[1] It is owing to this interchange of their names that Yarrell in his
_British Birds_ refers Victor Hugo's description of the "chasse aux
macreuses" to the scoter instead of the coot.
[2] Hence also we have _Fulix_ or _Fuligula_ applied to a duck of
dingy appearance, and thus forming another parallel case.
COOTE, SIR EYRE (1726-1783), British soldier, the son of a clergyman,
was born near Limerick, and entered the 27th regiment. He saw active
service in the Jacobite rising of 1745, and some years later obtained a
captaincy in the 39th regiment, which was the first British regiment
sent to India. In 1756 a part of the regiment, then quartered at Madras,
was sent forward to join Clive in his operations against Calcutta, which
was reoccupied without difficulty, and Coote was soon given the local
rank of major for his good conduct in the surprise of the Nawab's camp.
Soon afterwards came the battle of Plassey, which would in all
probability not have taken place but for Coote's soldierly advice at
the council of war; and after the defeat of the Nawab he led a
detachment in pursuit of the French for 400 m. under extraordinary
difficulties. His conduct won him the rank of lieutenant-colonel and the
command of the 84th regiment, newly-raised for Indian service, but his
exertions seriously injured his health. In October 1759 Coote's regiment
arrived to take part in the decisive struggle between French and English
in the Carnatic. He took command of the forces at Madras, and in 1760
led them in the decisive victory of Wandiwash (January 22). After a time
the remnants of Lally's forces were shut up in Pondicherry. For some
reason Coote was not entrusted with the siege operations, but he
cheerfully and loyally supported Monson, who brought the siege to a
successful end on the 15th of January 1761. Soon afterwards Coote was
given the command of the East India Company's forces in Bengal, and
conducted the settlement of a serious dispute between the Nawab Mir
Cassim and a powerful subordinate, and in 1762 he returned to England,
receiving a jewelled sword of honour from the Company and other rewards
for his great services. In 1771 he was made a K.B. In 1779 he returned
to India as lieutenant-general commanding in chief. Following generally
the policy of Warren Hastings, he nevertheless refused to take sides in
the quarrels of the council, and made a firm stand in all matters
affecting the forces. Hyder Ali's progress in southern India called him
again into the field, but his difficulties were very great and it was
not until the 1st of June 1781 that the crushing and decisive defeat of
Porto Novo struck the first heavy blow at Hyder's schemes. The battle
was won by Coote under most unfavourable conditions against odds of five
to one, and is justly ranked as one of the greatest feats of the British
in India. It was followed up by another hard-fought battle at Pollilur
(the scene of an earlier triumph of Hyder over a British force) on the
27th of August, in which the British won another success, and by the
rout of the Mysore troops at Sholingarh a month later. His last service
was the arduous campaign of 1782, which finally shattered a constitution
already gravely impaired by hardship and exertions. Sir Eyre Coote died
at Madras on the 28th of April 1783. A monument was erected to him in
Westminster Abbey.
For a short biography of Coote see _Twelve British Soldiers_ (ed.
Wilkinson, London, 1899), and for the battles of Wandewash and Porto
Novo, consult Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (London, 1883). An
account of Coote may be found in Wilk's _Historical Sketches of
Mysore_ (1810).
COPAIBA, or COPAIVA (from Brazilian _cupauba_), an oleo-resin--sometimes
termed a balsam--obtained from the trunk of the _Copaifera Lansdorfii_
(natural order Leguminosae) and from other species of _Copaifera_ found
in the West Indies and in the valley of the Amazon. It is a somewhat
viscous transparent liquid, occasionally fluorescent and of a light
yellow to pale golden colour. The odour is aromatic and very
characteristic, the taste acrid and bitter. It is insoluble in water,
but soluble in absolute alcohol, ether and the fixed and volatile oils.
Its approximate composition is more than 50% of a volatile oil and less
than 50% of a resin. The pharmacopoeias contain the oleo-resin itself,
which is given in doses of from a half to one drachm, and the _oleum
copaibae_, which is given in doses of from five to twenty minims, but
which is inferior, as a medicinal agent, to the oleo-resin. Copaiba
shares the pharmacological characters of volatile oils generally. Its
distinctive features are its disagreeable taste and the unpleasant
eructations to which it may give rise, its irritant action on the
intestine in any but small doses, its irritant action on the skin, often
giving rise to an erythematous eruption which may be mistaken for that
of scarlet fever, and its exceptionally marked stimulant action on the
kidneys. In large doses this last action may lead to renal inflammation.
The resin is excreted in the urine and is continually mistaken for
albumin since it is precipitated by nitric acid, but the precipitate is
re-dissolved, unlike albumin, on heating. Its nasty taste, its irritant
action on the bowel, and its characteristic odour in the breath,
prohibit its use--despite its other advantages--in all diseases but
gonorrhoea. For this disease it is a valuable remedy, but it must not
be administered until the acute symptoms have subsided, else it will
often increase them. It is best given in cachets or in three times its
own bulk of mucilage of acacia. Various devices are adopted to disguise
its odour in the breath. The clinical evidence clearly shows that none
of the numerous vegetable rivals to copaiba is equal to it in
therapeutic value.
COPAL (Mexican _copalli_, incense), a hard lustrous resin, varying in
hue from an almost colourless transparent mass to a bright
yellowish-brown, having a conchoidal fracture, and, when dissolved in
alcohol, spirit of turpentine, or any other suitable menstruum, forming
one of the most valuable varnishes. Copal is obtained from a variety of
sources; the term is not uniformly applied or restricted to the products
of any particular region or series of plants, but is vaguely used for
resins which, though very similar in their physical properties, differ
somewhat in their constitution, and are altogether distinct as to their
source. Thus the resin obtained from _Trachylobium Hornemannianum_ is
known in commerce as Zanzibar copal, or gum anime. Madagascar copal is
the produce of _T. verrucosum_. From _Guibourtia copallifera_ is
obtained Sierra Leone copal, and another variety of the same resin is
found in a fossil state on the west coast of Africa, probably the
produce of a tree now extinct. From Brazil and other South American
countries, again, copal is obtained which is yielded by _Trachylobium
Martianum_, _Hymenaea Courbaril_, and various other species, while the
dammar resins and the piney varnish of India are occasionally classed
and spoken of as copal. Of the varieties above enumerated by far the
most important from a commercial point of view is the Zanzibar or East
African copal, yielded by _Trachylobium Hornemannianum_. The resin is
found in two distinct conditions: (1) raw or recent, called by the
inhabitants of the coast sandarusiza miti or chakazi, the latter name
being corrupted by Zanzibar traders into "jackass" copal; and (2) ripe
or true copal, the sandarusi inti of the natives. The raw copal, which
is obtained direct from the trees, or found at their roots or near the
surface of the ground, is not regarded by the natives as of much value,
and does not enter into European commerce. It is sent to India and
China, where it is manufactured into a coarse kind of varnish. The true
or fossil copal is found embedded in the earth over a wide belt of the
mainland coast of Zanzibar, on tracts where not a single tree is now
visible. The copal is not found at a greater depth in the ground than 4
ft., and it is seldom the diggers go deeper than about 3 ft. It occurs
in pieces varying from the size of small pebbles up to masses of several
ounces in weight, and occasionally lumps weighing 4 or 5 lb have been
obtained. After being freed from foreign matter, the resin is submitted
to various chemical operations for the purpose of clearing the
"goose-skin," the name given to the peculiar pitted-like surface
possessed by fossil copal. The goose-skin was formerly supposed to be
caused by the impression of the small stones and sand of the soil into
which the soft resin fell in its raw condition; but it appears that the
copal when first dug up presents no trace of the goose-skin, the
subsequent appearance of which is due to oxidation or inter-molecular
change.
COPALITE, or COPALINE, also termed "fossil resin" and "Highgate resin,"
a naturally occurring organic substance found as irregular pieces of
pale-yellow colour in the London clay at Highgate Hill. It has a
resinous aromatic odour when freshly broken, volatilizes at a moderate
temperature, and burns readily with a yellow, smoky flame, leaving
scarcely any ash.
COPAN, an ancient ruined city of western Honduras, near the Guatemalan
frontier, and on the right bank of the Rio Copan, a tributary of the
Motagua. For an account of its elaborately sculptured stone buildings,
which rank among the most celebrated monuments of Mayan civilization,
see CENTRAL AMERICA: ARCHAEOLOGY. The city is sometimes regarded as
identical with the Indian stronghold which, after a heroic resistance,
was stormed by the Spaniards, under Hernando de Chaves, in 1530. It has
given its name to the department in which it is situated.
COPARCENARY (_co-_, with, and _parcener_, i.e. sharer; from O. Fr.
_parconier_, Lat. _partitio_, division), in law, the descent of lands
of inheritance from an ancestor to two or more persons possessing an
equal title to them. It arises either by common law, as where an
ancestor dies intestate, leaving two or more females as his
co-heiresses, who then take as coparceners or parceners; or, by
particular custom, as in the case of gavelkind lands, which descend to
all males in equal degrees, or in default of males, to all the daughters
equally. These co-heirs, or parceners, have been so called, says
Littleton (S 241), "because by writ the law will constrain them, that
partition shall be made among them." Coparcenary so far resembles joint
tenancy in that there is unity of title, interest and possession, but
whereas joint tenants always claim by purchase, parceners claim by
descent, and although there is unity of interest there is no entirety,
for there is no _jus accrescendi_ or survivorship. Coparcenary may be
dissolved (a) by partition; (b) by alienation by one coparcener; (c) by
all the estate at last descending to one coparcener, who thenceforth
holds in severalty; (d) by a compulsory partition or sale under the
Partition Acts.
The term "coparcenary" is not in use in the United States, joint
heirship being considered as _tenancy in common_.
COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897), American palaeontologist, descended
from a Wiltshire family who emigrated about 1687, was born in
Philadelphia on the 28th of July 1840. At an early age he became
interested in natural history, and in 1859 communicated a paper on the
Salamandridae to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. He was
educated partly in the University of Pennsylvania, and after further
study and travel in Europe was in 1865 appointed curator to the Academy
of Natural Sciences, a post which he held till 1873. In 1864-67 he was
professor of natural science in Haverford College, and in 1889 he was
appointed professor of geology and palaeontology in the University of
Pennsylvania. To the study of the American fossil vertebrata he gave his
special attention. From 1871 to 1877 he carried on explorations in the
Cretaceous strata of Kansas, the Tertiary of Wyoming and Colorado; and
in course of time he made known at least 600 species and many genera of
extinct vertebrata new to science. Among these were some of the oldest
known mammalia, obtained in New Mexico. He served on the U.S. Geological
Survey in 1874 in New Mexico, in 1875 in Montana, and in 1877 in Oregon
and Texas. He was also one of the editors of the _American Naturalist_.
He died in Philadelphia on the 12th of April 1897.
PUBLICATIONS.--Reports for U.S. Geological Survey on _Eocene
Vertebrata of Wyoming_ (1872); on _Vertebrata of Cretaceous Formations
of the West_ (1875); _Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the
West_ (1884); _The Origin of the Fittest: Essays on Evolution_ (New
York, 1887); _The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution_ (Chicago,
1896). Memoir by Miss Helen D. King, _American Geologist_, Jan. 1899
(with portrait and bibliography); also memoir by P. Frazer, _American
Geologist_, Aug. 1900 (with portrait).
COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873), English classical scholar, was born
in Birmingham on the 28th of July 1818. He was educated at Ludlow and
Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he
was elected fellow in 1842, having taken his degree in 1841 as senior
classic. He was for many years lecturer at Trinity, his favourite
subjects being the Greek tragedians, Plato and Aristotle. When the
professorship of Greek became vacant, the votes were equally divided
between Cope and B. H. Kennedy, and the latter was appointed by the
chancellor. It is said that the keenness of Cope's disappointment was
partly responsible for the mental affliction by which he was attacked in
1869, and from which he never recovered. He died on the 5th of August
1873. As his published works show, Cope was a thoroughly sound scholar,
with perhaps a tendency to over-minuteness. He was the author of _An
Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric_ (1867), a standard work; _The
Rhetoric of Aristotle_, with a commentary, revised and edited by J. E.
Sandys (1877); translations of Plato's _Gorgias_ (2nd ed ., 1884) and
_Phaedo_ (revised by H. Jackson, 1875). Mention may also be made of his
criticism of Grote's account of the Sophists, in the _Cambridge Journal
of Classical Philology_, vols. i., ii., iii. (1854-1857).
The chief authority for the facts of Cope's life is the memoir
prefixed to vol. i. of his edition of _The Rhetoric of Aristotle_.
COPE (M.E. _cape_, _cope_, from Med. Lat. _capa_, _cappa_), a liturgical
vestment of the Western Church. The word "cope," now confined to this
sense, was in its origin identical with "cape" and "cap," and was used
until comparatively modern times also for an out-door cloak, whether
worn by clergy or laity. This, indeed, was its original meaning, the
_cappa_ having been an outer garment common to men and women whether
clerical or lay (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.). The word _pluviale_
(rain-cloak), which the cope bears in the Roman Church, is exactly
parallel so far as change of meaning is concerned. In both words the
etymology reveals the origin of the vestment, which is no more than a
glorified survival of an article of clothing worn by all and sundry in
ordinary life, the type of which survives, e.g. in the ample hooded
cloak of Italian military officers. This origin is clearly traceable in
the shape and details of the cope. When spread out this forms an almost
complete semicircle. Along the straight edge there is usually a broad
band, and at the neck is attached the "hood" (in Latin, the _clypeus_ or
shield), i.e. a shield-shaped piece of stuff which hangs down over the
back. The vestment is secured in front by a broad tab sewn on to one
side and fastening to the other with hooks, sometimes also by a brooch
(called the morse, Lat. _morsus_). Sometimes the morse is attached as a
mere ornament to the cross-piece. The cope thus preserves the essential
shape of its secular original, and even the hood, though now a mere
ornamental appendage, is a survival of an actual hood. The evolution of
this latter into its present form was gradual; first the hood became too
small for use, then it was transformed into a small triangular piece of
stuff (13th century), which in its turn grew (14th and 15th centuries)
into the shape of a shield (see Plate II., fig. 4), and this again,
losing its pointed tip in the 17th century, expanded in the 18th into a
flap which was sometimes enlarged so as to cover the whole back down to
the waist. In its general effect, however, a cope now no longer suggests
a "waterproof." It is sometimes elaborately embroidered all over; more
usually it is of some rich material, with the borders in front and the
hood embroidered, while the morse has given occasion for some of the
most beautiful examples of the goldsmith's and jeweller's craft (see
Plate II., figs, 5, 6).
The use of the cope as a liturgical vestment can be traced to the end of
the 8th century: a _pluviale_ is mentioned in the foundation charter of
the monastery of Obona in Spain. Before this the so-called _cappa
choralis_, a black, bell-shaped, hooded vestment with no liturgical
significance, had been worn by the secular and regular clergy at choir
services, processions, &c. This was in its origin identical with the
chasuble (q.v.), and if, as Father Braun seems to prove, the cope
developed out of this, cope and chasuble have a common source.[1] Father
Braun cites numerous inventories and the like to show that the cope
(_pluviale_) was originally no more than a more elaborate _cappa_ worn
on high festivals or other ceremonial occasions, sometimes by the whole
religious community, sometimes--if the stock were limited--by those,
e.g. the cantors, &c., who were most conspicuous in the ceremony. In the
10th century, partly under the influence of the wealthy and
splendour-loving community of Cluny, the use of the cope became very
widespread; in the 11th century it was universally worn, though the
rules for its ritual use had not yet been fixed. It was at this time,
however, _par excellence_ the vestment proper to the cantors,
choirmaster and singers, whose duty it was to sing the _invitatorium_,
_responses_, &c., at office, and the _introitus_, _graduale_, &c., at
Mass. This use survived in the ritual of the pre-Reformation Church in
England, and has been introduced in certain Anglican churches, e.g. St
Mary Magdalen's, Munster Square, in London.
By the beginning of the 13th century the liturgical use of the cope had
become finally fixed, and the rules for this use included by Pope Pius
V. in the Roman Missal and by Clement VIII. in the _Pontificale_ and
_Caeremoniale_ were consequently not new, but in accordance with ancient
and universal custom. The substitution of the cope for the chasuble in
many of the functions for which the latter had been formerly used was
primarily due to the comparative convenience of a vestment opened at the
front, and so leaving the arms free. A natural conservatism preserved
the chasuble, which by the 9th century had acquired a symbolical
significance, as the vestment proper to the celebration of Mass; but the
cope took its place in lesser functions, i.e. the censing of the altar
during the Magnificat and at Mattins (whence the German name
_Rauchmantel_, smoke-mantel), processions, solemn consecrations, and as
the dress of bishops attending synods.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Seventeenth Century Coronation Cope at
Westminster Abbey.]
It is clear from this that the cope, though a liturgical, was never a
sacerdotal vestment. If it was worn by priests, it could also be worn by
laymen, and it was never worn by priests in their sacerdotal, i.e. their
sacrificial, capacity. For this reason it was not rejected with the
"Mass vestments" by the English Church at the Reformation, in spite of
the fact that it was in no ecclesiastical sense "primitive." By the
First Prayer-book of Edward VI., which represented a compromise, it was
directed to be worn as an alternative to the "vestment" (i.e. chasuble)
at the celebration of the Communion; this at least seems the plain
meaning of the words "vestment or cope," though they have been otherwise
interpreted. In the Second Prayer-book vestment and cope alike
disappear; but a cope was worn by the prelate who consecrated Archbishop
Parker, and by the "gentlemen" as well as the priests of Queen
Elizabeth's chapel; and, finally, by the 24th canon (of 1603) a "decent
cope" was prescribed for the "principal minister" at the celebration of
Holy Communion in cathedral churches as well as for the "gospeller and
epistler." Except at royal coronations, however, the use of the cope,
even in cathedrals, had practically ceased in England before the ritual
revival of the 19th century restored its popularity. The disuse implied
no doctrinal change; the main motive was that the stiff vestment, high
in the neck, was incompatible with a full-bottomed wig. Scarlet copes
with white fur hoods have been in continuous use on ceremonial occasions
in the universities, and are worn by bishops at the opening of
parliament.
The Papal mantum.
With the liturgical cope may be classed the red mantle (_mantum_), which
from the 11th century to the close of the middle ages formed, with the
tiara, the special symbol of the papal dignity. The _immantatio_ was the
solemn investiture of the new pope immediately after his election, by
means of the _cappa rubea_, with the papal powers. This ceremony was of
great importance. In the contested election of 1159, for instance,
though a majority of the cardinals had elected Cardinal Roland
(Alexander III.), the defeated candidate Cardinal Octavian (Victor IV.),
while his rival was modestly hesitating to accept the honour, seized the
_pluviale_ and put it on his own shoulders hastily, upside down; and it
was on this ground that the council of Pavia in 1160 based their
declaration in favour of Victor, and anathematized Alexander. The
_immantatio_ fell out of use during the papal exile at Avignon and was
never restored.
The cappa magna.
It will be convenient here to note other vestments that have developed
out of the _cappa_. The _cappa choralis_ has already been mentioned; it
survived as a choir vestment that in winter took the place of the
surplice, rochet or almuce. In the 12th century it was provided with
arms (_cappa manicata_), but the use of this form was forbidden at choir
services and other liturgical functions. From the hood of the _cappa_
was developed the almuce (q.v.). At what date the _cappa choralis_
developed into the _cappa magna_, a non-liturgical vestment peculiar to
the pope, cardinals, bishops and certain privileged prelates, is not
known; but mention of it is found as early as the 15th century. This
vestment is a loose robe, with a large hood (lined with fur in winter
and red silk in summer) and a long train, which is carried by a cleric
called the _caudatarius_. Its colour varies with the hierarchical rank
of the wearer:--red for cardinals, purple for bishops, &c.; or, if the
dignitary belong to a religious order, it follows the colour of the
habit of the order. The right to wear a violet _cappa magna_ is conceded
by the popes to the chapters of certain important cathedrals, but the
train in this case is worn folded over the left arm or tied under it. It
may only be worn by them, moreover, in their own church, or when the
chapter appears elsewhere in its corporate capacity.
The mozzetta.
Lastly, from the _cappa_ is probably derived the _mozzetta_, a short
cape with a miniature hood, fastened down the front with buttons. The
name is derived from the Italian _mozzare_, to cut off, and points to
its being an abbreviated _cappa_, as the episcopal "apron" is a
shortened cassock. It is worn over the rochet by the pope, cardinals,
bishops and prelates, the colours varying as in the case of the _cappa
magna_. Its use as confined to bishops can be traced to the 16th
century.
See Joseph Braun, S. J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1907); also the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.
(W. A. P.)