[1] This derivation, suggested also by Dr Legg (_Archaeol. Journal_,
51, p. 39, 1894), is rejected by the five bishops in their report to
Convocation (1908). Their statement, however, that it is "pretty
clear" that the cope is derived from the Roman _lacerna_ or _birrus_
is very much open to criticism. We do not even know what the
appearance and form of the _birrus_ were; and the question of the
origin of the cope is not whether it was derived from any garment of
the time of the Roman Empire, and if so from which, but what garment
in use in the 8th and 9th centuries it represents.
COPELAND, HENRY, an 18th century English cabinet-maker and furniture
designer. He appears to have been the first manufacturing cabinet-maker
who published designs for furniture. _A New Book of Ornaments_ appeared
in 1746, but it is not clear whether the engravings with this title
formed part of a book, or were issued only in separate plates; a few of
the latter are all that are known to exist. Between 1752 and 1769
several collections of designs were produced by Copeland in conjunction
with Matthias Lock; in one of them Copeland is described as of
Cheapside. Some of the original drawings are in the National Art library
at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Copeland was probably the originator
of a peculiar type of chairback, popular for a few years in the middle
of the 18th century, consisting of a series of interlaced circles. Much
of his work has been attributed to Thomas Chippendale, and it is certain
that one derived many ideas from the other, but which was the originator
and which the copyist is by no means clear. The dates of Copeland's
birth and death are unknown, but he was still living in 1768.
COPENHAGEN (Danish _Kjobenhavn_), the capital of the kingdom of Denmark,
on the east coast of the island of Zealand (_Sjaelland_) at the southern
end of the Sound. Pop. (1901) 400,575. The latitude is approximately
that of Moscow, Berwick-on-Tweed and Hopedale in Labrador. The nucleus
of the city is built on low-lying ground on the east coast of the island
of Zealand, between the sea and a series of small freshwater lakes,
known respectively as St Jorgens So, Peblings So and Sortedams So, a
southern portion occupying the northern part of the island of Amager. An
excellent harbour is furnished by the natural channel between the two
islands; and communication from one division to the other is afforded by
two bridges--the Langebro and the Knippelsbro, which replaced the wooden
drawbridge built by Christian IV. in 1620. The older city, including
both the Zealand and Amager portions, was formerly surrounded by a
complete line of ramparts and moats; but pleasant boulevards and gardens
now occupy the westward or landward site of fortifications. Outside the
lines of the original city (about 5 m. in circuit), there are extensive
suburbs, especially on the Zealand side (Osterbro, Norrebro and
Vesterbro or Osterfolled, &c., and Frederiksberg), and Amagerbro to the
south of Christianshavn.
The area occupied by the inner city is known as Gammelsholm (old
island). The main artery is the Gothersgade, running from Kongens Nytorv
to the western boulevards, and separating a district of regular
thoroughfares and rectangular blocks to the north from one of irregular,
narrow and picturesque streets to the south. The Kongens Nytorv, the
focus of the life of the city and the centre of road communications, is
an irregular open space at the head of a narrow arm of the harbour
(Nyhavn) inland from the steamer quays, with an equestrian statue of
Christian V. (d. 1699) in the centre. The statue is familiarly known as
_Hesten_ (the horse) and is surrounded by noteworthy buildings. The
Palace of Charlottenborg, on the east side, which takes its name from
Charlotte, the wife of Christian V., is a huge sombre building, built in
1672. Frederick V. made a grant of it to the Academy of Arts, which
holds its annual exhibition of paintings and sculpture in April and May,
in the adjacent _Kunstudstilling_ (1883). On the south is the principal
theatre, the Royal, a beautiful modern Renaissance building (1874), on
the site of a former theatre of the same name, which dated from 1748.
Statues of the poets Ludvig Holberg (d. 1754), and Adam Ohlenschlager
(d. 1850), the former by Stein and the latter by H. V. Bissen, stand on
either side of the entrance, and the front is crowned by a group by
King, representing Apollo and Pegasus, and the Fountain of Hippocrene.
Within, among other sculptures, is a relief figure of Ophelia, executed
by Sarah Bernhardt. Other buildings in Kongens Nytorv are the foreign
office, several great commercial houses, the commercial bank, and the
Thotts Palais of c. 1685. The quays of the Nyhavn are lined with old
gabled houses.
From the south end of Kongens Nytorv, a street called Holmens Kanal
winds past the National Bank to the Holmens Kirke, or church for the
royal navy, originally erected as an anchor-smithy by Frederick II., but
consecrated by Christian IV., with a chapel containing the tombs of the
great admirals Niels Juel and Peder Tordenskjold, and wood-carving of
the 17th century. The street then crosses a bridge on to the Slottsholm,
an island divided from the mainland by a narrow arm of the harbour,
occupied mainly by the Christiansborg and adjacent buildings. The royal
palace of Christiansborg, originally built (1731-1745) by Christian VI.,
destroyed by fire in 1794, and rebuilt, again fell in flames in 1884.
Fortunately most of the art treasures which the palace contained were
saved. A decision was arrived at in 1903, in commemoration of the
jubilee of the reign of Christian IX., to rebuild the palace for use on
occasions of state, and to house the parliament. On the Slottsplads
(Palace Square) which faces east, is an equestrian statue of Frederick
VII. There are also preserved the bronze statues which stood over the
portal of the palace before the fire--figures of Strength, Wisdom,
Health and Justice, designed by Thorvaldsen. The palace chapel, adorned
with works by Thorvaldsen and Bissen, was preserved from the fire, as
was the royal library of about 540,000 volumes and 20,000 manuscripts,
for which a new building in Christiansgade was designed about 1900.
The exchange (_Borsen_), on the quay to the east, is an ornate gabled
building erected in 1619-1640, surmounted by a remarkable spire, formed
of four dragons, with their heads directed to the four points of the
compass, and their bodies entwining each other till their tails come to
a point at the top. To the south is the arsenal (_Tojhus_) with a
collection of ancient armour.
The Thorvaldsen museum (1839-1848), a sombre building in a combination
of the Egyptian and Etruscan styles, consists of two storeys. In the
centre is an open court, containing the artist's tomb. The exterior
walls are decorated with groups of figures of coloured stucco,
illustrative of events connected with Thorvaldsen's life. Over the
principal entrance is the chariot of Victory drawn by four horses,
executed in bronze from a model by Bissen. The front hall, corridors and
apartments are painted in the Pompeian style, with brilliant colours and
with great artistic skill. The museum contains about 300 of
Thorvaldsen's works; and in one apartment is his sitting-room furniture
arranged as it was found at the time of his death in 1844.
On the mainland, immediately west of the Slottsholm, is the Prinsens
Palais, once the residence of Christian V. and Frederick VI. when crown
princes, containing the national museum. This consists of four sections,
the Danish, ethnographical, antique and numismatic. It was founded in
1807 by Professor Nyerup, and extended between 1815 and 1885 by C. J.
Thomsen and J. J. A. Worsaae, and the ethnographical collection is among
the finest in the world. From this point the Raadhusgade leads
north-west to the combined Nytorv-og-Gammeltorv, where is the old
townhall (_Raadhus_, 1815), and continues as the Norregade to the Vor
Frue Kirke (Church of our Lady), the cathedral church of Copenhagen.
This church, the site of which has been similarly occupied since the
12th century, was almost entirely destroyed in the bombardment of 1807,
but was completely restored in 1811-1829. The works of Thorvaldsen which
it contains constitute its chief attraction. In the pediment is a group
of sixteen figures by Thorvaldsen, representing John the Baptist
preaching in the wilderness; over the entrance within the portico is a
bas-relief of Christ's entry into Jerusalem; on one side of the entrance
is a statue of Moses by Bissen, and on the other a statue of David by
Jerichau. In a niche behind the altar stands a colossal marble statue of
Christ, and marble statues of the twelve apostles adorn both sides of
the church.
Immediately north of Vor Frue Kirke is the university, founded by
Christian I. in 1479; though its existing constitution dates from 1788.
The building dates from 1836. There are five faculties--theological,
juridical, medical, philosophical and mathematical. In 1851 an English
and in 1852 an Anglo-Saxon lectureship were established. All the
professors are bound to give a series of lectures open to the public
free of charge. The university possesses considerable endowments and has
several foundations for the assistance of poor students; the "regent's
charity," for instance, founded by Christian, affords free residence and
a small allowance to one hundred bursars. There are about 2000 students.
In connexion with the university are the observatory, the chemical
laboratory in Ny Vester Gade, the surgical academy in Bredgade, founded
in 1786, and the botanic garden. The university library, incorporated
with the former Classen library, collected by the famous merchants of
that name, contains about 200,000 volumes, besides about 4000
manuscripts, which include Rask's valuable Oriental collection and the
Arne-Magnean series of Scandinavian documents. It shares with the royal
library the right of receiving a copy of every book published in
Denmark. There is also a zoological museum. Adjacent is St Peter's
church, built in a quasi-Gothic style, with a spire 256 ft. high, and
appropriated since 1585 as a parish church for the German residents in
Copenhagen. A short distance along the Krystalgade is Trinity church.
Its round tower is 111 ft. high, and is considered to be unique in
Europe. It was constructed from a plan of Tycho Brahe's favourite
disciple Longomontanus, and was formerly used as an observatory. It is
ascended by a broad inclined spiral way, up which Peter the Great is
said to have driven in a carriage and four. From this church the
Kjobermayergade runs south, a populous street of shops, giving upon the
Hoibro-plads, with its fine equestrian statue of Bishop Absalon, the
city's founder. This square is connected by a bridge with the
Slottsholm.
The quarter north-east of Kongens Nytorv and Gothersgaden is the richest
in the city, including the palaces of Amalienborg, the castle and gardens
of Rosenborg and several mansions of the nobility. The quarter extends to
the strong moated citadel, which guards the harbour on the north-east. It
is a regular polygon with five bastions, founded by Frederick III. about
1662-1663. One of the mansions, the Moltkes Palais, has a collection of
Dutch paintings formed in the 18th century. This is in the principal
thoroughfare of the quarter, Bredgaden, and close at hand the palace of
King George of Greece faces the Frederikskirke or Marble church. This
church, intended to have been an edifice of great extent and
magnificence, was begun in the reign of Frederick V. (1749), but after
twenty years was left unfinished. It remained a ruin until 1874, when it
was purchased by a wealthy banker, M. Tietgen, at whose expense the work
was resumed. The edifice was not carried up to the height originally
intended, but the magnificent dome, which recalls the finest examples in
Italy, is conspicuous far and wide. The diameter is only a few feet less
than that of St Peter's in Rome. As the church stands it is one of the
principal works of the architect, F. Meldahl. Behind King George's palace
from the Bredgade lies the Amalienborg-plads, having in the centre an
equestrian statue of Frederick V., erected in 1768 at the cost of the
former Asiatic Company. The four palaces, of uniform design, encircling
this _plads_, were built for the residence of four noble families; but on
the destruction of Christiansborg in 1794 they became the residence of
the king and court, and so continued till the death of Christian VIII. in
1848. One of the four is inhabited by the king, the second and third by
the crown prince and other members of the royal family, while the fourth
is occupied by the coronation and state rooms. The Ameliegade crosses the
_plads_ and, with the Bredgade, terminates at the esplanade outside the
citadel, prolonged in the pleasant promenade of Lange Linie skirting the
Sound.
To the west of the citadel is the Ostbanegaard, or eastern railway
station, from which start the local trains on the coast line to
Klampenborg and Helsingor. South-west from this point extends the line
of gardens which occupy the site of former landward fortifications,
pleasantly diversified by water and plantations, skirted on the inner
side by three wide boulevards, Ostervold, Norrevold and Vestervold Gade,
and containing noteworthy public buildings, mostly modern. In the Ostre
Anlaeg is the art museum (1895) containing pictures, sculptures and
engravings. In front of it is the Denmark monument (1896), commemorating
the golden wedding (1892) of Christian IX. and Queen Louisa. Among
various scenes in relief, the marriage of King Edward VII. of England
and Queen Alexandra is depicted. The botanical garden (1874) contains an
observatory with a statue of Tycho Brahe, and the chemical laboratory,
mineralogical museum, polytechnic academy (1829) and communal hospital
adjoin it. On the inner side of Ostevold Gade is Rosenborg Park, with
the palace of Rosenborg erected in 1610-1617. It is an irregular
building in Gothic style, with a high pointed roof, and flanked by four
towers of unequal dimensions. It contains the chronological collection
of Danish monarchs, including a coin and medal cabinet, a fine
collection of Venetian glass, the famous silver drinking-horn of
Oldenburg (1474), the regalia and other objects of interest as
illustrating the history of Denmark. The Riddersal, a spacious room, is
covered with tapestry representing the various battles of Christian V.,
and has at one end a massive silver throne. The Norrevold Gade leads
through the Norretorv past the Folke-teatre and the technical school to
the Orsteds park, and from its southern end the Vestervold Gade
continues through the Raadhus Plads, a centre of tramways, flanked by
the modern Renaissance town hall (1901), ornamented with bronze figures,
with a tower at the eastern angle. Here is also the museum of industrial
art, and the Ny-Carlsberg Glyptotek, with its collection of sculpture,
is on this boulevard, which skirts the pleasure garden called Tivoli.
From the Raadhus-plads the Vesterbro Gade runs towards the western
quarter of the city, skirting the Tivoli. Here is the Dansk Folke
museum, a collection illustrating the domestic life of the nation,
particularly that of the peasantry since 1600. A column of Liberty
(_Friheds-Stotte_) rises in an open space, erected in 1798 to
commemorate the abolition of serfdom. Immediately north is the main
railway station (_Banegaard_), and the North and Klampenborg stations
near at hand. The western (residential) quarter contains the park of
Frederiksberg, with its palace erected under Frederick IV. (d. 1730),
used as a military school. The park contains a zoological garden, and is
continued south in the pleasant Sondermarken, near which lies the old
Glyptotek, which contained the splendid collection of sculptures, &c.,
made by H. C. Jacobsen since 1887, until their removal to the new
Glyptotek founded by him in the Vestre Boulevard.
The quarter of Christianshavn is that portion of the city which skirts
the harbour to the south, and lies within the fortifications. It
contains the Vor Frelsers Kirke (Church of Our Saviour), dedicated in
1696, with a curious steeple 282 ft. high, ascended by an external
spiral staircase. The lower part of the altar is composed of Italian
marble, with a representation of Christ's sufferings in the garden of
Gethsemane; and the organ is considered the finest in Copenhagen. The
city does not extend much farther south, though the Amagerbro quarter
lies without the walls. The island of Amager is fertile, producing
vegetables for the markets of the capital. It was peopled by a Dutch
colony planted by Christian II. in 1516, and many old peculiarities of
dress, manners and languages are retained.
The environs of Copenhagen to the north and west are interesting, and
the country, both along the coast northward and inland westward is
pleasant, though in no way remarkable. The railway along the coast
northward passes the seaside resorts of Klampenborg (6 m.) and Skodsborg
(10 m.). Near Klampenborg is the Dyrehave (Deer park) or Skoven (the
forest), a beautiful forest of beeches. The Zealand Northern railway
passes Lyngby, on the lake of the same name, a favourite summer
residence, and Hillerod (21 m.), a considerable town, capital of the
_amt_ (county) of Frederiksberg, and close to the palace of
Frederiksberg. This was erected in 1602-1620 by Christian IV., embodying
two towers of an earlier building, and partly occupying islands in a
small lake. It suffered seriously from fire in 1859, but was carefully
restored under the direction of F. Meldahl. It contains a national
historical museum, including furniture and pictures. The palace church
is an interesting medley of Gothic and Renaissance detail. The villa of
Hvidore was acquired by Queen Alexandra in 1907.
Among the literary and scientific associations of Copenhagen may be
mentioned the Danish Royal Society, founded in 1742, for the advancement
of the sciences of mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, &c., by
the publication of papers and essays; the Royal Antiquarian Society,
founded in 1825, for diffusing a knowledge of Northern and Icelandic
archaeology; the Society for the Promotion of Danish Literature, for the
publication of works chiefly connected with the history of Danish
literature; the Natural Philosophy Society; the Royal Agricultural
Society; the Danish Church History Society; the Industrial Association,
founded in 1838; the Royal Geographical Society, established in 1876;
and several musical and other societies. The Academy of Arts was founded
by Frederick V. in 1754 for the instruction of artists, and for
disseminating a taste for the fine arts among manufacturers and
operatives. Attached to it are schools for the study of architecture,
ornamental drawing and modelling. An Art Union was founded in 1826, and
a musical conservatorium in 1870 under the direction of the composers N.
W. Gade and J. P. E. Hartmann.
Among educational institutions, other than the university, may be
mentioned the veterinary and agricultural college, established in 1773
and adopted by the state in 1776, the military academy and the school of
navigation. Technical instruction is provided by the polytechnic school
(1829), which is a state institution, and the school of the Technical
Society, which, though a private foundation, enjoys public subvention.
The schools which prepare for the university, &c., are nearly all
private, but are all under the control of the state. Elementary
instruction is mostly provided by the communal schools.
The churches already mentioned belong to the national Lutheran Church;
the most important of those belonging to other denominations are the
Reformed church, founded in 1688, and rebuilt in 1731, the Catholic
church of St Ansgarius, consecrated in 1842, and the Jewish synagogue in
Krystalgade, which dates from 1853. Of the monastic buildings of
medieval Copenhagen various traces are preserved in the present
nomenclature of the streets. The Franciscan establishment gives its name
to the Graabrodretorv or Grey Friars' market; and St Clara's Monastery,
the largest of all, which was founded by Queen Christina, is still
commemorated by the Klareboder or Clara buildings, near the present
post-office. The Duebrodre Kloster occupied the site of the hospital of
the Holy Ghost.
Among the hospitals of Copenhagen, besides many modern institutions,
there may be mentioned Frederick's hospital, erected in 1752-1757 by
Frederick V., the Communal Hospital, erected in 1859-1863, on the
eastern side of the Sortedamsso, the general hospital in Ameliegade,
founded in 1769, and the garrison hospital, in Rigensgade, established
in 1816 by Frederick VI. After the cholera epidemic of 1853, which
carried off more than 4000 of the inhabitants, the medical association
built several ranges of workmen's houses, and their example was followed
by various private capitalists, among whom may be mentioned the Classen
trustees, whose buildings occupy an open site on the western outskirts
of the city.
Copenhagen is by far the most important commercial town in Denmark, and
exemplifies the steady increase in the trade of the country. The harbour
is mainly comprised in the narrow strait between the outer Sound and its
inlet the Kalvebod or Kallebo Strand. The trading capabilities were
aided by the construction in 1894 of the Frihavn (free port) at the
northern extremity of the town, well supplied with warehouses and other
conveniences. It is connected with the main railway station by means of
a circular railway, while a short branch connects it with the ordinary
custom-house quay. The commercial harbour is separated from the harbour
for warships (_Orlogshavn_) by a barrier. The sea approaches are guarded
by ten coast batteries besides the old citadel. The Middelgrund is a
powerful defensive work completed in 1896 and most of the rest are
modern. The landward defences of Copenhagen, it may be added, were left
unprovided for after the Napoleonic wars until the patriotism of Danish
women, who subscribed sufficient funds for the first fort, shamed
parliament into granting the necessary money for others (1886-1895).
Copenhagen is not an industrial town. The manufactures carried on are
mostly only such as exist in every large town, and the export of
manufactured goods is inconsiderable. The royal china factory is
celebrated for models of Thorvaldsen's works in biscuit china. The only
very large establishment is one for the construction of iron steamers,
engines, &c., but some factories have been erected within the area of
the free port for the purpose of working up imported raw materials duty
free.
_History._--Copenhagen (i.e. Merchant's Harbour, originally simply Havn,
latinized as _Hafnia_) is first mentioned in history in 1043. It was
then only a fishing village, and remained so until about the middle of
the 12th century, when Valdemar I. presented that part of the island to
Axel Hvide, renowned in Danish history as Absalon (q.v.), bishop of
Roskilde, and afterwards archbishop of Lund. In 1167 this prelate
erected a castle on the spot where the Christiansborg palace now stands,
and the building was called after him Axel-huus. The settlement
gradually became a great resort for merchants, and thus acquired the
name which, in a corrupted form, it still bears, of Kaupmannahofn,
Kjobmannshavn, or _Portus Mercatorum_ as it is translated by Saxo
Grammaticus. In 1186, Bishop Absalon bestowed the castle and village,
with the lands of Amager, on the see of Roskilde; but, as the place grew
in importance, the Danish kings became anxious to regain it, and in 1245
King Eric IV. drove out Bishop Niels Stigson. On the king's death
(1250), however, Bishop Jacob Erlandsen obtained the town, and, in 1254,
gave to the burghers their first municipal privileges, which were
confirmed by Pope Urban III. in 1286. In the charter of 1254, while
there is mention of a _communitas_ capable of making a compact with the
bishop, there is nothing said of any trade or craft gilds. These are,
indeed, expressly prohibited in the later charter of Bishop Johann Kvag
(1294); and the distinctive character of the constitution of Copenhagen
during the middle ages consisted in the absence of the free gild system,
and the right of any burgher to pursue a craft under license from the
_Vogt_ (_advocatus_) of the overlord and the city authorities. Later on,
gilds were established, in spite of the prohibition of the old charters;
but they were strictly subordinate to the town authorities, who
appointed their aldermen and suppressed them when they considered them
useless or dangerous. The prosperity of Copenhagen was checked by an
attack by the people of Lubeck in 1248, and by another on the part of
Prince Jaromir of Rugen in 1259. In 1306 it managed to repel the
Norwegians, but in 1362, and again in 1368, it was captured by the
opponents of Valdemar Atterdag. In the following century a new enemy
appeared in the Hanseatic league, which was jealous of its rivalry, but
their invasion was frustrated by Queen Philippa. Various attempts were
made by successive kings to obtain the town from the see of Roskilde, as
the most suitable for the royal residence; but it was not till 1443 that
the transference was finally effected and Copenhagen became the capital
of the kingdom. From 1523 to 1524 it held out for Christian II. against
Frederick I., who captured it at length and strengthened its defensive
works; and it was only after a year's siege that it yielded in 1536 to
Christian III. From 1658 to 1660 it was unsuccessfully beleaguered by
Charles Gustavus of Sweden; and in the following year it was rewarded by
various privileges for its gallant defence. In 1660 it gave its name to
the treaty which concluded the Swedish war of Frederick III. In 1700 it
was bombarded by the united fleets of England, Holland and Sweden; in
1728 a conflagration destroyed 1640 houses and five churches; another in
1795 laid waste 943 houses, the church of St Nicolas, and the _Raadhus_.
In 1801 the Danish fleet was destroyed in the roadstead by the English
(see below, S _Battle of Copenhagen_); and in 1807 the city was
bombarded by the British under Lord Cathcart, and saw the destruction of
the university buildings, its principal church and numerous other
edifices.
See O. Nielsen, _Kobenhavns Historie oz Beskrivelse_ (Copenhagen,
1877-1892); C. Bruun and P. Munch, _Kobenhavn, Skrilding af dets
Historie_, &c. (ibid. 1887-1901); Bering-Lusberg, _Kobenhavn i gamle
Dage_ (ibid. 1898 et seq.). (O. J. R. H.)