MILITARY COMMUNICATIONS
The following are the various types of military communication:
FIELD MESSAGES convey verbal or written information by messenger or
wire.
REPORTS are written accounts of some enterprise, undertaking, or
event, such as a reconnaissance, march, or battle.
WAR DIARIES are daily records of events kept during campaign by each
battalion and higher organization. From the entries in these diaries
the facts of our military history are obtained.
LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION, issued by higher commanders, regulate in a
general way movements covering much time and space. Army and Corps
commanders may, by visits and conferences, often communicate verbally
the substance of letters of instruction.
FIELD ORDERS, issued verbally or in writing by commanders of tactical
units, regulate the tactical actions of troops, and such strategical
actions as are not covered by letters of instruction.
GENERAL ORDERS are written directions having to do with the general
administration of a command. They contain the necessary details
for carrying out injunctions from higher authority, for keeping up
standing instructions, and for publishing results of special and
general courts-martial.
ORDERS (when not used as a general term) refer to the instructions
communicated to troops by commanders of divisions and of separate
brigades in regard to combat, field, ammunition, supply, sanitary,
and engineer trains.
SPECIAL ORDERS cover such matters in regard to individuals as are not
necessary to be communicated to the entire command.
OPERATION ORDERS, as we now use the term in reference to trench
warfare, are the orders governing a certain enterprise along a given
sector of the front. Although they are even more precise than field
orders, they contain more details on account of the wide difference
between trench and open warfare.
CIRCULARS are printed from time to time by various bureaus and
departments of the War Department, and by purchasing officers, for
the publication of data pertaining to the business of a bureau or
department.
BULLETINS publish, usually in pamphlet form, information for the
military service.
Both _circulars_ and _bulletins_ have the force of orders.
MEMORANDA are published from time to time by commanding officers to
embody directions not vital or sweeping enough for general or special
orders. _Memoranda_ have the force of orders.
OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE consists of official letters, returns, rolls,
estimates, requisitions, and certain routine reports.
These types of communication have been defined in order to give a
general survey of the many kinds of written and oral expression of
which military men should become masters. Although the task appears
huge, proficiency can be gained by attention to the hints suggested
in Chapter I.
In order to apply those suggestions in a practical way, we must
now sort out from all of the above types those which should press
themselves most upon our attention. Certainly all these types cannot
be equally necessary for our immediate study. Possibly if we classify
them from the point of view of the occasion for their use, we may see
more clearly how to treat them.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO STRESS
MESSAGE } Communicated usually in the presence
FIELD ORDERS } of the enemy under stress.
OPERATION ORDERS }
ORDERS—Written often in the presence of the enemy under stress.
LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION—Written under stress, but with more or less
leisure.
WAR DIARIES—Written under stress, but at any time, during
twenty-four hours.
REPORTS—Written during campaign or peace at comparative leisure.
GENERAL ORDERS }
SPECIAL ORDERS }
CIRCULARS } Written during campaign or peace
BULLETINS } concerning subjects of a routine
MEMORANDA } nature.
CORRESPONDENCE }
EXPLANATIONS }
LECTURES }
It is evident that we are going to have to write messages, field
orders, and operation orders when the enemy is upon us, and when
every second is vital. If we must stop in that crisis and putter
over the forms and methods of drafting our thoughts, how useless we
shall be! When that time comes, one thing alone should occupy our
conscious thought—our military idea. That will be sufficient to keep
busy the most brilliant intellect.
In order that we shall have, then, perfect freedom to grapple with
tactical, strategical, or logistical difficulties on the field of
battle, let us learn the forms and methods of messages, field orders,
and operation orders as soon as possible.
In so doing we shall discover two things,—
(1) That messages, field orders, and operation orders have a bearing
upon each other in the sequence given, and
(2) That the work of framing them will give us the greatest possible
practice in writing all other types of communication.
THE MESSAGE.—The general term _message_ may refer to (1) any informal
or short communication, (2) any directions or orders too abbreviated
to be known as field orders, or (3) any piece of information
transmitted in the presence of the enemy.
Number 1 is too broad for treatment here. Moreover, the ready skill
in composing anything of its nature should follow easily from what we
are about to practice.
Number 2 is to be considered in connection with field orders.
Number 3, then, is the important one for us to take up now. From its
definition it is already familiar to us as
THE FIELD MESSAGE
Since it deals entirely with the communication of information, it
might be well to inquire from what sources this information is to
be derived, in order that we may know something about the kind of
material with which we are going to deal. Just as a stenographer
acquaints herself with some of the workings of her employer’s
business in order to attain the greatest amount of usefulness, so we
should now look over the vast amount of territory which the contents
of field messages cover in order to gain the maximum efficiency in
composing these communications. Accordingly, we find that higher
commanders, adjoining troops, inhabitants of the country, newspapers,
letters, telegraph files, prisoners, deserters, spies, maps, and
reconnaissances, are all sources of valuable military information. It
is from these that we shall obtain our data.
Most of all, however, will the fighting man obtain his from
reconnaissance—the work of gathering information in the field.
From the moment of entering the theatre of operations to that of
abandoning it, there is necessary a constant quest of knowledge
of the enemy’s composition, morale, material, disposition, and
activities. No leader can act intelligently without this information,
and, since he cannot hope to get it in person, he must depend for its
acquisition upon certain reconnaissance units, chief of which is the
patrol.
Our concern with these reconnaissance units lies in the fact that
the information which they gather must be sent to the commander
by messages. If no one in the patrol is capable of sending back
accurate and timely written information, the reconnaissance has
failed, and the patrol might as well have remained in camp. The good
field message is the strong link between the reconnoitering party
and the main body. The poor field message is a gap which no amount
of courageous effort in ferreting out facts from a wary enemy will
bridge. The ideal reconnaissance, then, is one which keeps a constant
stream of accurate and reliable messages flowing back to the proper
recipient.
The main factors which go to make up accuracy and reliability of
field messages are keen observation and faithful expression. Both of
these faculties can be cultivated, and indeed are so closely allied
that they ought to be considered together. It is quite difficult
at times to tell where one leaves off and the other begins. If a
man puts in his message, “The enemy was seen over the hill,” and
another, witnessing the same occurrence, states that “seven hostile
infantrymen lay down on the military crest of hill 307 at 4-17
p. m.,” which one has keenly observed? Which one has faithfully
expressed himself? Is it possible that the first man did not see any
of the details of the second message? Or did he fail to put them down
faithfully? In whatever way we answer these questions, we are brought
to the realization that the second man applied both faculties to an
equal extent. And, therefore, we are led to the conclusion that from
the standpoint of complete expression we must take things quickly,
precisely, and accurately, and put them out certainly, specifically,
concretely, unmistakably, and faithfully.
The field message is not used by the reconnaissance unit exclusively.
An exchange of communications might be necessary between commanders
to tell of changing conditions. The enemy has developed an unexpected
attack, reinforcements are urgently needed, etc. This message will
differ slightly in form from the ordinary field message which will be
analysed below, but it will be of the same essential type, and will
make the same demands upon brevity and clearness.
FORMS FOR FIELD MESSAGES
The Infantry Drill Regulations state that “the authorized message
book should be used and the form therein adhered to.” This book,
issued by the Signal Corps, contains fifty message blanks with fifty
duplicating sheets, so that fifty messages may be sent and a copy of
each retained. The front of the blank appears as on next page.
The back of the blank is divided into squares. By means of a ratio
between the size of these squares and certain scales for maps, a
fairly accurate sketch is possible.
_Caution._
Remember that a message may not always go direct from sender
to receiver, but may be relayed by several methods of
communications—buzzer, helio, or flag. Think how errors may creep
in at each change of method, and guard against them by making your
message one of telegraphic brevity and unmistakable clearness.
+------------------------+----+--------+-----+---------+-----+-------+
| | No.| Sent by| Time| Rec’d by| Time| Check |
| =U. S. ARMY FIELD | | | | | | |
| MESSAGE.= | | | | | | |
| | (These spaces for Signal Operators only.) |
+------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Communicated by | (Name of sending detachment.) |
| Buzzer, Phone, | |
| Telegraph, Wireless, | |
| Lantern, Helio, Flag, | _From_................................... |
| Cyclist, Foot | (Location of sending detachment) |
| Messenger, Mounted | |
| Messenger, Motor Car, | _At_..................................... |
| Flying Machine. | |
| | |
| Underscore means used. | _Date_........... _Hour_........ _No_.... |
+------------------------+ |
| _To_.............................................................. |
| .................................................................. |
| .................................................................. |
| .................................................................. |
| .................................................................. |
| .................................................................. |
| _Received_........................................................ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+
By means of this sketch, the message may often be shortened, for the
sender can refer by letter or number to various points on the sketch,
whereas he would otherwise be compelled to describe positions or to
go into detail at length. When he does draw a sketch, he should refer
to it somewhere on the bottom of the face of the message thus: (See
sketch over) or (See sketch reverse side).
The sketch is not usually duplicated.
The reverse side of the message blank appears thus:
[Illustration: (grid of 25x35 squares)
_Scale of Sketch_ ... _ins. = 1 mile._
_When scale is 6 ins. = 1 mile, each small square is 50 yards._
_When 3 ins. = 1 mile, each one is 100 yards._
_When 6 ins. = 1 mile, V.I. = 10 ft. When 3 ins. = 1 mile, V.I. =
20 ft._]
The form of address of the regulation envelope for this message
appears below. It is probably best explained by an extract from
paragraph 36, Field Service Regulations, which reads as follows:
“Messages carried by a messenger are usually enclosed in envelopes
properly addressed. The envelope when not marked ‘confidential’
is left unsealed, so that commanders along the line of march may
read the contents. Upon the envelope is written the name of the
messenger, his time of departure, and rate of speed. The last is
indicated as follows: Ordinary, rapid, or urgent. Ordinary means five
miles an hour for a mounted man; rapid, about 7 or 8 miles an hour;
and urgent, the highest speed consistent with certainty of arrival
at destination. The recipient notes the time of receipt upon the
envelope and returns the latter to bearer.”
UNITED STATES ARMY FIELD MESSAGE
_To_..................................... _No_...........
(For signal operator only.)
-----------------------------------------------------------
_When sent_.............................. _No_...........
_Rate of speed_..........................................
_Name of Messenger_......................................
_When and by whom rec’d_.................................
=This Envelope Will Be Returned to Bearer=
We should certainly be armed with a Field Message Book when the
crucial moment for writing a message arrives. But it so happens,
especially in open warfare, that that article of equipment may have
been left in the saddlebags, or have been borrowed by a friend. At
any rate it is not present for duty when we want it. However, we
are always able to produce a piece of paper or clothing—something
upon which to write—from someone of the party present. It behooves
us, then, to learn to compose a message without the aid of a blank.
Indeed, this idea is contained in the latter part of the quotation
from the Infantry Drill Regulations—“and the form therein adhered
to.”
We are not compelled to memorize the form of the Field Message Blank.
We can, however, analyse it so that it will fix itself in our memory
and will be a part of what we must know in regard to the field order.
And we can gain a knowledge of this form rather by adhering to the
field message blank than by departing from it. Yet we need not know
its entire form but simply what contents are necessary and what order
they must have.
In the first place the field message may be divided into three parts:
THE HEADING,
THE BODY,
THE ENDING.
THE HEADING should contain:
THE NAME OF SENDING DETACHMENT,
THE LOCATION OF SENDING DETACHMENT (PLACE),
THE DATE,
THE HOUR OF ISSUE,
THE NUMBER OF THE MESSAGE.
For example, the whole heading would appear something like this:
Combat Patrol, 318th Infantry,
Cross Roads 500 yds. south of CLINTON SCHOOL HOUSE.
No. 3. 9 Jan. 18. 9-45 p. m.
Location of sending detachment means the _exact spot_ upon which
sender is located at time of writing.
The date should be given always as above in the sequence, day, month,
year. This combination prevents the numerals from being confused. In
naming a night both days should be mentioned thus: Night 4/5 Feb. 18.
The time should always have the dash between the hour and minutes.
Messages sent on the same day from the same sending detachment are
numbered consecutively. Each day or each mission starts a new series.
If a map referred to is not the one on the reverse side of the
message, the sender should designate the name or number of the map
used, immediately below the number of the message.
THE BODY of the message contains the following:
TO WHOM SENT,
THE BODY PROPER.
THE BODY PROPER has the following sequence for its information:
1. ENEMY.
2. YOUR OWN TROOPS.
3. TERRAIN.
4. YOUR PLAN.
The body then would appear something like this:
“To Commanding Officer, Advance Guard, 71st Brigade:
Squadron of enemy’s cavalry encamped in meadow 600 yards southeast
of here. Our officer’s patrol, which we met at ZION CHURCH at
8-10 a. m., reported two regiments enemy’s infantry intrenched at
railroad one mile south of here. Tail of our second battalion at
PARKSBURG steel bridge 7-20 a. m. Battalion was marching south.
MARTIN’S CREEK unfordable at any point between SMITH’S CORNERS and
GREENSBURG. Will move southeast from here along creek bed in order
to complete mission.”
On account of lack of space, paragraphing is impossible: but if this
sequence is followed the thought is easily gained. If some one of our
own troops tells us concerning the enemy, this information should
come between 1 and 2, and should be definitely shown to be hearsay
and not our own observation.
Of course, all of the parts, 1, 2, 3, and 4, do not always occur. The
order is nevertheless followed.
THE ENDING consists of
THE SIGNATURE
which, in turn, consists of the sender’s surname and his rank, thus,
FLETCHER,
SGT.
The outline of the whole message construction, then, would be as
follows:—
{ 1. Name of sending detachment.
{ 2. Location of sending detachment (place).
THE HEADING { 3. The Date.
{ 4. The Hour of Issue.
{ 5. The Number of the Message.
{ 1. Enemy.
{ 1. To whom sent. { 2. Your own troops.
THE BODY { 2. The body proper. { 3. Terrain.
{ 4. Your plan.
THE ENDING—THE SIGNATURE { 1. Surname.
{ 2. Rank.
The message we have composed, when assembled, would appear as follows:
Combat Patrol, 318th Infantry,
Cross Roads 500 yds. south of CLINTON SCHOOL HOUSE.
No. 3. 9 Jan. 18. 9-45 a. m.
To Commanding Officer Advance Guard, 71st Brigade:
Squadron of enemy’s Cavalry encamped in meadow 600 yards southeast
of here. Our officer’s patrol, which we met at ZION CHURCH at 8-10
a. m., reported two regiments enemy’s infantry intrenched at
railroad one mile south of here. Tail of our second battalion at
PARKSBURG steel bridge 7-20 a. m. Battalion was marching south.
MARTIN’S CREEK unfordable at any point between SMITH’S CORNERS and
GREENSBURG. Will move southeast from here along creek bed in order
to complete mission.
FLETCHER,
SGT.
(See sketch reverse side.)
Caution.—Remember that “your own troops” means friendly supporting
troops and not the troops of which you are in immediate command.