæsar.
At length the longed-for relief arrived, Mithridates of Pergamus, an
able warrior of the school of Mithridates Eupator, whose natural son
he claimed to be, brought up by land from Syria a motley army,--the
Ituræans of the prince of the Libanus, the Bedouins of Jamblichus,
son of Sampsiceramus, the Jews under the minister Antipater, and the
contingents generally of the petty chiefs and communities of Cilicia and
Syria. From Pelusium, which Mithridates had the fortune to occupy on
the day of his arrival, he took the great road towards Memphis, with the
view of avoiding the intersected ground of the Delta and crossing the
Nile before its division; during which movement his troops received
manifold support from the Jewish peasants who were settled in this part
of Egypt. The Egyptians, with the young king Ptolemy now at their head,
whom Cæsar had released to his people in the vain hope of allaying the
insurrection by his means, despatched an army to the Nile, to detain
Mithridates on its farther bank. The army fell in with the enemy
even beyond Memphis at the so-called Jews camp, between Onion and
Heliopolis; nevertheless Mithridates, trained in the Roman fashion
of manoeuvring and encamping, amidst successful conflicts gained the
opposite bank at Memphis. Cæsar, on the other hand, as soon as he
obtained news of the arrival of the relieving army, conveyed a part
of his troops in ships to the end of the lake of Morea to the west
of Alexandria, and marched round this lake and down the Nile to meet
Mithridates advancing up the river.
The junction took place without the enemy attempting to hinder it. Cæsar
then marched into the Delta, whither the king had retreated, overthrew,
notwithstanding the deeply cut canal in their front, the Egyptian
vanguard at the first onset, and immediately stormed the Egyptian camp
itself. It lay at the foot of a rising ground between the Nile--from
which only a narrow path separated it--and marshes difficult of access.
Cæsar caused the camp to be assailed simultaneously from the front
and from the flank on the path along the Nile; and during this assault
ordered a third detachment to ascend unseen the heights of the camp. The
victory was complete; the camp was taken, and those of the Egyptians who
did not fall beneath the sword of the enemy were drowned in the attempt
to escape to the fleet on the Nile. With one of the boats, which sank
overladen with men, the young king also disappeared in the waters of his
native stream. Immediately after the battle Cæsar advanced at the head
of his cavalry from the land side straight into the portion of the
capital occupied by the Egyptians. In mourning attire, with the images
of their gods in their hands, the enemy received him and sued for
peace; and his troops, when they saw him return as victor from the side
opposite to that by which he had set forth, welcomed him with boundless
joy. The fate of the town, which had ventured to thwart the plans of
the master of the world and had brought him within a hairs-breadth of
destruction, lay in Cæsars hands; but he was too much of a ruler to
be sensitive, and dealt with the Alexandrians as with the Massiliots.
Cæsar--pointing to their city severely devastated and deprived of its
granaries, of its world-renowned library, and of other important public
buildings on the occasion of the burning of the fleet--exhorted the
inhabitants in future earnestly to cultivate the arts of peace alone,
and to heal the wounds inflicted on themselves; for the rest, he
contented himself with granting to the Jews settled in Alexandria the
same rights which the Greek population of the city enjoyed, and
with placing in Alexandria instead of the previous Roman army of
occupation--which nominally at least obeyed the kings of Egypt, a
Roman garrison--two of the legions besieged there, and a third which
afterwards arrived from Syria--under a commander nominated by himself.
For this position of trust a man was purposely selected whose birth made
it impossible for him to abuse it--Rufio, an able soldier, but the son
of a freed man. Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy obtained the
sovereignty of Egypt under the supremacy of Rome; the Princess Arsinoë
was carried off to Italy, that she might not serve once more as a
pretext for insurrections to the Egyptians, who were after the Oriental
fashion quite as much devoted to their dynasty as they were indifferent
towards the individual dynasts; and Cyprus became again a part of the
Roman province of Cilicia. Cæsars love for Cleopatra, who had just
borne him a son named Cæsarion, was not so strong as his ambition;
and after having been above a year in Egypt he left her to govern the
kingdom in her own name, but on his behalf; and sailed for Italy, taking
with him the sixth legion. While engaged in this warfare in Alexandria,
Cæsar had been appointed dictator in Rome, where his power was exercised
by Mark Antony, his master of the horse; and for above six months he
had not written one letter home, as though ashamed to write about the
foolish difficulty he had entangled himself in, until he had got out of
it.
On reaching Rome Cæsar amused the people and himself with a grand
triumphal show, in which, among the other prisoners of war, the Princess
Arsinoë followed his car in chains; and, among the works of art
and nature which were got together to prove to the gazing crowd the
greatness of his conquests, was that remarkable African animal the
camelopard, then for the first time seen in Rome. In one chariot was a
statue of the Nile god; and in another the Pharos lighthouse on fire,
with painted flames. Nor was this the last of Cæsars triumphs, for soon
afterwards Cleopatra, and her brother Ptolemy, then twelve years old,
who was called her husband, came to Rome as his guests, and dwelt for
some time with him in his house.
The history of Egypt, at this time, is almost lost in that of Rome.
Within five years of Cæsars landing in Alexandria, and finding that by
the death of Pompey he was master of the world, he paid his own life as
the forfeit for crushing his countrys liberty. The Queen of Egypt, with
her infant son Cæsarion about four years old, was then in Rome, living
with Cæsar in his villa on the farther side of the Tiber. On Cæsars
death her first wish was to get the child acknowledged by the Roman
senate as her colleague on the throne of Egypt, and as a friend of the
Roman people. With this view she applied to Cicero for help, making
him an offer of some books or works of art; but he was offended at
her haughtiness and refused her gifts. Besides, she was more likely
to thwart than to help the cause for which he was struggling. He was
alarmed at hearing that she was soon to give birth to another child. He
did not want any more Cæsars. He hoped she would miscarry, as he wished
she had before miscarried. So he bluntly refused to undertake her cause.
On this she thought herself unsafe in Rome, she fled privately, and
reached Egypt in safety with Cæsarion; but we hear of no second child
by Julius. The Romans were now the masters of Egypt, and Cleopatra could
hardly hope to reign but by the help of one of the great generals who
were struggling for the sovereignty of the republic. Among these was the
young Sextus Pompeius, whose large fleet made him for a time master
of Sicily and of the sea; and he was said to have been admitted by the
Queen of Egypt as a lover. But he was able to be of but little use
to her in return for her favours, as his fleet was soon defeated by
Octavianus.
Cæsar had left behind him, in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, a large
body of Roman troops, in the pay and nominally under the orders of
Cleopatra, but in reality to keep Egypt in obedience. There they lived
as if above all Egyptian law or Roman discipline, indulging in the vices
of that luxurious capital. When some of them in a riot, in the year 45
B.C., killed two sons of Bibulus the consul, Cleopatra was either afraid
or unable to punish the murderers; the most she could do was to get
them sent in chains into Syria to the grieving father, who with true
greatness of mind sent them back to the Egyptian legions, saying that it
was for the senate to punish them, not for him.
While Ptolemy her second husband was a boy and could claim no share
of the government, he was allowed to live with all the outward show of
royalty, but as soon as he reached the age of fifteen, in B.C. 44, at
which he might call himself her equal and would soon be her master,
Cleopatra had him put to death. She had then reigned four years with
her elder brother and four years with her younger brother, and from that
time forward she reigned alone, calling her child by Cæsar her colleague
on the throne.
At a time when vice and luxury claimed the thoughts of all who were not
busy in the civil wars, we cannot hope to find the fruits of genius in
Alexandria; but the mathematics are plants of a hardy growth, and are
not choked so easily as poetry and history. Sosigenes was then the
first astronomer in Egypt, and Julius Cæsar was guided by his advice
in setting right the Roman Calendar. He was a careful and painstaking
mathematician, and, after fixing the length of the year at three hundred
and sixty-five days and a quarter, he three times changed the beginning
of the year, in his doubts as to the day on which the equinox fell; for
the astronomer could then only make two observations in a year with a
view to learn the time of the equinox, by seeing when the sun shone
in the plane of the equator. Photinus the mathematician wrote both
on arithmetic and geometry, and was usually thought the author of a
mathematical work published in the name of the queen, called the Canon
of Cleopatra.
Didymus was another of the writers that we hear of at that time. He was
a man of great industry, both in reading and writing; but when we are
told that he wrote three thousand five hundred volumes, or rolls, it
rather teaches us that a great many rolls of papyrus would be wanted to
make a modern book, than what number of books he wrote. These writings
were mostly on verbal criticism, and all have long since perished except
some notes or scholia on the Hiad and Odyssey which bear his name, and
are still printed in some editions of Homer.
Dioscorides, the physician of Cleopatra, has left a work on herbs and
minerals, and on their uses in medicine; also on poisons and poisonous
bites. To these he has added a list of prescriptions. His works
have been much read in all ages, and have only been set aside by the
discoveries of the last few centuries. Serapion, another physician, was
perhaps of this reign.
[Illustration: 333.jpg RUINS OF HERMONTHIS]
He followed medicine rather than surgery; and, while trusting chiefly to
his experience gained in clinical or bedside practice, was laughed at by
the surgeons as an empiric.
The small temple at Hermonthis, near Thebes, seems to have been built
in this reign, and it is dedicated to Mandoo, or the sun, in the name
of Cleopatra and Cassation. It is unlike the older Egyptian temples in
being much less of a fortress; for what in them is a strongly walled
courtyard, with towers to guard the narrow doorway, is here a small
space between two double rows of columns, wholly open, without walls,
while the roofed building is the same as in the older temples. Near it
is a small pool, seventy feet square, with stone sides, which was used
in the funerals and other religious rites.
The murder of Cæsar did not raise the character of the Romans, or make
them more fit for self-government. It was followed by the well-known
civil war; and when, by the battle of Philippi and the death of Brutus
and Cassius, his party was again uppermost, the Romans willingly bowed
their necks to his adopted son Octavianus, and his friend Mark Antony.
It is not easy to determine which side Cleopatra meant to take in
the war between Antony and the murderers of Cæsar; she did not openly
declare herself, and she probably waited to join that which fortune
favoured. Allienus had been sent to her by Dolobella to ask for such
troops as she could spare to help Antony, and he led a little army of
four Roman legions out of Egypt into Syria; but when there he added
them to the force which Cassius had assembled against Antony. Whether he
acted through treachery to the queen or by her orders is doubtful, for
Cassius felt more gratitude to Allienus than to Cleopatra. Serapion
also, the Egyptian governor of Cyprus, joined what was then the stronger
side, and sent all the ships that he had in his ports to the assistance
of Cassius. Cleopatra herself was getting ready another large fleet, but
since the war was over, and Brutus and Cassius dead before it sailed,
she said it was meant to help Octavianus and Antony. Thus, by the acts
of her generals and her own hesitation, Cleopatra fairly laid herself
open to the reproach of ingratitude to her late friend Cæsar, or at
least of thinking that the interests of his son Cæsarion were opposed to
those of his nephew Octavianus; and accordingly, as Antony was passing
through Cilicia with his army, he sent orders to her to come from Egypt
and meet him at Tarsus, to answer the charge of having helped Brutus and
Cassius in the late military campaign.
Dellius, the bearer of the message, showed that he understood the
meaning of it, by beginning himself to pay court to her as his queen. He
advised her to go, like Juno in the Iliad, tricked in her best attire,
and told her that she had nothing to fear from the kind and gallant
Antony. On this she sailed for Cilicia laden with money and treasures
for presents, full of trust in her beauty and power of pleasing. She had
won the heart of Cæsar when, though younger, she was less skilled in
the arts of love, and she was still only twenty-five years old; and,
carrying with her such gifts and treasures as became her rank, she
entered the river Cydnus with the Egyptian fleet in a magnificent
galley. The stern was covered with gold; the sails were of scarlet
cloth: and the silver oars beat time to the music of flutes and harps.
The queen, dressed like Venus, lay under an awning embroidered with
gold, while pretty dimpled boys, like Cupids, stood on each side of
the sofa fanning her. Her maidens, dressed like sea-nymphs and graces,
handled the silken tackle and steered the vessel. As she approached
the town of Tarsus the winds wafted the perfumes and the scent of the
burning incense to the shores, which were lined with crowds who had come
out to see her land; and Antony, who was seated on the tribunal waiting
to receive her, found himself left alone.
Tarsus on the river Cydnus was situated at the foot of the wooded slopes
of Mount Taurus, and it guarded the great pass in that range between the
Phrygian tribes and the Phoenician tribes. It was a city half-Greek
and half-Asiatic, and had from the earliest days been famed for
ship-building and commerce. Mount Taurus supplied it with timber, and
around the mouth of its river, as it widens into a quiet lake, were the
ancient dockyards which had made the ships of Tarshish proverbial with
the Hebrew writers. Its merchants, enriched by industry and enlightened
by foreign trade, had ornamented their city with public buildings, and
established a school of Greek learning. Its philosophers, however, were
more known as travelling teachers than as scholars. No learned men came
to Tarsus; but it sent forth its rhetoricians in its own ships, who
spread themselves as teachers over the neighbouring coasts. In Rome
there were more professors of rhetoric, oratory, and poetry from Tarsus
than from Alexandria or Athens. Athenodorus Cordylion, the stoic, taught
Cato; Athenodorus, the son of Sandon, taught Cæsar; Nestor a little
later taught the young Marcellus; while Demetrius was one of the first
men of learning who sailed to the distant island of Britain. This
school, in the next generation, sent forth the apostle Paul, who taught
Christianity throughout the same coasts.
Tarsus was now to be amused by the costly follies and extravagances of
Cleopatra. As an initial display, soon after landing, she invited Antony
and his generals to a dinner, at which the whole of the dishes placed
before them were of gold, set with precious stones, and the room and the
twelve couches were ornamented with purple and gold. On his praising the
splendour of the sight, as passing anything he had before seen, she said
it was a trifle, and begged that he would take the whole of it as a gift
from her. The next day he again dined with her, and brought a larger
number of his friends and generals, and was of course startled to see a
costliness which made that of the day before seem nothing; and she again
gave him the whole of the gold upon the table, and gave to each of his
friends the couch upon which he sat.
These costly and delicate dinners were continued every day; and one
evening, when Antony playfully blamed her wastefulness, and said that it
was not possible to fare in a more costly manner, she told him that the
dinner of the next day should cost ten thousand ses-tertia, or three
hundred thousand dollars. This he would not believe, and laid her a
wager that she would fail in her promise. When the day came the dinner
was as grand and dainty as those of the former days; but when Antony
called upon her to count up the cost of the meats and wines, she said
that she did not reckon them, but that she should herself soon eat and
drink the ten thousand sestertia. She wore in her ears two pearls, the
largest known in the world, which, like the diamonds of European kings,
had come to her with her crown and kingdom, and were together valued at
that large sum.
[Illustration: 338.jpg EGYPTIAN PICTURE OF CLEOPATRA]
On the servants removing the meats, they set before her a glass of
vinegar, and she took one of these earrings from her ear and dropped
it into the glass, and when dissolved drank it off. Plancus, one of the
guests, who had been made judge of the wager, snatched the other from
the queens ear, and saved it from being drunk up like the first, and
then declared that Antony had lost his bet. The pearl which was saved
was afterwards cut in two and made into a pair of earrings for the
statue of Venus in the Pantheon at Rome; and the fame of the wager may
be said to have made the two half pearls at least as valuable as the two
whole ones.
The beauty, sweetness, and gaiety of this young queen, joined to her
great powers of mind, which were all turned to the art of pleasing, had
quite overcome Antony; he had sent for her as her master, but he was
now her slave. Her playful wit was delightful; her voice was as an
instrument of many strings; she spoke readily to every ambassador in his
own language; and was said to be the only sovereign of Egypt who could
understand the languages of all her subjects: Greek, Egyptian, Ethiopie,
Troglodytic, Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac. With these charms, at the age
of five-and-twenty, the luxurious Antony could deny her nothing. The
first favour which she asked of her lover equals any cruelty that we
have met with in this history: it was, that he would have her sister
Arsinoë put to death. Cæsar had spared her life, after his triumph,
through love of Cleopatra; but he was mistaken in the heart of his
mistress; she would have been then better pleased at Arsinoes death;
and Antony, at her bidding, had her murdered in the temple of Diana, at
Ephesus.
Though Fulvia, the faithful wife of Antony, could scarcely keep together
his party at Rome against the power of Octavianus, his colleague in the
triumvirate, and though Labienus, with the Parthian legions, was ready
to march into Syria against him, yet he was so entangled in the artful
nets of Cleopatra, that she led him captive to Alexandria; and there the
old warrior fell into every idle amusement, and offered up at the shrine
of pleasure one of the greatest of sacrifices, the sacrifice of his
time. The lovers visited each other every day, and the waste of their
entertainments passed belief. Philotas, a physician who was following
his studies at Alexandria, told Plutarchs grandfather that he was once
invited to see Antonys dinner cooked, and among other meats were eight
wild boars roasting whole; and the cook explained to him that, though
there were only twelve guests, yet as each dish had to be roasted to a
single turn of the spit, and Antony did not know at what hour he should
dine, it was necessary to cook at least eight dinners. But the most
costly of the luxuries then used in Egypt were the scents and the
ointments. Gold, silver, and jewels, as Pliny remarks, will pass to a
mans heirs, even clothes will last a few months or weeks, but scents
fly off and are lost at the first moment that they are admired; and
yet ointments, like the attar of roses, which melted and gave out their
scent, and passed into air when placed upon the back of the hand, as the
coolest part of the body, were sold for four hundred denarii the pound.
But the ointment was not meant to be used quite so wastefully. It was
usually sealed up in small alabaster jars, which were made in the town
of Alabastron, on the east of the Nile, and thence received their name.
These were long in shape, without a foot, and had a narrow mouth. They
were meant never to be opened, but to let the scent escape slowly and
sparingly through the porous stone. In these Egyptian jars scented
ointment was carried by trade to the banks of the Tigris and to the
shores of the Mediterranean.
The tenth and eleventh years of the queens reign were marked by
a famine through the land, caused by the Niles not rising to the
wished-for height and by the want of the usual overflow; and an
inscription which was written both in the Greek and Egyptian languages
declares the gratitude of the Theban priests and elders and citizens to
Callimachus, the prefect of the Theban taxes, who did what he could to
lessen the sufferings in that city. The citizens of Alexandria on those
years received from the government a smaller gift of corn than usual,
and the Jews then felt their altered rank in the state. They were
told that they were not citizens, and accordingly received no portion
whatever out of the public granaries, but were left like the Egyptians
to take care of themselves. From this time forward there was an
unceasing quarrel between Greeks and Jews in the city of Alexandria.
Cleopatra, who held her power at the pleasure of the Roman legions,
spared no pains to please Antony. She had borne him first a son named
Ptolemy, and then a son and daughter, twins, Alexander Helius and
Cleopatra Selene, or _Sun_ and _Moon_. She gamed, she drank, she hunted,
she reviewed the troops with him, and, to humour his coarser tastes, she
followed him, in his midnight rambles through the city, in the dress of
a servant; and nothing that youth, beauty, wealth, and elegance could do
to throw a cloak over the grossness of vice and crime was forgotten by
her. The biographer thought it waste of time to mention all Cleopatras
arts and Antonys follies, but the story of his fishing was not to be
forgotten. One day, when sitting in the boat with her, he caught but
little, and was vexed at her seeing his want of success. So he ordered
one of his men to dive into the water and put upon his hook a fish which
had been before taken. Cleopatra, however, saw what was being done, and
quietly took the hint for a joke of her own. The next day she brought a
larger number of friends to see the fishing, and, when Antony let down
his line, she ordered one of her divers to put on the hook a salted
fish. The line was then drawn up and the fish landed amid no little
mirth of their friends; and Cleopatra playfully consoled him, saying:
Well, general, you may leave fishing to us petty princes of Pharos and
Canopus; your game is cities, provinces, and kingdoms.
Antonys eldest son by Fulvia came to Alexandria at this time, and lived
in the same princely style with his father. Philotas the physician lived
in his service, and one day at supper when Philotas silenced a tiresome
talker with a foolish sophism the young Antony gave him as a reward the
whole sideboard of plate. But in the middle of this gaiety and feasting
Antony was recalled to Europe by letters which told him that his wife
and brother had been driven out of Rome by Octavianus. Before, however,
he reached Rome his wife Fulvia was dead; and, wishing to strengthen his
party, he at once married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus and widow of
Marcellus.
In that year Herod passed through Egypt on his way to Rome to claim
Judæa as his kingdom. He came through Arabia to Pelusium, and thence
he sailed to Alexandria. Cleopatra, who wanted his services, gave him
honourable entertainment in her capital, and made him great offers in
order to persuade him to take the command of her army. But the Jewish
prince saw that a kingdom was to be gained by offering his services
to Antony and Octavianus; and he went on to Rome. There through the
friendship of Antony he was declared King of Judæa by the senate. He
then returned to Syria to collect an army and to win the kingdom which
had been granted to him; and by the help of Sosius, Antonys lieutenant,
he had conquered Jerusalem when the war broke out between Antony and
Octavianus.
In the next year (B.C. 38) Antony was himself in Syria, carrying on the
war which ended with the battle of Actium; and he sent to Alexandria to
beg Cleopatra to join him there. On her coming, he made her perhaps the
largest gift which lover ever gave to his mistress: he gave her the wide
provinces of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Cyprus, part of Cilicia, part of
Judæa, and part of Arabia Nabataea. These large gifts only made her ask
for more, and she begged him to put to death Herod, King of Judæa, and
Malichus, King of Arabia Nabataea, the former of whom had advised Antony
to break through the disgraceful ties which bound him to Cleopatra, as
the only means of saving himself from being crushed by the rising power
of Octavianus. She asked to have the whole of Arabia and Judæa given to
her. But Antony had not so far forgotten himself as to yield to these
commands; and he only gave her the balsam country around Jericho, and
a rent-charge of two hundred talents, or one hundred and fifty thousand
dollars, a year, on the revenues of Judæa. On receiving this large
addition to her kingdom, and perhaps in honour of Antony, who had then
lost all power in Italy but was the real king of Egypt and its Greek
provinces, Cleopatra began to count the years of her reign afresh: what
was really the sixteenth of her reign, and had been called the sixteenth
of Ptolemy, her elder brother, she called the first of her own reign,
and she reckoned them in the same way till her death. Cleopatra had
accompanied Antony on his expedition against Armenia, as far as the
river Euphrates, and returned through Damascus to Judæa. There she was
politely received by her enemy Herod, who was too much in fear of Antony
to take his revenge on her. She farmed out to him the revenues of her
parts of Arabia and Judæa, and was accompanied by him on her way towards
Egypt. But after wondering at the wasteful feasts and gifts, in which
pearls and provinces were alike trifled with, we are reminded that even
Cleopatra was of the family of the Lagido, and that she was well aware
how much the library of the museum had added to the glory of Alexandria.
It had been burnt by the Roman troops under Cæsar, and, to make amends
for this, Antony gave her the large library of the city of Pergamus, by
which Eumenes and Attalus had hoped to raise a school that should equal
the museum of Alexandria. Cleopatra placed these two hundred thousand
volumes in the temple of Serapis; and Alexandria again held the largest
library in the world; while Pergamus ceased to be a place of learning.
By the help of this new library, the city still kept its trade in books
and its high rank as a school of letters; and, when the once proud
kingdom of Egypt was a province of Rome, and when almost every trace of
the monarchy was lost, and half a century afterwards Philo, the Jewish
philosopher of Alexandria, asked, Where are now the Ptolemies? the
historian could have found an answer by pointing to the mathematical
schools and the library of the Serapeum.
But to return to our history. When Antony left Cleopatra, he marched
against the Parthians, and on his return he again entered Alexandria in
triumph, leading Artavasdes, King of Armenia, chained behind his chariot
as he rode in procession through the city. He soon afterwards made
known his plans for the government of Egypt and the provinces. He called
together the Alexandrians in the Gymnasium, and, seating himself and
Cleopatra on two golden thrones, he declared her son Cæsarion her
colleague, and that they should hold Egypt, Cyprus, Africa, and
Coele-Syria. To her sons by himself he gave the title of kings the
children of kings; and to Alexander, though still a child, he gave
Armenia and Media, with Parthia when it should be conquered; and to
Ptolemy he gave Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra wore the
sacred robe of Isis, and took the title of the New Isis, while the young
Alexander wore a Median dress with turban and tiara, and the little
Ptolemy a long cloak and slippers, with a bonnet encircled by a diadem,
like the successors of Alexander. Antony himself wore an Eastern
scimetar by his side, and a royal diadem round Ins head, as being not
less a sovereign than Cleopatra. To Cleopatra he then gave the whole of
his Parthian booty, and his prisoner Tigranes.
[Illustration: 346.jpg COIN OF CLEOPATRA AND ANTHONY]
But notwithstanding Antonys love for Cleopatra, her falsehood and
cruelty were such that when his power in Rome fell he could no longer
trust her. He even feared that she might have him poisoned, and would
not eat or drink in her palace without having the food first tasted
herself. But she had no such thoughts, and only laughed at him for his
distrust. One day to prove her power, and at the same time her good
faith, she had the flowers with which he was to be crowned, as he
reclined at her dinner-table, dipped in deadly poison. Antony dined with
these round his head, while she wore a crown of fresh flowers. During
the dinner Cleopatra playfully took off her garland and dipped it in
her cup to flavour the wine, and Antony did the same with his poisoned
flowers, steeping them in his own cup of wine. He even raised it to his
lips to drink, when she hastily caught hold of his hand. Now, said
she, I am the enemy against whom you have latterly been so careful. If
I could have endured to live without you, that draught would have given
me the opportunity. She then ordered the wine to be taken to one of
the condemned criminals, and sent Antony out to see that the man died on
drinking it.
On the early coins of Cleopatra we see her head on the one side and
the eagle or the cornucopia on the other side, with the name of _Queen
Cleopatra_. After she had borne Antony children, we find the words
round their heads, _Of Antony, on the conquest of Armenia; Of
Cleopatra the queen, and of the kings the children of kings_. On the
later coins we find the head of Antony joined with hers, as king and
queen, and he is styled _the emperor_ and she _the young goddess_.
Cleopatra was perhaps the last Greek sovereign that bore the title of
god. Nor did it seem unsuitable to her, so common had the Greeks of Asia
and Egypt made that epithet, by giving it to their kings, and even to
their kings families and favourites. But the use of the word made no
change in their religious opinions; they never for a moment supposed
that the persons whom they so styled had any share in the creation and
government of the world.
[Illustration: 347.jpg LATER COIN OF CLEOPATRA AND ANTONY.]
The death of Julius Cæsar and afterwards of Brutus and Cassius had left
Antony with the chief sway in the Roman world; but his life of pleasure
in Egypt had done much to forfeit it; and Octavianus, afterwards called
Augustus, had been for some time rising in power against him. His party,
however, was still strong enough in Rome to choose for consul his friend
Soslus, who put the head of Antony on one side of his coins, and the
Egyptian eagle and thunderbolt on the other. Soon afterwards Antony was
himself chosen as consul elect for the coming year, and he then struck
his last coins in Egypt. The rude copper coins have on one side the name
of _The queen, the young goddess_, and on the other side of _Antony,
Consul a third time_. But he never was consul for the third time;
before the day of entering on the office he was made an enemy of Rome by
the senate. Octavianus, however, would not declare war against him, but
declared war against Cleopatra, or rather, as he said, against Mardion
her slave, Iris her waiting-woman, and Charmion, another favourite
woman; for these had the chief management of Antonys affairs.
At the beginning of the year B.C. 31, which was to end with the battle
of Actium, Octavianus held Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Carthage, with an
army of eighty thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and a fleet of two
hundred and fifty ships: Antony held Egypt, Ethiopia, and Cyrene, with
one hundred thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and five hundred
ships; he was followed by the kings of Africa, Upper Cilicia,
Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Commagene, and Thrace; and he received help
from the kings of Pontus, Arabia, Judæa, Lycaonia, Galatia, and Media.
Thus Octavianus held Rome, with its western provinces and hardy legions,
while Antony held the Greek kingdom of Ptolemy Phila-delphus. Cleopatra
was confident of success and as boastful as she was confident. Her most
solemn manner of promising was: As surely as I shall issue my decrees
from the Roman Capitol. But the mind of Antony was ruined by his life
of pleasure. He carried her with him into battle, at once his strength
and his weakness, and he was beaten at sea by Octavianus, on the coast
of Epirus, near Actium. This battle, which sealed the fate of Antony, of
Egypt, and of Rome, would never have been spoken of in history if he had
then had the courage to join his land forces; but he sailed away in a
fright with Cleopatra, leaving an army larger than that of Octavianus,
which would not believe that he was gone. They landed at Parastonium in
Libya, where he remained in the desert with Aristocrates the rhetorician
and one or two other friends, and sent Cleopatra forward to Alexandria.
There she talked of carrying her ships across the isthmus to the head
of the Red Sea, along the canal from Bubastis to the Bitter Lakes, and
thence flying to some unknown land from the power of the conqueror.
Antony soon however followed her, but not to join in society. He
locked himself up in his despair in a small fortress by the side of
the harbour, which he named his Timonium, after Timon, the Athenian
philosopher who forsook the society of men. When the news, however,
arrived that his land forces had joined Octavianus, and his allies had
deserted him, he came out of his Timonium and joined the queen.
In Alexandria, Antony and Cleopatra only so far regained their courage
as to forget their losses, and to plunge into the same round of costly
feasts and shows that they had amused themselves with before their fall;
but, while they were wasting these few weeks in pleasure, Octavianus was
moving his fleet and army upon Egypt.
When he landed on the coast, Egypt held three millions of people; he
might have been met by three hundred thousand men able to bear arms.
As for money, which has sometimes been called the sinews of war, though
there might have been none in the treasury, yet it could not have been
wanting in Alexandria. But the Egyptians, like the ass in the fable, had
nothing to fear from a change of masters; they could hardly be kicked
and cuffed worse than they had been; and, though they themselves
were the prize struggled for, they looked on with the idle stare of a
bystander. Some few of the garrisons made a show of holding out; but, as
Antony had left the whole of his army in Greece when he fled away after
the battle of Actium, he had lost all chance of safety.
When Pelusium was taken, it was said by some that Seleucus the commander
had given it up by Cleopatras orders; but the queen, to justify
herself, put the wife and children of Seleucus into the hands of Antony
to be punished if he thought fit. When Octavianus arrived in front of
Alexandria he encamped not far from the hippodrome, a few miles from the
Canopic or eastern gate. On this Antony made a brisk sally, and, routing
the Roman cavalry, returned to the city in triumph. On his way to
the palace he met Cleopatra, whom he kissed, armed as he was, and
recommended to her favour a brave soldier who had done good service in
the battle. She gave the man a cuirass and helmet of gold; but he
saw that Antonys cause was ruined; his new-gotten treasure made him
selfish, and he went over to the enemys camp that very night. The next
morning Antony ordered out his forces, both on land and sea, to engage
with those of Octavianus; but he was betrayed by his generals: his fleet
and cavalry deserted him without a blow being struck; and his infantry,
easily routed, retreated into the city.
[Illustration: 351.jpg GREEK PICTURE OF CLEOPATRA]
Cleopatra had never acted justly towards her Jewish subjects; and,
during a late famine, had denied to them their share of the wheat
distributed out of the public granaries to the citizens of Alexandria.
The Jews in return showed no loyalty to Cleopatra, nor regret at her
enemys success; and on this defeat of her troops her rage fell upon
them. She made a boast of her cruelty towards them, and thought if she
could have killed all the Jews with her own hand she should have been
repaid for the loss of the city. On the other hand, Antony thought that
he had been betrayed by Cleopatra, as she had received many messengers
from Octavianus. To avoid his anger, therefore, she fled to a monument
which she had built near the temple of Isis, and in which she had before
placed her treasure, her gold, silver, emeralds, pearls, ebony, ivory,
and cinnamon, together with a large quantity of flax and a number of
torches, as though to burn herself and her wealth in one flame. Here she
retired with two of her women, and secured herself with bars and bolts,
and sent word to Antony that she was dead. Antony, when he heard it,
believing that she had killed herself, and wishing not to be outdone in
courage by a woman, plunged his sword into his breast. But the wound was
not fatal, and when Cleopatra heard of it she sent to beg that he would
come to her. Accordingly his servants carried him to the door of her
monument. But the queen, in fear of treachery, would not suffer the door
to be opened; but she let a cord down from the window, and she with her
two women drew him up. Nothing could be more affecting than the sight to
all who were near; Antony covered with blood, in the agonies of death,
stretching out his hands to Cleopatra, and she straining every nerve and
every feature of her face with the effort she was making. He was at last
lifted in at the window, but died soon afterwards. By this time the city
was in the power of Octavianus; he had not found it necessary to storm
the walls, for Antonys troops had all joined him, and he sent in Gallus
to endeavour to take Cleopatra alive. This he succeeded in doing by
drawing her into conversation at the door of her monument, while three
men scaled the window and snatched out of her hand the dagger with which
she would have stabbed herself.
Octavianus, henceforth called Augustus, began by promising his soldiers
two hundred and fifty drachmas each as prize money, for not being
allowed to plunder Alexandria. He soon afterwards entered the city, not
on horseback armed at the head of his victorious legions, but on foot,
leaning on the arm of the philosopher Arius; and, as he wished to be
thought as great a lover of learning as of mercy, he gave out that he
spared the place to the prayers of his Alexandrian friend. He called the
Greek citizens together in the gymnasium, and, mounting the tribunal,
promised that they should not be hurt. Cleopatras three children by
Antony, who had not the misfortune to be of the same blood with the
conqueror, were kindly treated and taken care of; while Cæsarion, her
son by Julius Cæsar, who was betrayed by his tutor Rhodon while flying
towards Ethiopia, was put to death as a rival. The flatterers of the
conqueror would of course say that Cæsarion was not the son of
Julius, but of Ptolemy, the elder of the two boys who had been called
Cleopatras husbands. The feelings of humanity might have answered
that, if he was not the only son of the uncle to whom Octavianus owed
everything, he was at least helpless and friendless, and that he never
could trouble the undisputed master of the world; but Augustus, with
the heartless cruelty which murdered Cicero, and the cold caution which
marked his character through life, listening to the remark of Arius,
that there ought not to be two Cæsars, had him at once put to death.
Augustus gave orders that Cleopatra should be carefully guarded lest she
should put an end to her own life; he wished to carry her with him to
Rome as the ornament of his triumph. He paid her a visit of condolence
and consolation. He promised her she should receive honourable
treatment. He allowed her to bury Antony. He threatened that her
children should be punished if she hurt herself; but she deceived her
guards and put herself to death, either by poison, or, as was more
commonly thought, by the bite of an asp brought to her in a basket
of fruit. She was thirty-nine years of age, having reigned twenty-two
years, of which the last seven were in conjunction with Antony; and she
was buried in his tomb with all regal splendour.
The death of Cleopatra was hailed at Rome as a relief from a sad
disgrace by others besides the flatterers of the conqueror. When
governed by Julius Cæsar, and afterwards by Antony, the Romans sometimes
fancied they were receiving orders from the barbarian queen to
whom their master was a slave. When Antony was in arms against his
countrymen, they were not without alarm at Cleopatras boast that she
would yet make her power felt in the Capitol; and many feared that even
when Antony was overthrown the conqueror might himself be willing to
wear her chains. But the prudent Augustus was in no danger of being
dazzled by beauty. He saw clearly all that was within his reach; he did
not want her help to the sovereignty of Egypt; and from the day that he
entered the empty palace in Alexandria, his reign began as sole master
of Rome and its dependent provinces.
While we have in this history been looking at the Romans from afar, and
only seen their dealings with foreign kings, we have been able to note
some of the changes in their manners nearly as well as if we had stood
in the Forum. When Epiphanes, Philometor, and Euergetes II. owed their
crowns to Roman help, Rome gained nothing but thanks, and that weight in
their councils which is fairly due to usefulness: the senate asked for
no tribute, and the citizens took no bribes. But with the growth
of power came the love of conquest and of its spoils. Macedonia
was conquered in what might be called self-defence; in the reign of
Cleopatra Cocce, Cyrene was won by fraud, and Cyprus was then seized
without a plea. The senators were even more eager for bribes than the
senate for provinces. The nobles who governed these wide provinces
grew too powerful for the senate, and found that they could heap up
ill-gotten wealth faster by patronising kings than by conquering them;
and the Egyptian monarchy was left to stand in the reigns of Auletes
and Cleopatra, because the Romans were still more greedy than when they
seized Cyrene and Cyprus. And, lastly, when the Romans were worn out by
quarrels and the want of a steady government, and were ready to obey
any master who could put a stop to civil bloodshed, they made Octavianus
autocrat of Rome; he then gained for himself whatever he seized in
the name of the republic, and he at once put an end to the Egyptian
monarchy.
Thus fell the family of the Ptolemies, a family that had perhaps done
more for arts and letters than any that can be pointed out in history.
Like other kings who have bought the praises of poets, orators, and
historians, they may have misled the talents which they wished to
guide, and have smothered the fire which they seemed to foster; but,
in rewarding the industry of the mathematicians and anatomists, of the
critics, commentators, and compilers, they seem to have been highly
successful. It is true that Alexandria never sent forth works with the
high tone of philosophy, the lofty moral aim and the pure taste which
mark the writings of Greece in its best ages, and which ennoble the mind
and mend the heart; but it was the school to which the world long looked
for knowledge in all those sciences which help the body and improve the
arts of life, and which are sometimes called useful knowledge. Though
great and good actions may not have been unknown in Alexandria, so few
valued them that none took the trouble to record them. The well-paid
writers never wrote the lives of the Ptolemies. The muse of history
had no seat in the museum, but it was almost the birthplace of anatomy,
geometry, conic sections, geography, astronomy, and hydrostatics.
[Illustration: 357.jpg GRAND COLUMN AT KARNAK]
If we retrace the steps by which this Græco-Egyptian monarchy rose and
fell, we shall see that virtue and vice, wisdom and folly, care and
thoughtlessness, were for the most part followed by the rewards which to
us seem natural. The Egyptian gold which first tempted the Greeks into
the country, and then helped their energies to raise the monarchy,
afterwards undermined those same energies, and became one of the
principal causes of its final overthrow.
In Ptolemy Soter we see plain manners, careful plans, untiring activity,
and a wise choice of friends. By him talents were highly paid wherever
they were found; no service left unrewarded; the people trusted and
taught the use of arms; their love gained by wise laws and even-handed
justice; docks, harbours, and fortresses built, schools opened; and
by these means a great monarchy founded. Ptolemy was eager to fill
the ranks of his armies with soldiers, and his new city with traders.
Instead of trying to govern against the will of the people, to thwart
or overlook their wishes and feelings, his utmost aim was to guide them,
and to make Alexandria a more agreeable place of settlement than the
cities of Asia Minor and Syria, for the thousands who were then
pouring out of Greece on the check given to its trading industry by the
overthrow of its freedom. Though every thinking man might have seen
that the new government, when it gained shape and strength, would be a
military despotism; yet his Greek subjects must have felt, while it was
weak and resting on their good-will rather than on their habits, that
they were enjoying many of the blessings of freedom. Had they then
claimed a share in the government, they would most likely have gained
it, and thereby they would have handed down those blessings to their
children.
Before the death of Ptolemy Soter, the habits of the people had so
closely entwined themselves round the throne, that Philadelphus was able
to take the kingdom and the whole of its wide provinces at the hands of
his father as a family estate. He did nothing to mar his fathers wise
plans, which then ripened into fruit-bearing. Trade crowded the harbours
and markets, learning filled the schools, conquests rewarded the
discipline of the fleets and armies; power, wealth, and splendour
followed in due order. The blaze thus cast around the throne would by
many kings have been made to stand in the place of justice and mildness,
but under Philadelphus it only threw a light upon his good government.
He was acknowledged both at home and abroad to be the first king of
his age; Greece and its philosophers looked up to him as a friend and
patron; and though as a man he must take rank far below his father, by
whose wisdom the eminence on which he stood was raised, yet in all the
gold and glitter of a king Philadelphus was the greatest of his family.
The Egyptians had been treated with kindness by both of these Greek
kings. As far as they had been able or willing to copy the arts of
Greece they had been raised to a level with the Macedonians. The
Egyptian worship and temples had been upheld, as if in obedience to
the oft-repeated answer of the Delphic oracle, that the gods should
everywhere be worshipped according to the laws of the country. But
Euergetes was much more of an Egyptian, and while he was bringing back
the ancient splendour to the temples, the priests must have regained
something of their former rank. But they had no hold on the minds of the
soldiers. Had the mercenaries, upon whom the power of the king rested,
been worshippers in the Egyptian temples, the priests might, as in the
earlier times, like a body of nobles, have checked his power when too
great, and at other times upheld it. But it was not so; and upon the
whole, little seems to have been gained by the court becoming more
Egyptian, while the army must have lost something of its Greek
discipline and plainness of manners.
But in the next reign the fruits of this change were seen to be most
unfortunate. Philopator was an Eastern despot, surrounded by eunuchs,
and drowned in pleasures. The country was governed by his women and
vicious favourites. The army, which at the beginning of his reign
amounted to seventy-three thousand men, beside the garrisons, was at
first weakened by rebellion, and before the end of his reign it fell to
pieces. Nothing, however, happened to prove his weakness to surrounding
nations; Egypt was still the greatest of kingdoms, though Rome on the
conquest of Carthage, and Syria under Antiochus the Great, were fast
gaining ground upon it; but he left to his infant son a throne shaken to
the very foundations.
The ministers of Epiphanes, the infant autocrat, found the government
without a head and without an army, the treasury without money, and the
people without virtue or courage; and they placed the kingdom under the
hands of the Romans to save it from being shared between the kings of
Syria and Macedonia. Thus passed the first five reigns, the first one
hundred and fifty years, the first half of the three centuries that the
kingdom of the Ptolemies lasted. It was then rotten at the core with
vice and luxury. Its population was lessening, its trade falling off,
its treasury empty, its revenue too small for the wasteful expenses of
the government; but, nevertheless, in the eyes of surrounding nations,
its trade and wealth seemed boundless.
[Illustration: 362.jpg Cleopatras needle.]
Taste, genius, and poetry had passed away; but mathematics, surgery, and
grammar still graced the museum. The decline of art is shown upon the
coins, and even in the shape of the letters upon the coins. On those
of Cleopatra the engraver followed the fashion of the penman; the S is
written like our C, the E has a round back, and the long O is formed
like an M reversed.
During the reigns of the later Ptolemies the kingdom was under the
shield, but also under the sceptre of Rome. Its kings sent to Rome
for help, sometimes against their enemies, and sometimes against their
subjects; sometimes they humbly asked the senate for advice, and at
other times were able respectfully to disobey the Roman orders. One
by one the senate seized the provinces; Coele-Syria, the coast of
Asia Minor, Cyrene, and the island of Cyprus; and lastly, though the
Ptolemies still reigned, they were counted among the clients of the
Roman patrician, to whom they looked up for patronage. From this low
state Egypt could scarcely be said to fall when it became a part of the
great empire of Augustus.
During the reigns of the Ptolemies, the sculpture, the style of
building, the religion, the writing, and the language of the Kopts in
the Thebaid were nearly the same as when their own kings were reigning
in Thebes, with even fewer changes than usually creep in through time.
They had all become less simple; and though it would be difficult, and
would want a volume by itself to trace these changes, and to show when
they came into use, yet a few of them may be pointed out. The change of
fashion must needs be slower in buildings which are only raised by the
untiring labour of years, and which when built stand for ages; but in
the later temples we find less strength as fortresses, few obelisks or
sphinxes, and no colossal statues; we no longer meet with vast caves
or pyramids. The columns in a temple have several new patterns. The
capitals which used to be copied from the papyrus plant are now formed
of lotus flowers, or palm branches. In some cases, with a sad want of
taste, the weight of the roof rests on the weak head of a woman.
The buildings, however, of the Ptolemies are such that, before the
hieroglyphics on them had been read by Doctor Young, nobody had ever
guessed that they were later than the time of Cambyses, while three or
four pillars at Alexandria were almost the only proof that the country
had ever been held by Greeks.
In the religion we find many new gods or old gods in new dresses.
Hapimou, the Nile, now pours water out of a jar like a Greek river god.
The moon, which before ornamented the heads of gods, is now a goddess
under the name of Ioh. The favourite Isis had appeared in so many
characters that she is called the goddess with ten thousand names.
[Illustration: 364.jpg GRAECO-EGYPTIAN COLUMN]
The gods had also changed their rank; Phtah and Serapis now held the
chief place. Strange change had also taken place in the names of men
and cities. In the place of Petisis, Petamun, Psammo, and Serapion,
we find men named Eudoxus, Hermophantus, and Poly crates; while of the
cities, Oshmoonayn is called Hermopolis; Esne, Latopolis; Chemmis,
Panopolis; and Thebes, Diospolis; and Ptolemais, Phylace, Parembole,
and others had sprung into being. Many new characters crept into the
hieroglyphics, as the camelopard, the mummy lying on a couch, the ships
with sails, and the chariot with horses; there were more words spelled
with letters, the groups were more crowded, and the titles of the kings
within the ovals became much longer.
With the papyrus, which was becoming common about the time of the
Persian invasion, we find the running hand, the enchorial or common
writing, as it was called, coming into use, in which there were few
symbols, and most of the words were spelt with letters. Each letter was
of the easy sloping form, which came from its being made with a reed or
pen, instead of the stiff form of the hieroglyphics, which were mostly
cut in stone. But there is a want of neatness, which has thrown a
difficulty over them, and has made these writings less easy to read than
the hieroglyphics.
When the country fell into the hands of Augustus, the Kopts were in
a much lower state than when conquered by Alexander. Of the old moral
worth and purity of manners very little remained. All respect for women
was lost; and, when men degrade those who should be their helps towards
excellence, they degrade themselves also. Not a small part of the
nation was sunk in vice. They had been slaves for three hundred years,
sometimes trusted and well-treated, but more often trampled on and
ground down with taxes and cruelty. They had never held up their heads
as freemen, or felt themselves lords of their own soil; they had fallen
off in numbers, in wealth, and in knowledge; nothing was left to them
but their religion, their temples, their hieroglyphics, and the painful
remembrance of their faded glories.
END OF VOL. X.