Aristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and others, testify, that the

Pythagoreans, and the whole Italian sect, maintained, that a comet

was a kind of planet or wandering star, which appeared again after a

long interval of time. Hippocrates Chius was of the same opinion as

Aristotle informs us. Democritus held also the same opinion, as Seneca

tells us in his “Natural Questions;” book vii, chap. 3, “For,” says he,

“Democritus, the most curious and subtle of all the ancients, suspected

that there were many more stars which moved, meaning by this expression

the comets; but he neither established their number, or their names,

the courses of the five planets not having as yet been discovered.”

Again, Seneca assures us, that Apollonius Myndius, one of the most

skilful philosophers in the search of natural causes, asserted, that

the Chaldeans reckoned comets among the other wandering stars, and

that they knew their courses. Apollonius himself maintained, that a

comet was a star of its own kind, as the sun and moon are, but that its

course was not yet known; that by its motions it mounts very high in

the heavens, and only appears when it descends into the lower part of

its orbit. And Seneca himself embraces this opinion in the following

truly philosophical words: “I cannot believe,” says he, “that a comet

is a fire suddenly kindled, but that it ought to be ranked among the

eternal works of nature. A comet has its proper place, and is not

easily moved from thence; it goes its course, and is not extinguished,

but runs off from us. But you will say, if it were a wandering star

it would keep in the zodiac. But who can set one boundary to all

the stars? Who can restrain the works of the Divinity to a narrow

compass? For each of those bodies, which you imagine to be the only

ones that have motion, have very different circles; why, therefore,

may there not be some that have peculiar ways of their own, wherein

they recede far from the rest? But that their courses may be known,

it is necessary to have a collection of all the ancient observations

about comets; for their appearances are so rare, that their orbits are

not yet determined; nor can we as yet find whether they have their

periods, or whether they return again in a certain order.”--“The time

will come,” continues he, “wherein these things which are now hid from

us will be discovered; which observation, and the diligence of after

ages, will find out. For it is not one age that is sufficient for so

great matters: the time will be when posterity will wonder that we were

ignorant of things so plain; one will arise who will demonstrate in

what regions of space the comets wander, why they recede so far from

the other planets; how great and what sort of bodies they are.”[132]

The period, predicted by Seneca, in the first century of the Christian

era, is not yet arrived. “After all that has been done and written on

the subject of comets,” says a late writer, “we must confess, that

our knowledge of these wandering bodies is still very imperfect.”

“It appears to me,” says La Lande, “that almost every thing depends

on comets. The only thing that I recommend to my correspondents, is

to look after and attend to comets: the knowledge of comets is alone

wanting to complete the science of astronomy.”

Several ages elapsed before this prediction of Seneca seemed likely to

be fulfilled. Tycho Brahé was the first who attempted to restore the

comets to their proper rank in creation. Having diligently observed the

comet of 1577, and finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax,

he very properly determined its true place to be among the other

revolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by his book De

Cometa, 1577. And Sir Isaac Newton, from his amazing discoveries, gives

the following theory of comets: “They are,” says he, “compact, solid,

fixed, and durable bodies; in fact, a kind of planets, which move in

very oblique and eccentric orbits, every way with the greatest freedom;

persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of

the planets: and their tail is a very thin and slender vapor, emitted

by the head or nucleus of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun.”

Various conjectures have been formed concerning the nature of the tails

of comets. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, in the second of his Philosophical

Essays, urges several objections against the Newtonian hypothesis: he

remarks, that, since the tail of a comet, though exceedingly rare,

meets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun (except so

slight a one as can only cause a very small condensation on that side

of it which moves foremost, and thereby may make it a little brighter

than the other side), it cannot possibly move in a medium denser and

heavier than itself, and therefore cannot be raised up from the sun

by the superior gravity of such a medium. And since the stars seen

through all parts of a comet’s tail appear in their proper places,

and with their usual colors, he infers that the rays of light suffer

no refraction in passing through the tail; therefore, since bodies

reflect and refract light by one and the same power, he concludes

that the matter of a comet’s tail has not the power of refracting or

reflecting light, and is, of consequence, a lucid or self shining

substance. Also from what astronomers say of the splendor of comets’

tails, it is manifest they do not shine with such a dull light as would

be reflected to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance, but

with a brisker though a glimmering light, such as would arise from a

very thin, volatile, burning matter. Dr. Halley, speaking of the great

streams of light in the remarkable aurora borealis seen in 1716, says,

“they so much resembled the long tails of comets, that at first sight

they might be taken for such:” and afterwards, “this light seems to

have a great affinity to that which the effluvia of electric bodies

emit in the dark.” Dr. Hamilton improves upon these hints: and since,

as he shows, the tails of comets, the aurora borealis, and the electric

fluid, agree remarkably, not only in their appearance, but also in such

properties as we can observe of each of them, he concludes that they

are substances of the same nature. And, because the electric matter,

from its vast subtility and velocity, seems capable of making great

excursions from the planetary system, he imagines that the several

comets, in their long excursions from the sun in all directions, may

overtake this matter; and by attracting it to themselves may come back

replete with it, and being again heated by the sun, may disperse it

among the planets, and so keep up a circulation of this matter, which

there is reason to think is necessary in our system.[133]

Comets, descending from the remote parts of the system with great

rapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits; and

after a short stay, go off again to vast distances, and disappear. They

move about the sun in very eccentric ellipses; and the velocity with

which they seem to move is variable in every part of their path round

the sun; when near to which they appear to move with great swiftness,

and, when very remote, their motion is slow. They are opake bodies, but

of a much greater density than the earth; for some of them are heated

in every period to such a degree, as would vitrify or dissipate any

substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet,

which appeared in the year 1680, when nearest the sun, to be 2,000

times hotter than red hot iron, and that, being thus heated, it must

retain its heat till it comes round again, although its period should

be more than 20,000 years; and it is computed to be only 575.

The number of the comets is much greater than that of the planets

belonging to our system. From the beginning of the Christian era, till

now, there have appeared about five hundred. Before that time, we

have accounts of about one hundred others. But, when it is considered

that there may have been many that have not been seen, from being too

near the sun, from appearing in moon-light, from being in the other

hemisphere, or from being too small, or from not being recorded, the

number is probably much greater. Miss Herschell, by means of the

telescope, has, within the last twenty years, discovered several

comets. The orbits of about one hundred comets have been calculated

with sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any future

appearance. Many of these orbits are inclined to the plane of the

ecliptic in large angles, and many of them approach much nearer the sun

than the earth does. Their motions are also different from those of the

planets, some of them being direct and others retrograde, nearly half

the number moving each way. The different motions of the comets, and

the various inclinations of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic,

must not be regarded as the work of chance, but as calculated to answer

beneficial purposes, or avoid baneful consequences; for if these orbits

had been nearly coincident with that of the earth, both bodies might

have arrived at the common point of intersection of their orbits at

the same time; in which case a derangement of both motions must, at

least, have been the necessary result.[134] But, according to all the

observations that have been made respecting their present distribution

and direction, there is not the least reason to apprehend any such

consequence.

The following table contains a list of the last twenty-three of the

principal comets that have been observed, with the time of passing

their perihelia, and their nearest approach to the sun.

Nearest distance

Passage of the from the Sun in Direction of

Years. Perihelion. English Miles. their Motion.

------ -------------- ---------------- -------------

1790 January 15 71 millions Retrograde.

1790 January 28 101 Direct.

1790 May 21 75 Retrograde.

1792 January 13 122 Retrograde.

1792 December 27 91 Retrograde.

1793 November 4 38 Retrograde.

1793 November 18 142 Direct.

1795 December 15 23 Direct.

1796 April 2 149 Retrograde.

1797 July 9 50 Retrograde.

1798 April 4 46 Direct.

1798 December 31 73 Retrograde.

1799 September 7 79 Retrograde.

1799 December 25 25 Retrograde.

1801 August 8 22 Retrograde.

1802 September 9 103 Direct.

1804 February 13 101 Direct.

1805 November 18 35 Direct.

1805 December 31 84 Direct.

1806 December 28 102 Retrograde.

1807 September 18 61 Direct.

1811 August 20 25 Direct.

1815 April 26 121 Direct.

But of all the comets, the periods of three only are known with any

degree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, 129,

and 575 years; and of these, that which appeared in 1680 is the most

remarkable. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 11,200

millions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the

centre of the sun is about 490,000 miles; being less than one third

part of the sun’s semi-diameter from his surface. In that part of its

orbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with the amazing velocity of

880,000 miles in an hour; and the sun, as seen from it, appears 100

degrees in breadth, consequently 40,000 times as large as he appears

to us. The astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty

space, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between

our sun and the nearest of the fixed stars, of whose attractions all

the comets must keep clear, to return periodically and go round the

sun. How wonderful that, though this body travelled almost two thousand

times faster than a cannon ball, yet it drew after it a tail of fire,

or of phosphoric gas, eight millions of miles in length! How amazing

to consider, that this stupendous body, traversing the immensity of

the creation with such rapidity, and at the same time wheeling about

in that line which its great Creator prescribed to it, should move

with such inconceivable velocity, and at the same time with such

exact regularity! How spacious must the universe be, that, gives such

bodies as these full play, without suffering the least disorder or

confusion by it! With what a glorious exhibition must those beings

be entertained, who can look into this great theatre of nature, and

see myriads of these tremendous objects wandering through those

immeasurable depths of æther, and running their appointed courses!

Our eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent

prospect, and our understandings able to find out the several uses of

these immense parts of the universe. In the mean time, they are most

suitable objects for our imagination to contemplate, that we may

form more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power, and learn

to think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little works of human

invention.[135]

The _Fixed Stars_ are objects of peculiar interest, and are so

denominated, because they are observed always to preserve the same

distance from each other; and are distinguished from the planets by

their twinkling, which seems to depend on the atmosphere; for we are

assured, that where the air is exceedingly pure and dry, the stars

appear with a light altogether free from scintillation. All the

heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, appear to move round the

earth, in circles parallel to the equinoctial, once in the compass of

twenty-four hours; though these _apparent_ motions are almost entirety

to be accounted for by the _real_ motions of the earth: but by far

the greater number of them never change their relative situations,

each (so long as an observer continues in the same place) rising and

setting at the same interval of time, and at the same points of the

horizon;--these are called the _fixed stars_.

The fixed stars, as appears from several considerations, are placed

at immense distances from us. Mr. Exley, in a friendly communication,

says, “It should be noticed, that the distances of the fixed stars have

never yet been discovered; not indeed so much for want of a method,

as for want of a base line sufficiently large for this admeasurement.

The diameter of the earth’s orbit is about one hundred and ninety

millions of miles; and the fixed stars, viewed from the opposite ends

of this extensive base line or diameter, have no sensible parallax, but

all appear in the very same situations, and of the same magnitudes;

and as this is the greatest line to the extremities of which we can

have access, it is very probable we shall ever remain in ignorance of

the true distances of the fixed stars. One thing, however, is fully

ascertained by the observations which have been made to find the

parallax of the stars, which is, that they are so immensely distant

from our planetary regions, that the whole solar system, consisting

of the sun and planets, with their satellites, and the comets, would,

if viewed from the nearest fixed star, appear as crowded into one

single point of space, which is also known from other observations.

How astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which such

observations furnish!”

Our earth is at so great a distance from the sun, that if seen from

thence, it would appear no bigger than a point, although its diameter

is 7,954 miles. Yet that distance is so small, compared with the

earth’s remote situation from the fixed stars, that if the orbit in

which the earth moves round the sun were the circumference of a globe,

that globe, seen from the nearest star, would likewise appear no bigger

than a point, although, it is at least 190,000,000 miles in diameter.

For the earth in going round the sun is 190,000,000 miles nearer to

some of the stars at one time of the year than at another, and yet

their apparent magnitudes, situations, and distances from one another

still remain the same; and being viewed through a telescope which

magnifies above 200 times, they still appear as mere points: which

proves them to be at least 400,000 times further from us than we are

from the sun.

It is not to be imagined, that all the stars are placed in one concave

surface, so as to be equally distant from us; but that they are

scattered at immense distances from one another through unlimited

space. So that there may be as great a distance between any two

neighboring stars, as between our sun and those which are nearest to

him. Therefore an observer, who is nearest any fixed star, will look

on it alone as a real sun; and consider the rest as so many shining

points, placed apparently at equal distances from him in the firmament.

The star nearest to us, or the largest in appearance, is Sirius, or the

Dog Star, and astronomers have calculated from indubitable principles,

that its distance from us is considerably more than two millions of

millions of miles! The apparent magnitude of Sirius has been computed

at 27,000 times less than the sun, and, therefore, supposing their

magnitudes equal, is 27,000 times more distant. If so, as our earth

is ninety-five millions of miles from the sun, that multiplied by

twenty-seven thousand, will give two millions of millions, and an

addition of 565 thousand millions, for the distance of this star from

the sun.[136] Our earth, in moving round the sun, is 195,000,000 miles

nearer to this star in one part of its orbit, than in the opposite

one; and yet the magnitude of the star appears not to be in the least

altered or affected by it. A cannon-ball flying from thence at the

rate of 400 miles in an hour, would not reach us in 732,000 years! The

distance of the star γ Draconis appears, by Dr. Bradley’s observations,

to be at least 400,000 times that of the sun, and the distance of

the nearest fixed star not less than 80,000 diameters of the earth’s

annual orbit; that is, the distance of the earth from the former is =

to 400,000 × 95,000,000 = 38,000,000,000,000, and the latter not less

than 7,600,000,000,000. As these distances are much too great to be

comprehended by the human imagination, we shall, perhaps, obtain a

better idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some moving

body, by which they may, in some way, be estimated. The swiftest motion

we know of is that of light, which passes from the sun to the earth

in about eight minutes, or, at the rate of 200,000 miles nearly in a

second of time: and yet even light would be more than six years in

traversing the first space, and a year and a quarter nearly, in passing

from the nearest fixed star to the earth. Again, a cannon ball, moving

with its initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles in a minute,

would be more than seven millions of years in passing from the star γ

Draconis to the earth. The celebrated M. Huygens carried his thoughts

so far upon this subject, as to believe that there might be stars at

such inconceivable distances from our earth, that their light, though

it is known to travel at the rate of 12,000,000 miles in a minute, has

not yet reached us, since the creation of the world!

“How distant some of the nocturnal suns!

So distant, says the sage, ’twere not absurd

To doubt, if beams, set out at nature’s birth,

Are yet arrived at this so foreign world;

Though nothing half so rapid as their flight.”

And Mr. Addison observes, that this thought of Mr. Huygens is far from

being extravagant, when we consider that the universe is the work of

infinite power, prompted by infinite goodness, having an infinite space

wherein to exert itself, so that our imaginations can set no bounds to

it.

The magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different from one

another; which difference may probably arise, partly from a diversity

in their real magnitude, but chiefly, no doubt, from their different

distances. Hence it is, that the fixed stars have been divided, for the

sake of distinction, into six orders or classes. Those which appear

largest, are considered as stars of the first magnitude; the next to

them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on, through the

different gradations, to the smallest that are visible to the naked

eye, which are said to be of the sixth magnitude. This distribution

having been made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars

which cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments,

are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars. Bayer, besides

accurately distinguishing the relative size and situation of each star,

marked the stars in each constellation with the letters of the Greek

and Roman alphabets, setting the first Greek letter to the first or

principal star in each constellation, to the second in order; then,

when the Greek alphabet was gone over, he passed to _a_, _b_, _c_, of

the Roman, and so on. This useful method of noting and describing the

stars has been adopted by all astronomers since the time of Bayer; and

they have further enlarged it, by adding the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3,

&c, when any constellation contains more stars than can be marked by

the two alphabets.

As it would be impossible to furnish names for all the fixed stars,

and retain those names in the memory; it became necessary not only to

ascertain their exact relative situations, but to invent some method

by which the principal part of the stars which can be seen may be

known, without having recourse to a separate name for each. Ancient

astronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging the fixed stars

in constellations under names and figures of various personages,

celebrated in antiquity, and even of birds, beasts, fishes, &c.

This division of the heavens into constellations is obviously very

ancient; for some of them are mentioned by Hesiod and Homer, both of

whom probably flourished nearly 1000 years before the Christian era.

Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades, are twice mentioned in the book

of Job: and in the prophecy of Amos, composed about 400 years before

Christ, the _seven stars_ and _Orion_ are mentioned. As the knowledge

of the stars became more extensive, the number of the constellations

was increased; and at the same time more stars were introduced into

each constellation. Such of the stars as were not comprehended under

any constellations, were by the ancient astronomers, called unformed

stars. The modern astronomers have reduced not these unformed stars

only, but many other stars, into new figures; and it is probable that

other constellations will still continue to be invented.[137]

With respect to the number of fixed stars, there have been several

accounts, given by different persons, at various times. The celebrated

Hipparchus, of Rhodes, 120 years before Christ, formed a catalogue

of 1,022 stars; to which Ptolemy added four more. Ulug Beigh, the

grandson of Tamerlane, formed a catalogue of 1,017 stars. Tycho Brahé’s

catalogue only extended to 777; but he took care to ascertain all their

places. Kepler’s catalogue amounted to 1,163, which Ricciolus enlarged

to 1,468. Bayerus extended his catalogue further than any of his

predecessors, having described the places of 1,725. Hevelius increased

the catalogue to 1,888. Flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to the

number of about 3,000. But by means of the telescope, which affords

us a glimpse of infinite space, and presents to our view myriads of

worlds, and systems of worlds, by which it is filled, the number of

the stars is astonishingly increased. Galileo found eighty stars in

the space of the belt of Orion’s sword, and F. de Rheita observed more

than 2,000 in the whole constellation of Orion, of which not more than

seventy or eighty can ever be seen without glasses. Dr. Hook reckoned

seventy-eight stars in the single constellation of the Pleiades; and F.

de Rheita, with a better telescope, discovered 188: whereas we cannot

reckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye. At the present

period, the positions of 60,000 fixed stars have been exactly recorded,

and they are generally arranged according to the size they appear; 20

of the largest are called stars of the first magnitude; 65 are of

the second magnitude; 205 of the third; 485 of the fourth; 648 of the

fifth; and about 1,500 of the sixth magnitude; the remainder, being

invisible to the naked eye, are called telescopic stars.

Where the stars are in great abundance, Dr. Herschell supposes they

form primaries and secondaries, that is, suns revolving about suns, as

planets revolve about the sun in our system. He considers that this

must be the case in what is called the _milky way_, the stars being

there in prodigious quantity. Of this he gives the following proof:

on August 22, 1792, he found that in forty-one minutes of time, not

less than 258,000 stars had passed through the field of view in his

telescope! Dr. Chalmers observes, If we ask the number of suns and of

systems--the unassisted eye of man can take in a thousand, and the

best telescope which the genius of man has constructed can take in

eighty millions. Thus, by the help of telescopes, we discover a vast

multitude of stars which are invisible to the naked eye; and the better

the glasses are, still the more become visible; so that we can set no

limits either to their number, or to their distances.

“Myriads beyond with blended rays inflame

The _milky way_, whose stream of vivid light,

Poured from innumerable fountains round,

Flows trembling, wave on wave, from sun to sun,

And whitens the long path to heaven’s extreme:

Distinguished tract!”

From an attentive examination of the stars with good telescopes, many

that appear only single to the naked eye, are found to consist of two,

three, or more stars. The late Dr. Maskelyne observed the α Herculis to

be a double star, and other astronomers have discovered many more to

be double. Dr. Herschell has found 700; of these about forty had been

observed before. The following will serve as a specimen, and afford the

observer a few objects for his attention. α Herculis is a beautiful

double star: the two bodies are apparently unequal: the largest is red,

and the smallest of a blueish color inclining to green. γ Andromedæ,

double, very unequal: the larger of a reddish white color; the smaller

a fine bright sky blue, inclining to green. β Lyræ, quadruple, unequal

white, but three out of the four inclined to red. ε Bootis, double,

very unequal, larger, of a reddish color; the smaller is blue, or of a

faint lilac color. α Lyræ, double, very unequal; the larger is a fine

brilliant white, the smaller dusky.

New stars sometimes appear, while others disappear. Several stars

mentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found: several

are now visible to the naked eye, which are not mentioned in ancient

catalogues; and some stars have suddenly appeared, and again after

a considerable interval vanished. Fortunio Liceti, a celebrated

physician, who died in 1656, in Padua, published a treatise, entitled,

“De novis Astris et Cometis.” In it he gives us an ample account

of the several new stars spoken of by the ancients, among which he

mentions that remarkable one which appeared A.D. 389, near the Eagle.

It was as bright as the planet Venus, for the space of three weeks,

but afterwards entirely disappeared. In the ninth century, the Arabian

astronomers, Massahala, Haly, and Albumazar, observed a new star in

the 15th degree of Scorpio, whose light equalled that of the moon in

her first octant: it was visible for four months. Cyprianus Leovitius

relates, that in the reign of the emperor Otho, A.D. 946, a new star

was seen between the constellations of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; and

also that another was seen A.D. 1264, very near the same part of the

heavens, which had no proper motion. One of the most celebrated of the

new stars is that discovered by Cornelius Jansen, November 8, 1572, in

the chair of Cassiopeia: it exceeded Sirius in brilliancy, and Jupiter

in apparent magnitude; it gradually decayed; and, after sixteen months,

disappeared. On the 13th of August, 1596, David Fabricius observed a

new star in the neck of the Whale, and it disappeared after October

in the same year, but was supposed to be again discovered in the year

1637. In the year 1600, William Jansen discovered a changeable star

in the neck of the Swan. It was seen by Kepler, who wrote a treatise

upon it, and determined its place to be 16° 18ʹ ♒, and 55° 30ʹ or 32ʹ

north latitude. Ricciolus saw it in 1616, 1621, and 1624. Cassini saw

it again in 1655; it increased till 1660; then decreased, and at the

end of 1661 it disappeared. In November, 1665, it appeared again, and

disappeared in 1681. In 1715 it appeared, as it does at present, and

is of the sixth magnitude. In 1686, Kircher observed χ in the Swan,

to be a changeable star in the neck of that constellation; and, from

twenty years’ observations, the period of the return of the same phases

was found to be 405 days. In 1604, Kepler discovered a new star near

the heel of Serpentarius, so very brilliant that it exceeded every

fixed star, and even Jupiter, in apparent magnitude. For more recent

discoveries, see Dr. Herschell’s paper, “On the proper Motion of the

Sun and the Solar System, with an account of the several changes that

have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed,”

vol. lxxiii, of the Philosophical Transactions, or the fifteenth of the

Abridgment.

All the stars seem to have a common and general motion about the

pole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years;

this is occasioned by the precession of the equinoctial points. In

consequence of this apparent motion, the constellations change their

positions in regard to the equinoctial points. Hence it is, that the

constellation Aries now is in the sign Taurus, and Taurus occupies the

sign Gemini. It has been the common opinion that the fixed stars have

no real motion, but the accurate observations of modern astronomers

show, that some of them have a motion peculiar to themselves, by which

they slowly change their places. Thus Arcturus is found to approach

the ecliptic about four minutes in 100 years; and its distance from a

small star near it has been sensibly changed during the last century.

Sirius seems to recede from the ecliptic about two minutes per century.

Similar motions have been observed in Aldebaran, Rigel, the eastern

shoulder of Orion, the Goat, the Eagle, &c. Other stars have been

observed to have a motion in different directions. Perhaps all the

stars have similar motions, which are performed by certain fixed laws

in spaces, which, though very large in reality, yet, because of their

immense distance, subtend at the earth angles so very small, as in

some cases to be quite imperceptible, while in other cases they may

be observed, as in the stars above-mentioned; and on this rational

supposition the appearance and disappearance, and variations in

magnitude, of some stars may be accounted for.

The fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly disseminated through

the heavens, but the greater part of them are collected into clusters;

and it requires a large magnifying power, with a great quantity

of light, to distinguish separately the stars which compose these

clusters. With a small magnifying power, and small quantity of light,

they only appear as minute whitish spots, much like small light clouds,

and thence they are called nebulæ. The number of nebulæ was formerly

imagined to be about 103; but Dr. Herschell, early in the year 1784,

had discovered 469 more, and since then has given a catalogue of

2,000 nebulæ which he has discovered. The most careful and accurate

observations give great reason to conclude, that they all consist

of large masses or clusters of stars at prodigious distances from

our system. Dr. Herschell is of opinion the starry heaven is replete

with these nebulæ, and that each of them is a distinct and separate

system independent of the rest. The milky way he supposes to be that

particular nebulæ in which our sun is placed; and, in order to account

for the appearance it exhibits, he supposes its figure to be much more

extended towards the apparent zone of illumination, than in any other

direction; which is a supposition that he thinks allowable, from the

observations he has made on the figures of other nebulæ.

That there are other worlds, beside our earth, inhabited by rational

beings, endued with bodily constitutions adapted to the nature and

economy of the respective planets for which they are destined, is a

conjecture that approaches the nearest to certainty. There is scarcely

any doubt now remaining amongst philosophers, that our moon is a

habitable globe. The most accurate observations that have been made

with the most powerful telescopes, have confirmed the opinion. The

surface of the moon seems to be diversified by high mountains, large

valleys, and small and larger collections of water; consequently she

resembles our earth; and there can be no doubt that our earth serves

as a moon to the moon, whose inhabitants, comparing it with the sun,

may well say,

----“gives us his blaze again

Void of its flame, and sheds a softer day;”

which similarity existing between them, is a presumptive proof that

the moon, like our earth, is a commodious habitation for creatures

endowed with capacity for knowing and adoring their beneficent Creator.

By a very correct analogy we are led to infer, says a learned author,

that all the _planets_ and their _satellites_ or attendant moons, are

_inhabited_; for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent

beings. And Dr. Herschell’s discoveries have, by the general consent

of philosophers, added, besides the Georgian planet, a _new habitable

world_ to our system, which is the SUN.

To an attentive mind it will appear highly probable, that the planets

of our system, and their moons, are much of the same nature with our

earth, and destined for the like purposes; for they are solid opaque

globes, capable of supporting animals and vegetables. Some of them

are bigger, some less, and others about the size of our earth. They

move round the sun, as the earth does, in a shorter or longer time,

according to their respective distances from him: and have, where

it would not be inconvenient, regular returns of summer and winter,

spring and autumn. They have warmer and colder climates, as the various

productions of our earth require: and, in such as afford a possibility

of discovering it, we observe a regular motion round their axis like

that of our earth, causing an alternate return of day and night; which

is necessary for labor, rest, and vegetation, and that all their

surfaces may be exposed to the rays of the sun.

Can a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three planets,

Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschell or the Georgium Sidus, and compares the

systems of moons together which belong to them, bring himself to think,

that an infinitely wise Creator should dispose of all his animals and

vegetables here, leaving the other planets destitute of living and

rational creatures? To suppose that he had any view to our benefit

in creating these moons, and giving them their motions round their

respective primaries; to imagine, that he intended these vast bodies

for any advantage to us, when he well knew, that they could not be seen

but by a few astronomers looking through telescopes; and that he gave

to the planets regular returns of day and night, and different seasons

to all where they would be convenient, but of no manner of service to

us, except only what immediately concerns our own planet, the earth; to

imagine, I say, that, he did all this on our account, would, I presume,

be charging him with having done much in vain: and be as absurd, as to

fancy that he has created a little sun, and a planetary system within

the shell of our earth, and intended them for our use.

“As well might the minutest emmet say,

That Caucasus was raised to pave his way

The snail, that Lebanon’s extended wood

Was destin’d only for his walk and food.

The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast,

That rounds the ample seas, as well may boast,

The craggy rock projects above the sky,

That he in safety at its foot may lie;

And the whole ocean’s confluent waters swell,

Only to quench his thirst, and move and blanch his shell.”

These considerations amount to little less than a positive proof, that

all the planets are inhabited: for if they are not, why all this care

in furnishing them with so many moons, to supply those with light

which are at the greater distances from the sun? Do we not see, that

the further a planet is from the sun, the greater apparatus it has for

that purpose? Such of the planets as are most remote from the sun, and

therefore enjoy least of his light, have that deficiency made up by

several moons, which constantly accompany, and revolve about them, as

our moon revolves round our earth. So that if the more distant planets

have the sun’s light in less proportion by day than we, they have an

addition made to it morning and evening by one or more of their moons,

and a greater proportion of light during the night. We know that the

earth goes round the sun, and turns round upon its own axis, to produce

the vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former, and of day and

night by the latter motion, for the benefit of its inhabitants: may we

not then fairly conclude, by parity of reason, that the end or design

of all the other planets is the same? And is not this agreeable to the

beautiful harmony which exists throughout the works of nature? Surely

it is! and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of the supreme

Being, who is every where, and at all times present; displaying his

power, wisdom, and goodness, among all his creatures; and distributing

happiness to innumerable beings of various ranks!

When we consider the infinite power and goodness of God; the latter

inclining, the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all

states and circumstances; that matter exists only for the sake of

intelligent beings; and that wherever we see it, we always find it

pregnant with life, or necessarily subservient thereto; the numberless

species, the astonishing diversity of animals in earth, air, water, and

even on other animals; every blade of grass, every tender leaf, every

natural fluid, swarming with life; and every one of these enjoying

such gratifications as the nature and state of each requires: when

we reflect also, that some centuries ago, till experience undeceived

us, a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable; the Torrid

Zone, by reason of excessive heat, and the two Frigid Zones because of

their intolerable cold; it seems highly probable, that these numerous

and large masses of the planets are not destitute of beings capable

of contemplating with wonder, and acknowledging with gratitude, the

wisdom, symmetry, and beauty of the creation. It is an undoubted

truth, that wherever God exerts his power, there also he manifests his

wisdom and goodness.

From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably concluded,

that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and

provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants. Taking a survey

of the system to which we belong; the only one accessible to us; from

thence we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of the

other systems of the universe. For although there is almost an infinite

variety in the parts of the creation which we have opportunities

of examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and

connecting all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole!

The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot

possibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have; nor

any brightness sufficient to make them visible to us. For the sun’s

rays must be scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote

objects, that they can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to

render these objects visible by reflection.

“I launch into the trackless deeps of space,

Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear

Of elder beam, which ask no leave to shine

Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light

From the proud regent of our scanty day.”

The stars, therefore, shine with their own native and unborrowed

lustre, as the sun does; and since each particular star, as well as the

sun, is confined to a particular portion of space, it is plain, that

the stars are of the same nature with the sun.

It is not probable that the Almighty, who always acts with infinite

wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many suns, fit for

so many important purposes, and place them at such distances from

one another, without proper objects near enough to be benefited by

their influences. Whoever imagines they were created only to give a

faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must have a

very superficial knowledge of astronomy, and a mean opinion of the

Divine wisdom: since, by a much less exertion of creating power, God

could have given to our earth considerably more light by one single

additional moon. Since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light

and heat, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from one

another, as well as from us, it is reasonable to conclude they are made

for the same purposes that the sun is; each to bestow light, heat, and

produce vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by

gravitation within the sphere of its activity.

Instead then of one sun, and one world only, in the universe, as the

unskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an

inconceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through

boundless space, that if our sun, with all the planets, moons, and

comets belonging to it, were annihilated, they would with difficulty be

missed, by an eye that could take in the whole creation; the space they

possess being comparatively so small that it would scarce be a sensible

blank in the universe, although Herschell, or the Georgium Sidus, the

most remote of our planets, revolves about the sun in an orbit whose

mean distance from the sun is 1,822,575,228 miles, and some of our

comets make excursions to an amazing distance beyond the bounds of that

planet: and yet, they are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any

of the stars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the attractive

power of all the stars, and returning periodically by the virtue of the

sun’s attraction.

“In the immensity of God’s creation,” says a learned author, “we may

readily conceive one system of heavenly bodies, and others beyond them,

and others still in endless progression, through the whole vortex of

space! Every _star_ in the vast abyss of nature being a _sun_, with its

peculiar and numerous attendant worlds. Thus there may be systems of

systems, in endless gradation, up to the throne of God!”

“Oh, for a telescope HIS THRONE to reach!

Tell me ye learn’d on earth, or blest above!

Where your great Master’s orb? His planets where?

On nature’s Alps I stand

And see a thousand firmaments beneath!

A thousand systems as a thousand grains!

_Each_ of these STARS is a _religious house_;

I saw their altars smoke, their incense rise,

And heard Hosannas ring through _ev’ry sphere_;

A seminary fraught with future gods!

Oh, what a root! Oh, what a branch is here!

Oh, what a Father! What a family!

Worlds, systems, and creations!---- And creations

In one agglomerated cluster hung,

Great _Vine_! on THEE; on THEE the cluster hangs;

The filial cluster! infinitely spread

In glowing globes, with various being fraught;

And drinks (nectareous draught!) immortal life!”

What an august! what an amazing conception, if human imagination can

conceive it, does this give of the works of the Creator! Thousands

of thousands of suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around

us, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand

times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular,

and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed them; and

these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent creatures, formed

for endless progression in perfection and felicity. If so much power,

wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is displayed in the material

creation, which is the least considerable part of the universe,

how great, how wise, how good must He be, who made and governs the

whole![138]

The persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds, has a

powerful tendency to excite our curiosity.

“Ye sparkling isles of light that stud the sea

Of empyrean ether! Ye abodes

Of unknown myriads, spirits, or in bands

Held of corporeal frame! Fain would my soul

A thirst for knowledge unreveal’d to man,

Question your habitants, and fain would hear

A voice responsive from your distant bourn.

Tell, tell me who possess your radiant climes;

What are their forms, their faculties, their hopes,

Their fears, if subject or to hope or fear?

What fond pursuits, what animating toils

Diversify existence with delight?

Rove they in course aërial unconfined

From sphere to sphere, with interchange of joy

Heightening their mutual bliss; or dwell they fix’d,

Each in his native solitary orb,

Unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds?

What homage, what returns of grateful love

Yield they to Him who made them? Stand they fast

In undecaying blessedness, secure

From risk of loss: or tread they yet the stage

Of perilous probation? Hath sin won

Conquests through disobedience o’er those hosts

In your bright regions yawn the gates of Death?

Falls he, who falls, for ever?--Power supreme

Pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume

To pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye

The wonders of thy realms! Enough, to know

That Thou art Lord! Thy universal love

Pervades Creation; on each living form

Showers down its proper happiness; and, when guilt

Wakes thy reluctant vengeance, stays the bolt

Of wrath, and pales its mitigated fire!”[139]

* * * * *

Stars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and teachers;

therefore they may with great propriety be applied to the pastors of

the church. The Jews, says Dr. Doddridge, are said to have called

their teachers _stars_. They are represented under that emblem in the

Revelation, where St. John, speaking of our Lord, says, “He had in his

right hand seven stars;” and the allegorical explanation is, “The seven

stars which thou sawest in my right hand are the angels (or ministers)

of the seven churches,” namely, in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos,

Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. By αγγελοι, _angels_, we are

to understand the _messengers_ or persons whom God sent to preside

over these churches. “Angel of the church,” in this place, says a

learned author, answers exactly to that officer of the synagogue

among the Jews, called שליח ציבור _sheliach tsibbor_, the messenger

of the church, whose business it was to _read_, _pray_, and _teach_,

in the synagogue. The ministers of the gospel bear this allegorical

designation.

1. Because, like stars in the firmament, they are placed in a _high

situation_ in the church. Eliphaz says, “Behold the height of the

stars, how high they are!” The sacred office is the highest that men

can occupy, both in point of rank and importance; and therefore the

views, dispositions, and deportment of ministers, should accord with

it. They should not be sordid in their attachments, nor grovelling

in their pursuits. A predilection for lucrative places, and worldly

honors, is inconsistent with the sanctity of their character, and the

design of their profession. As they are in a station above others, so

their minds should have a high elevation, contemplating spiritual and

divine things, with intense application, and holy delight. The glories

of the new Jerusalem, and the felicities of the celestial Paradise,

are subjects which should engross their thoughts, and be exhibited

in their official ministrations. They should look on all debasing

pleasures, fleeting honors, and perishing riches, as things vastly

below the dignity of their character, and contrary to the objects of

their professional engagements. They have higher considerations to

excite their solicitude, and more important affairs to employ their

powers, than to spend their time in things, which neither can afford

them any rational satisfaction, nor are of long duration. St. James

calls their attention to what is of most interest to them, where he

says, that “he who converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall

save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.” Success is

the most valuable remuneration, and should actuate ministers both in

their private studies, and their public labors.

2. Because of the _beneficial effects_ of their ministerial labors,

being useful to men, in affording them light, direction, and comfort;

and, consequently, the need the church has of them. Gospel ministers

are as necessary to the moral world, during the present state of

things, as the sun, moon, and stars are in the universe. A church

without such helps, would be like a firmament deprived of globular

lights. Ministers, with the bright rays of heavenly doctrine, dispel

the darkness of ignorance, chase away the clouds of error, scatter

the mists of prejudice, disperse the fogs of vice, from the human

mind. As stars engage the attention, and draw the eyes of persons

toward heaven, presenting in themselves astonishing displays of the

infinite perfections of wisdom, power, and goodness: so it is the work

of ministers to endeavor to excite people to the contemplation of

Divine things--to behold through the medium of the sacred Writings,

the mediatorial character of Christ, the results of his passion, the

prevalence of his intercession, the happiness of his subjects, and the

glories of his kingdom. As the stars serve for guides to seafaring

men, while traversing the untrodden paths of the swelling ocean; so

these symbolical stars are guides to those who embark in the vessel

of the church, directing her course, through the inconstant sea of

this tumultuous and fluctuating world, to the harbor of everlasting

rest. And as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men

to Bethlehem, where Christ was born; so it devolves upon ministers, as

stars of the church, to conduct inquiring sinners to Jesus, who is able

and willing to save them from their sins, and bless them with holiness

and eternal life. They may with propriety adopt the language of an old

poet:--

“Oh that his light and influence

Would work effectually in me

Another new Epiphany,

Exhale and elevate me hence:

That as my calling doth require,

Star-like I may to others shine;

And guide them to that Sun divine,

Whose day-light never shall expire.”

3. All the light that ministers communicate to mankind, or to

the members of the church, is derived from Christ, the Sun of

Righteousness, as the light of the planets is from the natural sun.

The pastors of the church have neither light nor grace of themselves:

they receive all from the “Father of lights,” in whose light only they

can see light; and it pleased him that in Christ should “all fulness

dwell.” Both ministers and people must be enlightened with emanations

from him, or remain in darkness. St. Paul frankly acknowledges, “By the

grace of God I am what I am.” Without him, the most eminent minister

would be like a dark lamp. Hence they have no reason to be proud of

their qualifications; for they have received all their gifts and

graces from Christ. Their fitness for the ministerial work is not to

be ascribed either to their natural powers, the force of a superior

genius, a liberal education, intense study, or even to goodness and

piety, but to the gratuitous bounty of God only. So likewise, whatever

success in the exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had,

it flowed not from such sources, but from Christ. “I have planted,”

says St. Paul, “and Apollos watered; but God gave the increase.” The

largest planets are inconsiderable in comparison of the sun, which is

the great natural fountain of light and heat. The holy prophets are

nothing when brought into contrast with Jesus Christ. And John the

Baptist, though superior to all his predecessors, conscious of his own

vast inferiority, confessed, “He it is who coming after me is preferred

before me, whose shoe’s latchet I am not worthy to unloose.”--As the

planets shine with no other light than that derived from the sun;

so ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of Divine

truth, received from the eternal Fountain of illumination. They are

not to shine with the glimmering light of fallable reason, the sparks

of human wisdom, the glow-worm rays of vain philosophy; not with the

subtlety of Aristotle, the penetration of Cartes, the eloquence of

Cicero, the speculations of Plato, the propositions of Euclid; but

with the correct and comprehensive knowledge of the Scripture, which

is “given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for

reproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness; that

the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good

works.” In a lower sense, it must be acknowledged, that human learning

is of considerable use, affording ministers certain qualifications

for their work. The knowledge of the languages, moral and natural

philosophy, sacred and profane history, mathematical science, the art

of speaking, particularly those branches of logic which teach us to

range our thoughts in a right method, to form propositions distinctly,

and to draw just conclusions from acknowledged premises: I say, the

knowledge of these different branches of literature and science, may

very much assist ministers to discover and defend the truth, and refute

its adversaries with their own weapons. But they must derive all their

peculiar lustre and excellence from the volume of Divine inspiration,

whence, as chosen instruments, they can make people wise to salvation.

4. Ministers are like the stars of heaven, because of the difference

that is among them, in respect of gifts and ability. The stars differ

from one another in situation, magnitude, influence, and glory. “There

is one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory

of the stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory.”

The gradation extends from stars of the first to those of the sixth

magnitude. Some are so dazzling, that they appear with a peculiar

splendor among the shining beauties of the night: others are obscure

and nebulous; and there are many which can only be seen with the

help of telescopes. The stars of the moral hemisphere are not all

enlightened, “by the Day-spring from on high,” with the same degree of

intellectual and Divine radiance. They have not all the same gifts, nor

gifts in the same measure. Profound knowledge, excellency of speech,

solidity and firmness of judgment, prudence and dexterity of conduct,

are not usually the portion of one, but distributed among several

ministers. One excels in a talent for preaching, another is eminent

for utterance and power in prayer, and another is distinguished by

wisdom and stability for government. Paul was sublime and cogent in

reasoning; Apollos was copious, eloquent, and mighty in the Scriptures;

John soars high in mysteries, and yet excels in sweetness; Isaiah is

pompous and magnificent in his style; David charms and surprises us at

the same time, with his ecstatic raptures and poetic strains. In the

largest assembly of ministers there are not two alike, far less equal

in all things. Some, like stars of the first magnitude, shine with

great brilliancy: others have rays which are weak and obscure. Some are

prudent, but not eloquent. Some have the gift of preaching, but are not

remarkable for prudence and moderating their passions. Some have the

art of affecting the passions: others have the skill of enlightening

the mind, and informing the judgment. Some, appearing as if formed

in a finer mould, have a talent of politeness and address, in their

intercourse with people of character. Some, like skillful physicians,

know how to deal with afflicted souls, and relieve wounded consciences.

Some are sons of thunder, while others are sons of consolation. Though

every minister should have a competency of each of these gifts, yet

some excel in one, and some in another. Thus “there are diversities of

gifts, but the same Spirit;” and God, in diversifying his gifts, makes

his manifold wisdom appear. The Christians at Corinth not understanding

this, or too emulous for the first-rate talent, without sufficiently

regarding Divine agency, which can render the meanest useful, became

clamorous, and their indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding

ages, with the censure they deservedly merited. However, to calm their

perturbation, he says, “Therefore let no man glory in men. For all

things are yours; whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas; and ye are

Christ’s; and Christ is God’s.”

5. While some stars disappear, others arise that were not previously

observed. “Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live

forever?” Many, “of whom the world was not worthy,” who were bold to

suffer for the name of Christ, not only the spoiling of their goods,

the loss of liberty, and banishment from their native country, but

even death itself, have rested from their labors and afflictions, and

are now enjoying a glorious reward. The Lord also sometimes raises

up extraordinary lights, for asserting and propagating the truth,

when his church is overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and

superstition. Of this Moses, Joshua, Elijah, and Elisha, as well as

many other prophets, whom the Lord called in an extraordinary manner,

were remarkable instances, in the Old Testament: and, in the New

Testament, John the Baptist, and the apostles of Christ, whose voices

were heard, and whose rays extended to the ends of the earth. When the

Christian church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry

of antichrist, God raised up some eminent lights, from time to time,

to diffuse the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and lead the people out

of mystic Babylon. Such were John Wickliffe in England, John Huss and

Jerome of Prague in Bohemia; and, a hundred years afterwards, Luther

in Germany, Zuinglius in Switzerland, Calvin in France and Geneva,

and John Knox in Scotland, whom Beza calls the apostle of the Scots.

Then did the Gospel run, and was glorified, like a mighty torrent

carrying before it not only cities and provinces, but whole nations

and kingdoms.[140] Actuated by zeal for religion, says a clergyman of

the Establishment, “Wickliffe, Jerome, and Huss, roused the slumbering

clergy to opposition. The zeal of Luther and his associates alarmed all

Germany, and shook the Papal throne itself. Gilpin alone, in a dark

period, evangelized a large part of the northern counties of England.

Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, by their steady perseverance unto death,

illuminated the British Isles. The zeal of Whitefield and the two

Wesleys has, even in our day, made England, Scotland, Ireland, and

America, experience very important consequences.” Missionaries actuated

by primitive zeal, and sent out by different societies to preach the

Gospel among Heathen nations, like burning luminaries are chasing away

the darkness of ignorance, gross superstition, and degrading idolatry,

and, on their ruins, establishing the kingdom of Christ, and the reign

of truth, peace, righteousness, and benevolence, in the earth.

6. Ministers, considered as stars placed in the moral firmament, should

shine with purity of doctrine, fervency of zeal, and holiness of life,

both in the summer of prosperity, and in the winter of adversity. 1st.

In the _solemn assemblies_ of God’s people. Jerome says, Our pulpit

should be as Mount Tabor, where we should converse with Moses and the

Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, minding that we have to do with a

holy God, and with the immortal souls of people, which must be shortly

either in heaven or hell. 2d. Amongst _their flocks_, by an innocent,

instructive, and pious conversation, giving them no encouragement, by

their example, to sin; but alluring them to better worlds, and pointing

out the way thither. Their whole life should be a transcript of the

holy life of the blessed Jesus, a living epistle in which the people

may read the way wherein they ought to walk. 3d. In _their families_.

A minister should be “one that ruleth well his own house,” properly

presiding over and governing his own family: “for if a man know not how

to rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?”

Eli’s conduct brought heavy judgments on himself and family, and a

great scandal on the church.

_Theory of the earth._

[Such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from nature

may, with propriety, be applied to the explanation of natural

phenomena, in the absence of direct and satisfactory proof.

Allowing this assumption, we conclude that the intimations

and analogies in nature are sufficiently strong and clear to

authorize a belief, _that all heavenly bodies are similar in

their great constitutional principles, and designs, and that

our earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of

them all_.

The only probable departure from this strong analogy in

the heavenly bodies, seems to be this: the _suns_, or _centres

of systems_, have a peculiar collection of phosphorescent

clouds, which are designed to be the great exciting causes, or

dispensers, of light to the planets which move round them. The

planets have not these phosphorescent clouds.

This does not interfere with the _general_ analogies

between the heavenly bodies; and establishes the _strict

analogies_ between the planets of all systems; and the suns, or

centres of all systems.

From all this we conclude, that a theory of _our earth_

which is satisfactory, will also be deemed satisfactory in

regard to the other heavenly bodies. We therefore lay down,

as authorized by the intimations and analogies of nature, the

following positions.

1. _There is a general analogy between the constitutional

principles and designs of the heavenly bodies; i.e. the suns

and their planets._

2. _That the sun, or center of each system, with all

the planets and satellites revolving about it, were created

simultaneously, as it regards their substances._

3. _That they were created at their relative distances from

the centre which they now preserve._

4. _That they were stationary when first created, having no

motion either on their axis, or in their orbits._

5. _That the materials of each body, when first created,

were solid, frozen, and lifeless._

6. _That the materials of each body were created in their

simple, uncombined, or elementary states._

7. _That it is most probable these elementary materials

were promiscuous in the mass, without regard to specific

gravity, or any other principle or law._

8. _That the arrangement of the materials of which our

earth is composed was effected by the operation of the laws

of nature, as they are called, which were simultaneously

impressed upon the matter of the Solar System, and is continued

impressed, by the direct agency of the Divine Being._

9. _That this reference of the commencement, and

continuance of the energies of the laws of nature, directly

to the Almighty, is both philosophical and scriptural; and is

noted by Moses in these words: “And the spirit of God moved

upon the face of the waters (or deep.”)_

Reasoning from these data, let us now see whether the

phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet are

explicable to a satisfactory degree.

1. Immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature, by

the direct effort of the Divine Being, the whole mass would

commence revolving on its own axis, and moving around its

centre in its orbit. At the same time a quickening impulse

would be felt, from the operation of the laws of nature, which

would impart life and animation to the mass. The first effect

of this impulse would be to call the _caloric_, light, and

electricity into action throughout the body. This would raise

its temperature instantly, and call into action all the other

powerful agents, as soon as formed: such as the acids, alkalis,

&c.

2. There will be no difficulty, to those who know the power

of these agents, in believing _that the consequence of their

united action would be an immediate fusion of the whole mass_.

This would establish a state of _chemical mobility_; i.e. the

various materials, owing to their fusion, would be at liberty

to _combine_, according to the laws of chemical affinity; and

to take their relative positions, according to the laws of

gravitation.

3. The result of this process would be binary, and ternary,

and other combinations. Oxygen would enter into combination

with the bases of the various acids, and thus form the acids;

and with the various metals and thus form oxides; and the acids

and oxides would unite and thus form other compounds, commonly

called _salts_.

4. As such combinations as these would commence forming

first, water and air would be gradually and subsequently

formed, by the three gasses, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,

escaping from the mass and rising to the surface, where the

oxygen combining with the hydrogen would form water; and with

the nitrogen would form air.

5. It is evident that the very small specific gravity of

the gases would cause them to escape from the interior parts of

the earth, rapidly, and to accumulate at the surface in immense

quantities. The consequence of this would be, _an immense

amount of water would be generated at the earth’s surface; but

the oxidizable bodies in the interior of the mass would not,

all of them, be completely saturated with oxygen_.

6. The condition of the earth, at this stage of the action,

would be an inconceivably high state of ignition, specially

in the interior, and a rapid chemical action still going on;

the combinations still forming, and the bodies thus formed

arranging themselves. In a very little time the various classes

of bodies would have obtained, generally, their natural

relative positions, according to their specific gravities; and

all the combinable elements, in the same neighborhood, having

combined, a state of comparative rest would ensue of course.

7. In the mean time, large quantities of different

substances would be held in solution by the acids, alkalis, and

water, whose solvent powers would be very much increased by the

presence of intense heat.

8. If we examine the whole mass at this stage of the

natural process, we will find it is in a condition to

_crystallize_ whenever it can be _reduced_ to a sufficiently

low temperature to admit of crystallization. We know that the

reduction of temperature would commence at the surface, where

the caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters, and

would fly off into the celestial spaces. Of course, the first

crystallized depositions would take place _at the junction of

the waters with the oxides or earths, in a state of fusion, on

which the lower stratum of water was resting_.

9. This first deposition would extend all around the globe,

as the waters _entirely invested_ the earth, and would lay the

_foundation of the primitive family of rocks_, which are well

known to be crystalline in their structure, and the result

of chemical action. It is, however, evident that there were

occasional tremendous agitations, and concussions during the

deposition of the primitive rocks, which altered the state of

the fluids, and caused successive, and, sometimes, alternating

strata to deposit.

10. The period of the deposition of the primitive rocks

continued until the elevations on the earth’s surface were

uncovered, became dry, and were subject to the disintegrating,

and rending powers of the elements: at which time some marine

animals, and some vegetables, adapted to warm and moist

climates, were created. The consequence of this state of

things would be that fragments of rocks, and marine animal and

vegetable remains would be found in the composition of the

strata deposited at this period, and subsequently. The family

of rocks thus deposited is called _transition_ rocks.

11. This is the proper place to institute an inquiry into

the origin of these _primitive elevations or mountains_.

12. It will be very obvious, that a mass of materials

thrown into chemical action, and raised to a very high

temperature, as explained above, would naturally, and

necessarily be upheaved at different points on its surface,

by the gases, and other bodies escaping from the interior.

And though the general softness of the mass would cause these

elevations to sink back again _at first_, upon the escape

of the gaseous bodies upheaving them; yet, when the surface

of the earth, which would cool by coming into contact with

the water, would thus begin to become solid, _the elevations

would maintain themselves, and consolidate_, and thus lay

the foundations of the irregularities which, subsequently,

would rise into mountains, and mountain chains, and sink into

vallies, by the combined action of the internal heat, and the

occasional rapid rise and subsidence of the waters, which would

alter the shape and appearance of the mountains, and deepen the

vallies.

13. But it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause

of the rapid rise, and subsidence of the waters at particular

times; which will also explain the cause of the distinctions

so obvious in the nature and ages of the different families of

rocks.

14. It will be recollected that the interior parts of

the earth are in a state of high ignition, and an immense

quantity of water surrounds the globe, the crust of which

is consolidating. By the natural pressure of the water, by

an occasional eruption of gas from the interior, and by

percolation, &c, the water would have access to the interior

materials in a heated state. In this case there would be an

immense production of steam, and decomposition of water, which

would of course produce an earthquake, until it broke forth in

a volcano under the waters. In this case an _elevation_ would

be produced on the surface, and, in all probability, a _cavity_

in the interior from whence the elevated materials came.

15. These phenomena would happen in quick succession, and

very extensively in the first period of the world; and every

time they happened, they would _reduce_ the quantity of water

at the surface, by admitting some into the interior cavities;

and by decomposing much; the oxygen and hydrogen of which would

enter into other combinations.

16. This will account for the rise and subsidence of the

waters, the formation of vallies, and mountains, and the

alterations in the fluids, so as to deposit the different

strata in succession.

17. During this process above, cavities sufficiently

numerous and capacious, filled with water, would be formed

in the earth to relieve the surface, in a great measure. But

it seems pretty evident that the waters thus retired into

those cavities were occasionally thrown back on the earth,

by the same means with which earthquakes and volcanos are

produced; and thus tremendous currents would ensue, which would

successively bury the vegetable materials in the adjoining

lakes, out of which the coal basins are formed; and also bury

those immense forests of trees, with the bones of animals, and

fishes also, which have been so clearly and satisfactorily

described by geologists.

18. Each successive deluge, in proportion to its power and

extent, would alter the quantity and quality of the materials

held in solution, and thus cause a corresponding deposition

subsequently. Hence, as remarked above, the distinction in

the strata, and the alternations of different substances

successively.

19. It may not be amiss here to say, it is very probable,

that many deluges preceded the formation of man, produced on

the same principles as the deluge of Noah, though for different

purposes, according to the wishes of the Divine Being.

20. To what has been said above, it is only necessary

to add, that all depositions, or formations of rocks took

place _at the bottom of the ocean_, or waters which held

the materials in solution, or suspended; and that this

ocean maintained its dominion for long periods together, in

comparative tranquility, and during such times the different

rock formations were deposited. The marine animals would

multiply, die, and their exuviæ quietly fall to the bottom: at

the same time carbonate of lime would be copiously deposited

from the sea waters, and thus would consolidate into a stratum

of rock, the thickness of which would bear some proportion to

the length of the period of its deposition. If this stratum

_remained in its place_, upon the retiring of the sea, it would

appear at the surface at first; until it was covered with

mould, and the ruins of other rocks disintegrated into earth,

or soil. But if it were _upheaved_ by the force of the internal

fire, it would become a _limestone mountain_, containing the

organic remains as they were first quietly deposited. The same

may be said of primitive mountains, or any other kind.

21. The _transition_ rocks, the formation of which was

barely noticed above, (No. 10) were deposited successively

in strata, indicating their relative ages by the increase of

rocky fragments, and fossil remains in their composition,

from the oldest of the family to the newest: and also by the

gradual change in their structure, which is more crystalline

in the oldest, and becomes less so in the newest, owing to the

decrease of chemical action, and the increase of mechanical

deposition.

22. From the fossil remains in the different strata of the

transition rocks, we have good evidence of successive deluges,

which swept away the animals existing at the time, and buried

their remains which are now found in a fossil state; and others

succeeded them. This will account for particular animals being

peculiar to particular strata of rocks.

23. During the transition period the chemical action ceased

almost entirely, and the succeeding family of rocks, i.e. the

_secondary_, was deposited _mechanically_, their materials

being merely _suspended_ in the waters. This class, therefore,

is not crystalline in its structure, and is nearly horizontal

in position and contains greater quantities of fossil remains,

both of animals and vegetables. These remains are, also, the

relics of beings more delicately organized, and approach much

nearer to the genera and species of animals now existing.

24. During the deposition of this class of rocks, and also

of the _tertiary_ class which succeeded it, the sea retired far

from the up-lands, and well nigh into its permanent beds. The

up-lands would, by the disintegrating power of the elements, be

worn away at their surface, and thus afford the matter of soil,

which would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat

of the sea, by the waters, and be deposited in the vallies,

and low countries. The same process would furnish fragments of

rocks in abundance, and of all kinds, which would be rolled

down the declivities of the up-lands, and become more or less

rounded, and thus be found entering into the rocks of the

secondary and tertiary classes; or in beds of sand and gravel,

or in the channels of rivers in the form of _pebbles_. If these

fragments were thrown together in sufficient quantities, and a

suitable cement deposited among them they would consolidate and

form _pudding-stone_, or breccia marble; such as the Potomac

marble, of which the columns in the Capitol at Washington City

are made.

25. It is very evident that this process would deposit

the heavier fragments, and materials nearest the highlands

whence they originated; and carry the finer and richer matter

further away towards the sea, and deposit it nearer the mouths

of the rivers. This is well known to be the case, as in the

Mississippi. Here the phenomena are doubtless, from the mouth,

along all its tributaries to their sources.

26. While these successive depositions were making,

modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of subterranean

fire, the same agent of these modifications would produce

another very striking phenomena. The immense quantity of matter

thrown from the interior to the surface in a melted state,

would either shoot up in the form of cones, or columns, and

by cooling crystallize and consolidate; or would flow in its

melted state over the surface of the upper rocks, and thus

cover them. This is the case with a class of rocky substances

which may be called by the general name of _basalt_. Sometimes

when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the

melted matter through the superincumbent rocks, it drove it

in _between_ the strata, or shot it up _through_ some of the

strata; frequently upheaving the rocks on one side of the

protruding body, or depressing them on the other. In this case

the injected matter constitutes what is called a _fault_,

_shaft_, or _dike_, by miners.

27. It is not improbable, nay, it is pretty certain, that

many of these basaltic ejections took place under the ancient

chaotic abyss of waters, and have become visible by the

retiring of the sea.

28. In this theory we have a satisfactory explanation

of the formation of _metallic veins_, and the _dispersion_

of metallic grains in sands, and soil. The metals being in

a pure state, or nearly so, in the bowels of the earth when

_projected_ upwards by the force of subterranean power,

would be _injected_ into the rocks in the direction of the

operating force. Hence they are found in veins in solid rocks,

running in all directions, and descending to unknown depths.

Sometimes the whole of the vein appears to be _insulated_ by

the rock. In this case, the whole mass was _fused_, at least

partly, and when the force ceased to act, it would consolidate

around the injected metal, leaving no trace of its injection.

Sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock _from

above_. In this case the metal in a _melted_ state was thrown

to the surface, and _meeting with a chasm, ran into it and

consolidated into a vein_. When the metal was raised from

below in a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense

mass of rocky matter in a state of fusion, they would appear

at the surface mixed throughout. When this rocky mass yielded

to the disintegrating power of the elements, the particles

of the metal and rock would be carried off together into the

lower positions, and be found in the form of _dust_, in the

secondary, or lower countries.

29. The shape of the earth, in regard to which it is said

the polar diameter is less than the equatorial, would be the

same on the above theory, as it has been shown to be, on the

supposition that the earth was in a soft state by the solvent

powers of water, as commonly supposed.

30. It is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the Christian

philosopher, to observe the strong tendency in the Science of

Geology, to confirm the account of the creation of the world,

as given by Moses in the Bible. By a careful comparison of the

account of Moses with well established geological positions,

it will be found that _they agree expressly, in the_ ORDER

_and_ NATURE _of the events_. This is a splendid evidence in

favor of revelation. There can be no doubt, but, that if the

phenomena of nature, and the teachings of the Bible were better

understood, more striking and unexpected agreements would be

found. Religion and Science will one day be inseparable.

_Remarks._

1. It will be necessary for the reader to peruse the above

theory very attentively, in order to form a correct judgment

of it, as it is merely an _outline_, very briefly drawn up,

yet it is hoped, pretty clearly. Whether it be well calculated

to explain the great leading geological phenomena which we

observe, the reader will determine for himself. It was not

drawn up _in view_ of such explanation, but was constructed

by _induction_ from those well ascertained phenomena. It was

drawn up _out of view_ of any ultimate object, or system,

_previously_ embraced, and is even _different_ from the

writer’s previous opinions, before he had diligently compared

all the facts within his reach. It is therefore entitled to the

merit of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain

to truth on this interesting subject, and not to support a

favorite theory.

2. Upon examination it will be found to reconcile, in a

great measure, the _Vulcanian_ and _Neptunian_ theories which

have so long divided the principal writers on Geology. It

will be found that both _fire_ and _water_ were concerned in

producing the great geological phenomena. It cannot be doubted

but that subterranean force _commenced_ the irregularities on

our earth’s surface, and continued the action, probably with

occasional intermissions, in upheaving the mountains, and

mountain chains: but as this was commenced, and principally

accomplished, _under_ the ancient sea, there can be no doubt

but that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency

in modifying the structure and composition of mountain, and

moderate elevations. And while we have every reason to believe

the force of subterranean fire was the principal agent in

rending, dislocating, and confusing the rock formations of the

crust of our earth; we have no less reason to acknowledge the

agency of water in depositing the various strata; contributing

to the disintegration of the exposed uplands; and carrying down

the _alluvion_ which form the fertile tracts of vallies, and

low countries; and the sand bars, and banks at the outlets, of

rivers, bays, gulfs, &c.

3. This view will be more clearly explained by examining

the _shape_ of continents, islands, and countries, which will

be found to correspond, pretty nearly with the shape of the

mountain ranges in each. That is: the _length_ of a continent,

island, or country will be found to be _in the direction of the

mountain range_; and the _breadth across_ the mountain range.

4. This would be the shape which would naturally result

from the transition, secondary, and tertiary formations arising

principally from the disintegration of the materials of the

mountain range. This is evident from a single reflection: if a

_conical_ body stood in the midst of a plain, and was equally

exposed to a power which wore it away, the portions thus torn

from the body would roll down the declivity towards the base of

the cone, and would occupy a circle, generally speaking, of the

plane at the base equidistant from the body. In the same manner

the wasting away of the primitive elevations would deposit the

detritus equidistant from the foot of the range.

5. It will be obvious, however, that the conformity of

a country, _in shape_, to the mountain ranges which run

through it, will be more or less modified by adventitious

circumstances. If one side of the mountain range was originally

more precipitous than the other: or if some tremendous

collection or current of water lashed or swept one side, and

not the other, the shape of the country would be modified; but

not so much as to destroy the general conformity in shape. The

above remarks will be confirmed by an inspection of accurately

drawn maps.

6. Finally: Some formations are entirely owing to the

agency of water; as sand banks, bars, shoals, &c, and some

entirely owing to the action of fire, as the deposites of lava;

the upheaving of volcanic mountains, even in the memory of man.

These are _adventitious_ formations, and do not even _modify_

a general theory.]

* * * * *

Footnotes - Chapter V

[114] Time’s Telescope for 1815, Introduction.

[115] Dr. Robert Wittie, in his Survey of the Heavens,

makes the following observations concerning this miraculous

interposition of Divine providence. “We read that Joshua, in

his zeal against the enemies of God and his people, in the heat

of battle, called to the sun and moon to stand still, &c. The

design was that the light might be lengthened, till he might

destroy the army of the Amorites, and the day was accordingly

prolonged, as the sun went not down for the whole day, and the

moon also staid.--But why should Joshua call to the moon to

stand still, as well as the sun, which I could be of no use

to him, while the sun was up? To this I answer with all due

modesty; I do believe Joshua did call thus by inspiration, and

a special impulse from God upon his spirit: for that which

would make the sun stand still, would stay the moon. He that

from the hasty zealous call of this great general, shall think

to form an argument to prove the philosophical notion of the

sun’s diurnal motion about the earth, by taking the words in

a proper literal sense, may as well go on, and eke it out a

little further, and then he may prove the sun to have been in

the next great town, Gibeon, and the moon in the valley; but if

to all men this latter shall be judged a weak inference, I dare

say, to many wise men, so will the former.” P. 12, 13.

[116] Aristotle de Cœl. lib. ii, cap. 13.

[117] Macrob. Sat. lib. i, cap. 21.

[118] Macrob. in Somn. Scip. lib. i, cap. 20.

[119] That is, in adoration; from _ad ore_, to the mouth,

i.e. _hand_ to the mouth.

[120] Baseley’s Glory of the Heavens, pp. 73-76.

[121] The new moon is often styled a _crescent_; a word

formed from the Latin _crescere_, to _grow_; and though it is

used from the same figure of the moon in her wane or decrease,

when her horns are turned towards the west, yet these horns

always point to the east in the just crescent.

[122] M. Schroëter, of the Royal Society of Gottingen,

has recently published a very curious and elaborate work

in German, entitled, Selenotographische Fragmente, &c, or

Selenotopographical Fragments, intended to promote a more

accurate knowledge of the moon’s surface: a valuable extract

from which may be seen in the Pantologia, article _Moon_.

[123] See Mr. Howard’s valuable paper on the Philosophical

Transactions for 1802, Dr. Hutton’s Dissertation in the New

Abridgment, part xxi, and Dr. Adam Clarke on Josh. x, 11.

[124] The principal eclipse of the sun, for the present

century, has been already calculated, and it is fully

determined that it will take place in the year 1847. It will

be annular in this country, and several other places. Time’s

Telescope for 1815.

The Athenians, according to Plutarch, entertained very

terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon. Nicias and his army,

when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly from

Sicily, without being observed or suspected by the enemy,

refused to embark, because the moon became suddenly eclipsed;

this ignorant and superstitious conduct proved fatal, for they

were all, shortly after, either slain or taken prisoners.

[125] A valuable correspondent writing from Matura, in

Ceylon, May 7, 1817, says, “A festival was lately celebrated

here, principally on the river. A large boat was rigged for the

purpose, somewhat after the manner of a ship, which carried a

number of dancers and other persons in disguise, accompanied

with the music of pipes and drums. I particularly inquired into

the meaning of the ceremonies; and, as far as I could learn, it

was a celebration of the birth of the sun and moon. The world

is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins, whose

bodies were transparent, and afforded sufficient light. When

these fell into sin, they lost their splendor, and other lights

became necessary.”

The African negroes, in the West Indies, on seeing the new

moon, take out of their pocket a piece of whatever money they

have, and, holding it up in their hand, say, “God bless the new

moon, this is all I can give you; take this, and give me good

luck:” and then throw it up toward it. After this action, they

believe that prosperity will attend them during the time that

moon continues. On embracing the Christian religion, they lay

aside this heathenish practice.

[126] On the dial of the cathedral at Bruges, the sun is

represented directing the hours, with this motto, _Non rego,

nisi regar_: signifying, that the sun could not rule the

day, if it was not first ruled itself. Had the Pagan world

known this truth, the greatest part of it had not fallen into

idolatry.

[127] Literary Panorama, for January, 1814, pp. 954, 955.

[128] “At what time the earth began to be considered,

or rather suspected, to be spherical,” says Costard, “is

uncertain, but probably not before the undertaking long

voyages; the first of which, it may be, were down the Arabian

Gulf, and out of the Straits of _Bab-Al-mandub_, by Europeans

corruptly called _Babelmandel_. What opinion was commonly

entertained of those who undertook those long voyages, may be

learned, in some measure, from this word. For _Mandub_ is one

that is lamented at his funeral; therefore _Bab-al-mandub_ is

the _gate_, or _strait_, of one lamented at his funeral; as if

a person sailing beyond that point, was considered as going to

certain death, or never to return.”

[129] See Verstigan’s “Restitution of Decayed

Intelligence,” Edit. 1673, pp. 64-68; and Time’s Telescope.

[130] On June 14, 1815, was published the following

astronomical notice. The Georgium Sidus is now visible to

the naked eye any clear night. It souths now a little before

midnight, is paler and less vivid than the fixed stars near it

in Scorpio; it will remain in company with Arcturus for two or

three years, passing north of it about the middle of the year

1816, and veering to the east, or left hand, at the rate of 4°

18ʹ annually, being near seven years in passing one sign, and

near 84 in making an entire revolution.

Dr. Herschell assumes, that the eclipses of the satellites

of the Georgium Sidus will, in the year 1818, be visible to

those who possess telescopes of high magnifying powers, when

they will appear to ascend through the shadow of the planet in

the direction almost perpendicular to the ecliptic.

[131] In the year 1712, Mr. Whiston having calculated

the return of a comet, which was to make its appearance on

Wednesday, the 14th of October, at five minutes after five in

the morning; he gave notice to the public accordingly, with

this terrifying addition, that _a total dissolution of the

world by fire was to take place on the Friday following_. The

reputation Mr. Whiston had long maintained, both as a divine

and a philosopher, left little or no doubt with the populace

of the truth of his prediction. Several ludicrous events

took place in consequence. A number of persons in and about

London seized all the barges and boats they could lay their

hands on in the Thames, very rationally concluding, that when

the conflagration took place, there would be the most safety

on the water. A gentleman who had neglected _family prayer_

for longer than five years, informed his wife that it was

his determination to resume that laudable practice the same

evening; but his wife having engaged _a ball at her house_,

persuaded her husband to put it off till they saw whether the

comet appeared or not. The South-sea stock immediately fell to

_five per cent._, and India stock to _eleven_. The captain of a

Dutch ship threw all his powder into the river, that the ship

might not be endangered.

The next morning the comet appeared according to the

prediction, and before noon the belief was universal, that

_the day of judgment was at hand_. About this time of the

day 123 clergymen were ferried over to Lambeth, it was said,

to petition that a short prayer might be penned and ordered,

there being none in the church service on that occasion.

Three maids of honor burnt their collections of novels and

plays, and sent to a bookseller’s to buy each of them a Bible,

and Bishop Taylor’s Holy Living and Dying. The run upon the

Bank was so prodigious, that all hands were employed from

morning till night in discounting notes, and handing out

specie. On Thursday, considerably more than _seven thousand

kept mistresses were legally married_! in the face of several

congregations. And to crown the whole, Sir Gilbert Heathcote,

at that time head director of the Bank, issued orders to all

the fire-offices in London, requiring them “to keep a good look

out, and have a particular eye upon the Bank of England.”

The comet which might have put the earth in most hazard,

was that of 1680. By Halley’s calculation it passed, November

11, within 60 semi-diameters of the earth’s orbit: and if, at

that time, the earth had been in that part of her orbit, there

is no conjecturing at the consequences.--Literary Panorama, for

December, 1811.--Probably the above was only a hoax upon Mr.

Whiston on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning

comets.

[132] Dr. Keill’s Astronomy, 5th Edit. pp. 189, 190.

[133] Dr. O. Gregory’s Treatise on Astronomy, p. 413.

[134] The celebrated Buffon supposed, that our earth was

originally formed by a comet’s sweeping off and receiving in

his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun; which,

after having been sufficiently cooled, in the lapse of time,

perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, had gradually assumed

its present form! When we reflect that this eminent French

naturalist was an infidel and a libertine, his many strange

theories confirm the remark of the Poet,

“An undevout astronomer is mad.”

When a person through the pride of intellect, will not

submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of Divine

revelation, he is liable to embrace the greatest absurdities,

which a sober and well-regulated mind would prevent.

[135] Guardian, No. 103.

[136] The distances of the fixed stars have never been

absolutely determined, and what is here stated is not given

as the true distance of Sirius; but from what has been

ascertained, the distance cannot be less than as above. Dr.

Bradley, after another method of calculation, makes it to

be more than ten times greater, or twenty-five millions of

millions, and 650 thousand of millions.

[137] In 1627, Schiller published a work, entitled Cœlum

Stellatum Christianum, containing the ancient catalogue,

with new constellations. In this work he rejected the

old designations, and substituted new figures for the

constellations, and names taken from the sacred Scriptures;

thus Aries he changed into St. Peter; Taurus, into St. Andrew;

Andromeda, into the holy sepulchre; Lyra, into the manger

of Christ; Hercules, into the wise men of the east; Canis

Major, into David; and so on. This he is said to have done in

imitation of the venerable Bede, who, instead of the profane

names and figures adopted by pagans, substituted the names of

the twelve apostles for those of the twelve constellations

in the zodiac: but these innovations were disregarded by

astronomers. Weigelius, professor of mathematics at Jena,

attempted to make an innovation of another kind; he wished to

change the starry heavens into a kind of Cœlum Heraldicum, by

introducing the arms of all the princes and states of Europe,

by way of constellations; but his project experienced the same

fate as those of Bede and Schiller.

[138] See Ferguson’s Astronomy.

[139] Gisborne’s _Walks in a Forest_, sixth edit. pp. 44,

45, 46.

[140] The author thankfully acknowledges his obligations

for many of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached “at

the opening of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale;” but cannot

say of what date, or by whom delivered, as his copy of it is

without title-page.

* * * * *