CHAPTER VII.

SIXTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.

Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --

Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate

Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.

On the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. “And God said,

Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle,

and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and it was

so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle

after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after

his kind.” According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words נפש חיה _nephesh

chaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term used to

express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its infinitely

varied gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid

potto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems equally

to share the vegetable and animal life. The word חיתו _chaiyeto_,

translated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild beasts_, seems

to signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, the

Lynx, the Hyæna, &c, and especially such as are _carnivorous_, or

subsist on flesh. בהמה _behemah_, which we translate _cattle_, probably

means those of the domestic species, such as are _graminivorous_, or

live on grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being tamed, and

applied to domestic purposes. The word properly means _beasts_, and is

so understood by the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job

is, “Behold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like oxen.” According

to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the “name of any great beast.” But

R. Levi says, that it is “an animal peculiarly called by that name.”

The Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number

for the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the

word generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the

Elephant is called Behemoth. “Behold now _Behemoth_, which I made with

thee; he eateth grass as an ox.” The word here is plural, and signifies

beasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is

usual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by

words in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take

the Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature

called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, “I confess

I see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant

that is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a

very large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of

such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed

beasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix,

we can scarce suppose this should be omitted.”[158]

The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength.

He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the

Elephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two

teeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to

their houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while

those of the female do not exceed one foot.

“Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast

Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream,

And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,

Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,

High rais’d in solemn theatre around,

_Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT.”

His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. “His bones are as

strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron.” Some

historians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers

on the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated

with their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number of

these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in each of which

were thirty-two men armed. “He is the chief of the ways of God:” that

is, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the most excellent of

all mere animals, in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None

of the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them approaches

nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. “He moveth his tail like a

cedar.” As his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body, many

understand by this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word זנב

here rendered _tail_, signifies properly the extreme part of a thing;

hence it is as applicable to his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though

placed at the opposite extremity of his body. This he “moveth” with

amazing dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it

like a “cedar” growing out of a mountain.--“Behold, he drinketh up a

river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into

his mouth.” He being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally

inhabiting hot climates, requires much liquid. His “drinking up a

river,” is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and

“hasteth not,” signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his

parching desire be fully satiated. His “trusting” that he can drink

the river “Jordan” dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his

copious draughts. “He eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him

forth food;” which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth

with his long trunk. He resides “where all the beasts of the field

play.” So harmless is this strong animal, that the inferior part of

the brute creation are not intimidated at his presence, but graze with

him upon the mountains, and sport themselves about him in the plain,

apprehending no danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in

which are no less evinced the effects of his power, than the displays

of his wisdom. The word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep,

Dogs, &c.

Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal

creation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth

their young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration

through their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a

circulation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost

from every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in

part covered with hair.

What admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited

to their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a

tree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which

protracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs

to make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate

to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger

sphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted

in various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to

accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.

In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest

Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy,

nor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang

not loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system;

but well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise.

The most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to

the centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves

to support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.

The _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits

of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips,

rough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates,

which qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls

where the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those

which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold

and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable

to their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very

large. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him

from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally

contracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads

downward.

In all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are

proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose

aliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and

weaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less

nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous

beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most

nutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have

them of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which

feed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate

have in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are

nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and

Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The

Horse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for

quick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also

the freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not

be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and

Oxen.

Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have

teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those

which have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs.

For the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which

it swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.

The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas

the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature

requires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises

from the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose

stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same

time, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he

afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach

is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled

successively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the

intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the

food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned

by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains.

The Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which

is but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the

grass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is

greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of

contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only

communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit

such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The

food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the œsophagus, the

orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the

animal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its

saliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into

this conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it

is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this

last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is

reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication

is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other

liquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud

much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer,

when they eat tender grass.

All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for

instance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the

legs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his

head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he

is provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In

other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they

which have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is

observable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile.

And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they

have none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is

peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very

nearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage,

for it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.

These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a

considerable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the

muscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each

side of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need

requires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached

to the head, and the next vertebræ of the neck; and the other is knit

to the middle vertebræ of the back: and by the assistance of this,

animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day

long. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction

nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant

danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance

been added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the

parts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the

free motion of the neck and head.

The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living.

A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided

with a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the

ground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for

rooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw

works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the

food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such

roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding

truffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind

leg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark

where he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find

a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their

roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine

will find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they

grow.[159]

In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the

olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is

short, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of

prey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity

of the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before

them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are

turned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing

enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their

feet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure.

The Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in

the East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long,

growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These

instruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided

for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of

the common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem

therefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their

utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its

head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.

In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the

animal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like

nose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all

which are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many

shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to

remove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical

figure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising

from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor;

because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to

facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar

to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The

nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering,

which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that

compose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth,

defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it

would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being

subterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds

the brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This

animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security

required a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes

to compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have

been less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile

these inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head

of a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and

sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of

the eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion

to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These

apertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely

pervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]

The different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen

delight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food.

Sheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of

grass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the

precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and

accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in

a state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy

plants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is

scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by

others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives

up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow

fat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous,

but only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a

most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not

destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are

guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can

easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when

different animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves

something for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted

to lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161]

The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals,

such as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted

for climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in

order to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the

Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless

wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other

animals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure

it without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he

reserves water for many days.[162]

Quadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their

various offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which,

together with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of

weather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick

and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and

wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their

tender young. All the animals near Hudson’s Bay are covered with a

close, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the

wisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are

taken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their

appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair

than they originally had.

Many animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which

are used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an

animal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the

most pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by

too atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are

circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it

deserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals.

The number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals

sometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog

infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male

whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals

which live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline

diet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while

the Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years

before he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor

at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though

animals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently

elude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her

doublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and

Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads

together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with

their horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any

attack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable,

all of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in

the middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals

consult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn

remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil,

sleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when

the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught

asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.

Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion

amongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one

of them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For

the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the

animal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the

over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals

did not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified

bodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c,

expeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a

public road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with

innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon

entirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by

his poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the

putrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of

nature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.

Though animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only

continue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of

growth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one

race should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they

are endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the fœtus,

the manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great

secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in

the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the

moment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of

the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory

duct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the

breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The

advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill

the breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it

adds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats

or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number

of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat,

which have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed

along the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are

few.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted

to the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling

progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most

fruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts

that are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued.

The historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or

bringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all

power of conception.

It is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion,

but are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will,

including various passions. What then produces the disparity

between men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not

understanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well

assert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference

consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the

inferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the

two: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.

We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but

_understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during

the months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which

generally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their

abode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant

water above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or

pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve

feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their

several apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is

beneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water.

The walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet

thick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth,

which are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails,

they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare

of dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they

begin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the

birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter,

in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]

In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection,

affection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one

Richardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat,

the vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current

under a west country barge. Fortunately, the man’s dog happened to

be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face,

and pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat

was filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means

he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165]

_Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly

gentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when

taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned,

discovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr.

Percival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident.

Here was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former

impressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman

was walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in

the middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which

had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away

by the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts

to rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of

the first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged

himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant,

and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he

began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and

suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his

master in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous

Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more

furious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by

a merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest

observance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty

tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his

defenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their

hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]

The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists

into three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and

such as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous

class consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the

general name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several

component parts of any one creature which God has made, we should

find a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its

construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far

surpassing human wisdom.

At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural

discipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill

and regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard

(for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large

companies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the

inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence,

and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their

rendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every

thing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw

the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it;

or, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and

these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the

fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is

safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing

dexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence

is observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the

watch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud

cry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they

willing to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons,

for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands,

and one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they

drop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and

if it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept

in their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West

Indies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods,

and make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to

make a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave

says, “I have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon:

at which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above

the rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself

for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand,

and they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell

continued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning,

lifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again,

and so finished the business of the assembly.”

Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of

creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with

inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth

with quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are

richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable

creatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity

do some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who

pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does

not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests?

the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of

others in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in

weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the

sapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling

them with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in

laying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine

wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.

The word רמש _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered

_reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents,

worms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among

animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the

greatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive

appearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine “skill

and power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or

Tragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all _bifed_

or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as

an ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of

the many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see also the same

skill and power; not only in the immense snake called Boa Constrictor,

the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but also in the Cobra

de Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than a common sewing

needle.”

The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other

oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are

furnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are

covered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of

warts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two

inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six

feet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem,

and the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a

metamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are

produced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the

species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally

inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind

for food.

As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to

the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to

rule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence

in the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule

over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the

rivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M.

Adanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred

swimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of

America.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet,

is very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico,

and in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce

in the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for

the table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to

the end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part

of the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble

Lizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species.

The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as

very useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other

troublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless

for half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring

at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter

the houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables

whilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so

beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and

even the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.

The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of

the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries

of South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail

nearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow,

so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit

of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves,

in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its

long adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the

ground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never

to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest.

From these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of

gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity

that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the

most active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough

membrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which

the bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The

eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in

different directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when

the other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other

is attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and

downward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led

to various conjectures as to the cause.

Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their

total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and

South America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has

given to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the

passenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which

is extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very

hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a

short time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed

at the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never

commencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the

serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and

of a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the

largest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides

in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are

assured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in

the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is

often the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged

themselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for

several days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless,

sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]

The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from

each other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole

have been discovered to be poisonous. “The deserts of Arabia,” says

Adanson, “are entirely barren, except where they are found to produce

serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost

entirely covered with them.” The apparatus of poison in the Viper is

very similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous

serpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance.

It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying

down flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk,

and by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under

the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation,

lies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the

closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and

the force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable

impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular

apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most

deadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid.

Yet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile,

does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]

No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the

rings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to

guard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the

earth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any

other covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian

serpent:

“Scarce had he finish’d, when, with speckled pride,

A serpent from the tomb began to glide;

His hugy bulk on sev’n high volumes roll’d;

Blue was his breadth of back, but streak’d with scaly gold;

Thus riding on his curls, he seem’d to pass

A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.

More various colors through his body run,

Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.”

Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner,

for effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their

motions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious

apparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend

or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff,

sharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under

their skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires,

to lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the

earth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to

work themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were

covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the

other creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent

tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and

lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a

tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of

the new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin,

that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.

Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who

observes, that he is one of those “little things on the earth, that are

exceeding wise.” This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar

insects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently

of great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem

nor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external

and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the

operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover

in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey!

How wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly

curious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins

out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for

the purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules

of mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at

parallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more

effectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her

covert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of

this geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately

apprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like

nature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished

with a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this

weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle

themselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small

white proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which,

in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious;

for flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them

of their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very

middle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several

days.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided

with poisonous weapons.

_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._

[If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains

of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly

preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily

see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these

primitive creatures if we would freely describe the “Mosaic

Creation.” Many of their genera and species are now extinct:

and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere

_dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.

It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these

interesting remains of the primordial world are so well

preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_:

they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive

events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive

beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian,

that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees

expressly with the Bible.

The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_,

is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and

_species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.

From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the

crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera

were created successively, and that the most ancient genera

are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is

equally true, that, connected with the successive creation,

was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity

of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in

the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in

the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the

plants.

These periodic variations in all early organized bodies,

were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the

surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The

Divine Being appears to have created the different genera

suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the

time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have

been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of

our earth and atmosphere.

All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the

early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were

better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably

powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the

delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same

is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their

_quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge

as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a

fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount

of vegetable coal found in the earth.

These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of

our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long

time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the

air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth

was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant

vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed

by a few remarks in regard to each class.

_Fishes._--Under this class is included, here,

_testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as

_fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family

seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in

great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are

many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are

found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of

mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their

localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They

are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of

_preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating

sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of

swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position;

indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these,

which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species;

thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.

So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that

whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of

them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed

principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.

From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once

covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some

of the rock strata, composed of the exuviæ of these marine

creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will

be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time,

and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at

the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the

retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving

the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had

been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found

in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands,

where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by

retiring.

_Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of

this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the

ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been

discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They

are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard)

families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and

fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure

clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and

reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time:

thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient

chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.

If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures

had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus

naturæ_. But many have been found, of different genera and

species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.

One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine

composed of 133 vertebræ, or joints, taken together 21½ feet in

length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct;

some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.

_The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has

been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the

_lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said

some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must

have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil

remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest

elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this

was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!

_The Pterodactyle._ This is a species of the saurian family

as those above. Its distinctive character is the _elongation of

its fourth toe_, so as to support a membrane for the purpose

of _flying_: hence its name, _wing-toed_. It is indeed a

curiosity. Its species is extinct.

_The Ichthyosaurus._ This is also a reptile of the lizard

kind: but because it so much resembles a _fish_; it has this

name, i.e. _fish-lizard_. It has a moderate tail--long pointed

muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; breathed

air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy places, but

could not walk or run on land, having flat fins, or bony

paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons indicate some of

them to have been 25 feet long.

_The Plesiosaurus._ This animal, as its name imports,

was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of the genus. Its

very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its

neck, and the unexampled number of _vertebræ_ of which it is

composed. In other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus.

Its remains indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least

30 feet long.

_The Iguanodon_, was of the lizard genus, three or four

times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws equal in

size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns.

(DR. BUCKLAND.)

Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might

be mentioned, which would come expressly under the title of

this volume; and the knowledge of which is durably preserved

in the fossils of the earth, all of which would confirm the

facts stated in the commencement of this paper, viz: that

during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously

to the creation of man, great numbers of genera and species

of huge and misshapen animals existed, which are now extinct.

For instance: the skeletons of animals of the _frog and

toad_ families, have been found so large, as to induce some

naturalists at first to call them _human remains_. A tapir has

been found the _size of an elephant_; and a species of the

_sloth tribe_ as long as a _rhinoceros_!!

These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader

at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of these

astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the

earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be _seen, measured,

weighed, and put up so as to form the whole animal_, an object

of inspection to thousands.

There are but few fossil remains of _birds_ found in the

earth, and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata,

and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are

companionable and serviceable to man. The reason of this is

obvious: the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds

until it had become comparatively dry, and the seas had retired

in a great measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera

appeared first, of which there are a few remains. Moreover this

class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent

catastrophe, so as to bury them in a body, or in particular

strata. It is, therefore, probable that birds, as a class, have

preserved their genera and species from the first; and are now

nearly the same in this respect, as well as in size, as in the

earlier periods of the world.

_Vegetables._--In the vegetable kingdom we are if possible,

more astonished than in the animal, of the ancient periods

of our earth. From their fossil remains, well and abundantly

preserved, it is very evident that the vegetation of the first

periods of our earth was abundant and heavy, beyond any thing

which we can conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but

that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater

than at this time, or within the memory of man. This is evident

from the immense production of _vegetable coal_.

This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when

it is recollected, that the earth, in its first periods, was

of a much higher temperature than now; and of course not only

produced more abundantly, but _all parts_ of the earth produced

vegetation in abundance. This is evident from the fact, that

within the arctic circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and

no vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive

products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper on

volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found fossilized

_on the spot, and in the position in which they grew; as

also the leaves and fruits of plants, which are known now to

be tropical, so well preserved, and in such a natural, easy

position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which

they were fossilized_.

The _flora_ of the primordial world was expressly a part

of the ‘Mosaic creation,’ and which is but little understood

as yet. Some of the principal plants were of the _fern_ and

_palm_ genera; but their size very far exceeded those now found

growing. By closely examining these fossil plants, it will be

found, _that they increase in size and quantity as the period

of their growth is distant from the time in which man was

created_: thus indicating _an increasing temperature of the

earth as we ascend in time_. This also corresponds with the

well known fact, _that the size of these plants now increases

progressively from the polar regions to the equator_.

Our author has given a concise and edifying description of

the principal families and individuals which now exist, and are

found in the earth. The above remarks are intended to direct

the attention to those _which have long since passed away_.]

The propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts,

mentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the first hearing of their

names; for we find amongst the clean creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats,

and Lambs: and on the other side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine,

Moles, and Serpents. It is evident that there is a wide difference

between these two parties, with respect to their manners and ways of

life.

Those only are admitted among clean animals, which “divide the hoof

and chew the cud.” Animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive

with their feet, than the several tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are

armed with sharp claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided

hoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a plain

mechanical reason why a foot, which presents several angles and edges,

should take faster hold on the ground. They are not only surer footed,

but also more orderly and regular in their progress. Sheep have a

natural tendency to follow each other’s steps. They approach the fold,

or return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their pastures in

the like order. Oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors:

so that a drove of them, on passing through a deep and narrow road,

leave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and

furrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could reason and

dispute as men can, this plodding practice of the Ox might possibly

be ridiculed by the Ass; as the orthodox believer, who is content to

tread in the steps of his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling

freethinker, who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate

into by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself.

_Sure footing_ is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth

and science: whence it will not be unnatural to suppose, that this

first character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of

rectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is various

and changeable in its nature: but truth, being uniformly the same in

all ages, will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those

who follow it.

The other character of clean animals is that of “chewing the cud;”

a faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by which it revolves,

meditates, and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory; and

the word _ruminate_ has the same metaphorical meaning. An animal

thus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance,

as if it were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more

particularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then the food

is more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in

the stomach. This character then, is expressive of devout thought and

holy conversation: for the word of God is the food of the mind, which,

being laid up in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that

being properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a daily

increase in faith, purity, and goodness.

The clean animals were also _sacred_; that is, set apart by the law

for the purpose of sacrifice. The propriety of which is evident: for

if the worshipper, who offered an animal to God, meant by that act to

devote himself, using the animal as his substitute or proxy; then

certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean

creature, whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his

own person and character, and consequently make his devotion appear

ridiculous. In order to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite

that the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those

of the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, were a tacit

reflection on an unclean offerer. When the worshippers of the true

God were corrupt in their principles or morals, their oblations were

no longer either proper or acceptable: which was signified to them

in those words of the prophet--“He that killeth an ox, as if he slew

a man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog’s neck:

he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine’s blood.” The

reason is added: “They have chosen their own ways, and their soul

delighteth in their abominations.” But there is another sense in which

the institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every sacrifice

had its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of

Jesus Christ; with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal,

preferred to this sacred application, should be recommended by every

possible character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore the

sacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, and Oxen.

The diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with the most

solemn acts of religious adoration, the daily course of their living

carried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body, and directed

their faith to its supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the

Messiah. The moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death

and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common substitute of all

mankind: whence God has mercifully ordained, as well by the present

condition of creation itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that

the life of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to

remind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture;

and that there can be neither the preservation, nor the remission

of sins, without the shedding of innocent blood. Thus does mankind

conspire in offering up a daily sacrifice, and attesting the truth of

the Christian doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility

that Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, “It is necessary

that one man should die, that the whole people perish not.”

These clean and unclean animals, with respect to their several ways

of life, are as opposite as their dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats,

Deer, &c, are formed into societies, they herd peaceably together, and

are subject to the laws of government, as well for their own advantage

as for the service of man. But beasts of prey roam by themselves in

forests and deserts, incapable of entering into any friendly communion.

They are so many single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight

their way, and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation.

If they ever unite in gangs, it is with the spirit of thieves and

murderers, who are banded together only that they may plunder the

innocent with greater security. And, like other depredators, they are

all fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks forth

from his den: at which time the Sheep, under the direction of the

shepherd, are retiring to their fold. And when the cattle are climbing

up the mountains to their pasture, invited by the reviving rays of

the rising sun, the tyrants of the night are warned back to their

hiding-places.[173]

The blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of the Dog,

the subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the

Serpent, afford ample scope for reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics

were certain visible representations of creatures, whose inclinations

and actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended

for instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was represented by a

Swine, whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the

eastern people. A great hypocrite, or a notorious dissembler of

wicked intentions, was expressed by a Leopard, because this animal

acts craftily, concealing his head that he may with less difficulty

catch his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at his

presence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body:

when therefore they approach him, delighted with the perfume, he will

cover his head with his paws, till they come within his reach. An

incorrigible person was also expressed by a Leopard’s skin, because its

spots no art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a

hypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve

his turn; for this animal can change its color. A stupid, ignorant

person, an enemy to religion, was signified by an Ass; and one that was

not acquainted with men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself

with decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the head

and ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of

animals on the bodies of men, to express the dispositions and conduct

of those persons they were intended to represent. A Tiger, being a

most fierce animal, signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition,

opposed to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness;

therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the influence of

wicked thoughts and intentions.[174]

Rams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, are figures

frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants

and conquerors. “Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, which oppress

the poor.” Bashan was a very fruitful place, a fine and fattening

pasture, in which were the best fed and strongest cattle. To these,

the prophet compares the great men among the Israelites, especially

their judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, wanton and

mischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who oppressed the poor, as high

fed cattle push and gore the weaker sort. “The Lion is come up from

his thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is

gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities

shall be laid waste without an inhabitant.” By this animal is meant

Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on account of his great

power and fierceness; and as the Lion is commonly in the forest among

the thicket, so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and

principal seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful

desolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.

The prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald

of the Most High, begins his prophecy with calling on the whole

creation to attend, when Jehovah speaks. “Hear, oh heavens; and give

ear, oh earth; for the Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought

up children, and they have rebelled against me.” A charge of gross

insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the Jews; by

contrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and the Ass, which is

the most stupid of animals. “The Ox knoweth his owner, and the Ass his

master’s crib: but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.”

What a cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been

favored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be exceeded by

the herd of the stall! To perish for lack of knowledge, after having

had the best means to acquire it, evinces the grossest inattention, and

most censurable insensibility.

The prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he

lived, and the vice and immorality that every where abounded. He saw

with grief of heart the holy Sabbath profaned, the worship of God

neglected, and his house and ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful

witness to their gross abominations, he saw the punishments that

awaited their immorality, and then wept over what he could not amend.

He gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they disregarded them,

and drank in iniquity like water, and drew sin as with a cart-rope:

because they had been _taught_ to do evil (for so the margin reads,)

trained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by precept and

example, and were great proficients in vicious pursuits: from their

youth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued

practice, till sinning was become habitual, and there was little hope

left of amendment. Therefore he exclaims, “Can the Ethiopian change

his skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that

are accustomed to do evil.” The Ethiopian’s skin is of so sable a

hue, that no water can wash it white. A Leopard’s skin is beautifully

spotted, which is not the result of accident, but nature, and cannot

be defaced. By these two similes the prophet designs to represent,

not only the natural impossibility without Divine aid, but also the

extreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well, after they

have long accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be

avoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin indulged in

thought will beget desire, desire will break out into action, action

will grow into custom, custom will settle into habit, and then, there

is the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.

When our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the Gospel, he

informed them of the hardships, dangers, and discouragements they

would have to encounter, in the faithful discharge of their ministry;

especially after his resurrection, when they would be deprived of

his personal presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions

they endured while he was with them. These sufferings he foretold,

that they might not be surprised at their approach; and that, by the

accomplishment of this prediction, their faith might be confirmed.

“Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves.” Here we

have a prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as Sheep

in the midst of Wolves. And what situation more dangerous! What can

sheep, that are feeble creatures, and destitute of natural armour to

defend themselves, expect, in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be

rent and torn to pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be

sent, would have as great an inclination, arising from their malicious

dispositions, to destroy them, as wolves have from their nature to

devour sheep. Wicked men are like wolves, whose nature it is to destroy

and devour sheep; they are of a diabolical disposition towards the

ministers of the Gospel.

Our Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct themselves in

such very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances. “Be ye therefore wise

as serpents,” not cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but

as serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when they are

in danger. A serpent’s wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its

head, that it may not be hurt; in stopping its ears against the voice

of the charmer, which it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying

one ear close to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail;

and in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. So

should Christ’s ministers, in a time of peril, use all lawful means for

their own safety and preservation; they should be wary and circumspect

to keep themselves from harm, either of body or soul. “And harmless

as doves.” Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no

ill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though their enemies

should be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet they must not study how

to revenge the injuries done them. It should be their continual care

to be inoffensive, in word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell

together. Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into

danger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but they

must be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, the other for

innocence.

“That thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be,

And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!”

Our Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers.

“Beware of false prophets.” The term _prophet_ in the Scripture,

signifies one who foretells things to come; this is the most proper

signification of the word. It also means one who expounds the

predictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are to understand

by it, one employed in the ministry of the Gospel; in this sense a

prophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here

our Saviour means false teachers, who, pretending authority from God,

exercised themselves in the ministry, and published false doctrine,

or at least represented truth in a corrupt manner, with a fraudulent

intention, from base motives, and for vile ends; by whose doctrine

persons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity,

and drawn away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; into

a dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of religion and piety.

Now against such men, Christ, in the days of his public ministry,

warned his hearers, to prevent their deception, apprising them that

they would “come in sheep’s clothing.” They disguised their dangerous

principles and base intentions, under a show of external religion, and

fair professions of love, that, thereby they might deceive others. “But

inwardly they are ravening Wolves.” They were as dangerous to the souls

of men, as ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an opportunity

to seize their prey, silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether

the dogs be asleep, or the shepherd be absent: so false teachers with

wretched hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, and

sanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, their efforts

to injure the church of God would be ineffectual. He compares these

false teachers to Wolves, especially on account of their cruelty. These

animals are not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy

multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So false teachers

strive to injure the whole church of God, and thus destroy souls.

Our Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of Christian

prudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. “Give not that which

is holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before Swine, lest

they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.” The

deep things of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to

those who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great things he has

done in his people to be declared to profane, furious persecutors:

but both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions.

By Dogs, our Saviour means froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful,

boisterous, incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy

institutions, mock at every thing sacred, scoff at religion, deride

the word of God, and all serious reproofs and admonitions, whether

given by parents, masters, ministers, governors, and others; who are

ready to persecute those who preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote

their salvation. By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and

sensual, and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to

whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as it is for

Swine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, abuse, and trample on

holy things.

St. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, before

they receive his grace, and what those are who turn apostates from the

truth, alludes to two offensive actions of Dogs and Swine. “It has

befallen to them according to the true proverb, the Dog is turned to

his vomit, and the Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.”

Blackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and strength, marks

out the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual

appetites and carnal lusts; and the extreme difficulty of reforming

vicious and inveterate habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when

he has vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well but

he returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how ill it agreed

with him; so an imprudent person commits the same error over again,

for which he formerly smarted. The evil nature remaining, and at last

gaining the ascendency, in a man, who had through grace reformed

his life, renders him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr.

Doddridge remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness she

had before contracted, having still the same unclean nature prevailing,

is returned to wallow in the mire, and so makes herself as filthy as

she had ever been before. And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are

expressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had

formerly renounced.

* * * * *

_Section_ II.--MAN.

BODY: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood

-- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion --Respiration --

Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --

Bones -- Sinovia --Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --

Skin. SOUL: -- Its Immateriality -- Freedom --Immortality --

Moral Image -- Adam’s Dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --

Paradise.

All things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being prepared

for the accommodation of Man: light, that he might see; air, that

he might hear and breathe; dry land, on which he might walk; herbs

and fruit-trees, for his gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl,

cattle, and creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to

make him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power,

the master-piece of all sublunary creatures, whose creation alone is

represented in the sacred History, as an effect resulting from a

divine consultation. “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after

our likeness. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God

created he him; male and female created he them.” It appears from the

ingenious Parable of Protagoras in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion

that _man_ was last created after the other living creatures.

In all the former works, God only said, Let such and such things be,

and they were; he spake the word, and it was done. But now, when Man

was to be made, God is spoken of as calling a council, “Let _us_ make

man, in _our_ image, after _our_ likeness.” This imports that Man

was to be a creature different from all that had been produced, and

far more excellent and wonderful in his constitution; a compound of

flesh and spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image

of the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his Creator’s

service. Man was the work of ELOHIM, the Divine Plurality, marked

here more distinctly by the plural pronouns US and OUR; all the Three

Subsistencies in the Godhead are represented as united in counsel and

effort to bring into existence this astonishing creature.

Aben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all men were made

on the first day of the creation, and that God consulted them to obtain

their consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to

be created. This is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic

philosophy; for God says, “Let us make man in our image,” which shows

that Adam’s soul had then no existence, for in that case, it doubtless

would have been in the image of God.

Some other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, ridiculously

conceived that God spake to the elements. But this is more absurd than

the former; for the expression, “Let us make man,” implies capacity of

consultation in those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements

are not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only material parts

of man.

Nor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of the

Paraphrase, which is called Jonathan’s, suggests. The words of the

Paraphrase are these: “God said to the angels, which ministered before

him, Let us make man.” It is a noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis,

that God does nothing without consulting his family above: they mean,

his holy angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries

of Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was made by

angels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here speaks to those in

whose image man was to be formed, but he was not made in the image of

angels.

It is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine

of the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of speaking, only to

express the dignity of God, not to denote any plurality in him; that

he here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes, who

say, We will and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a

far-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the Trinity, by persons

in latter times, and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world,

or the Hebrew style. Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all

speak in the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same style,

as did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his glory. And also the

Eastern monarchs: “I (Darius) make a decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the

king, do make a decree.” Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to

the contrary.

Beside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow his mode

of speaking from a practice which did not exist! And even granting

this possible, yet the cases are not parallel. For though a King, or

Governor, may say _us_ and _we_, there is certainly no figure of speech

that will allow a single person to say, _one of us_, when he speaks of

_himself_. It is a phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be

more persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, this we

find is the style in which God has spoken of himself.

There are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the clear light

of revelation, that there is but one Subsistence in the Divine Nature.

This was the opinion of the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in

the third century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have embraced

the same. These contend that God here speaks to himself, as consulting

with himself, to create man, and that, though the words be plural, yet

the sense is singular, as if he had said, Let _me_ make man.

One of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here speaks to the

other Two, and who more likely than the Father, who is first in the

order of arrangement, as given by the sacred Writers. The Father, not

the Son, is the first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second;

and the Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the Father,

when he said, “Let us make man,” addressed himself to the Son, and to

the Holy Spirit, who were therein joint and equal Creators with him.

“None saith, Where is God my Maker?” in the Hebrew, _Makers_, is the

language used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in

a Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, “Remember thy

Creator,” in the original, _Creators_. The prophet Isaiah adopts the

same style, “Thy Maker is thine husband,” in the Hebrew, _thy Makers

are thy Husbands_. Thus it evidently appears, that this consultation

was among the Persons in the Godhead; that all the Three, the Father,

the Son, and the Holy Spirit, were concerned in man’s creation; and

were therein joint Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.

Dr. Waterland says, that this text, _Let us make man_, has been

understood of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or at least of Father and

Son, by the whole succession of Christian writers, from the times of

the apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable importance, and

will impress the minds of sincere and impartial men. That the Christian

Fathers were unanimous in their judgment, that these words were spoken

by the Father to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works,

from which we shall adduce a few proofs.

_Barnabas_ says:--“And for this the Lord was contented to suffer for

our souls, though he be the Lord of the world; to whom God said, the

day before the formation of the world, Let us make man after our image

and similitude.”[175]

_Hermas_:--“He was present in counsel with his Father for the forming

of the creature.”[176]