grounds of their fathers on the Chattahoochee River, to escape the
oppression of their powerful kinsmen, the Creek Indians. They had
rebelled against the rule of the Creeks, because the Creeks refused them
their share of plunder in battle, and laid claim to their lands and
their slaves. The Red Sticks hated the Creeks so bitterly that they
could no longer live near them. They were resolved to leave altogether
the territory that the United States government recognized as belonging
to the Creeks, and seek homes with the Seminoles or runaways in Florida.
[Illustration: CREEK INDIANS]
The Red Sticks had left the Creek country far behind them, and had
arrived, as we have seen, in northern Florida. The land into which they
had come was uncultivated, wild, and sweet. The lakes and rivers were
full of fish; the forests were full of game; fruits and berries grew in
abundance. Everything seemed to invite the wanderers to tarry there and
build themselves homes. Still they marched on over rich brown fields,
past dancing lakes and streams, over fertile hillsides shaded with live
oak and magnolia. No spot, however beautiful, could induce them to pause
for more than a few days' rest. Their object was not to find a pleasant
camping ground but to escape the hated Creeks. They were bound for a
distant swamp. On the borders of the Okefinokee marsh they planned to
make their homes. There they would be reasonably safe from the enemy,
and even if the Creeks should follow them there, the swamp would afford
them a secure retreat.
But this goal was still many miles away, and the fugitives were now
pressing toward a little hill, where they expected to make a short halt.
The young men were silent but alert. Now and again one raised his bow
and brought down a goose or a wild turkey, and some youngster plunged
into the thicket to find it and fetch it to his mother. Here and there
were groups of women burdened with kettles and pans and bundles of old
clothes, or carrying small children and raising a great clamor of
chatter and laughter.
A little apart from the main company a tall and handsome Indian woman
plodded silently along by herself. The splendor of her kerchief had been
faded by sun and rain; her skirts were torn by briers, but the necklace
of silver beads wound many times about her throat retained its glory. On
one hip rested a huge basket, packed and corded. Astride the other rode
a sturdy-limbed boy of about four years of age. Nearly all day the child
had run by her side without complaint. But toward evening he had begun
to lag behind, until at last, when, after a good run, he caught up with
his mother, he clutched her skirts to help himself along. Then she had
stooped and picked him up with a sort of fierce tenderness and in a
moment he had fallen asleep.
Soon the Indians reached the hilltop where they were to camp for a few
days. Their preparations for the night's rest consisted chiefly in
building camp fires; for, though the days were warm, the nights were
chilly. Besides, fires were needed to cook food and to keep the wild
beasts away during the darkness. A small fire of light brush was made
first. Then several large logs were placed about it, each with one end
in the flame, so that they looked like the spokes of a great wheel
radiating from a center of fire. As the ends of the logs burned away,
the fiery ring at the center grew wider and dimmer. When a hotter fire
was wanted, the logs were pushed toward the center till the glowing ends
came together once more and burned briskly.
On the morning after the Red Sticks went into camp on the hill, while
others lounged and talked together, the woman wearing the necklace of
silver beads still kept apart. She sat on the unburned end of a fire log
and for a time paid no heed to the question her small son had repeated
many times. At last she looked up and said: "Do not ask again about the
baby with the blue eyes. Do not think of her. She does not cry for you.
She plays with little Creek pappooses. She is not your sister any more.
Go, play at shooting turkeys with black Jim. He loves you like a
brother."
The woman was the daughter of a chief. She had married a man of her own
tribe, but after he fell in battle she married a Scotch trader, named
Powell, who lived among the Creeks. When the time came for the flight of
the Red Sticks her heart turned to her people. She enjoyed too much the
glory of being a trader's wife to give up her position and her home
without much bitterness. But she was too true an Indian to desert her
tribe. As her husband had no notion of leaving his trading station among
the Creeks, she had left him and her blue-eyed baby and had come with
her kindred, bringing with her her little son, a true Indian, the child
of her first husband.
The boy played at shooting wild turkeys with black Jim that day, and
many times afterward. As time passed he thought less and less of the
blue-eyed sister and more and more of his comrade with a black skin.
II. THE FLORIDA HOME
These Red Sticks were not the first wanderers who had sought homes and
safety in Florida. For some fifty years bands of Indians enticed by the
rich hunting grounds, or driven by the persecutions of the Creeks, had
left their kindred in Georgia and Alabama to try their fortunes in
Florida.
They had found other tribes in possession of the peninsula, but the
newcomers were more warlike and soon made themselves and their claim to
the land respected by the natives. Indeed, the immigrants soon came to
be looked upon as the ruling people. They were called Seminoles, which
means runaways.
The Seminoles would not attend Creek councils. They refused to be bound
by treaties made by the Creeks. In all ways they wished to be considered
a separate and distinct people.
[Illustration: SEMINOLE INDIANS]
Among the Florida Indians there lived a people of another race, the
Maroons or free negroes. In those days Florida was owned by Spain.
Therefore, American slaves once safely within its borders were free men.
They became Spanish subjects and their former masters had no power to
reclaim them. Florida formed a convenient refuge, and slaves were sure
of welcome there, especially if they were willing to exchange a white
master for a red one. Most negroes were glad to do this, for the slaves
of the Indians were happy, independent slaves. Their chief duty to their
masters was to raise for them a few bushels of corn each year. Though
the Indians in general regarded themselves as superior to the negroes,
the two races of exiles felt strong sympathy and affection for each
other. They lived in the same manner, observing common customs. They
fought together against a common enemy. They even intermarried.
But the country was extensive and only thinly settled; and so,
notwithstanding the frequent increase of their force by Indians and
negroes, warriors were still more valuable than land in the eyes of the
Seminoles. The tribe of Red Sticks that went to Florida in 1808 was
received with great friendliness.
The Indian woman with the silver beads soon married another brave, and
went to live on a "hammock" near Fort King, not far from the place where
Ocala now stands. She took with her her son. He was called Powell by
some who remembered his stepfather, the trader. But his mother called
him Osceola, which means the rising sun. Osceola grew up loving Florida
as his home. And, indeed, it was a home that any Indian might have
loved.
The climate was healthful for the Indians, and so warm and pleasant that
clothing was a matter of small concern. The soil was rich, and corn and
koontee were to be had in abundance. The forests were full of deer and
small game.
A few skins thrown over some poles afforded sufficient protection for
ordinary weather. But if rains made a more substantial dwelling
necessary the palmetto furnished material for posts, elevated floor, and
thatched roof.
Not least among the advantages of the Florida home were its wonderful
waterways leading off through dense mysterious forests, where strange
birds called and strange plants grew--a labyrinth full of danger for the
intruder, but a safe and joyous retreat for the Seminole floating on the
dark water in his dugout.
Though the Indians could have lived comfortably in this country without
much effort, the Seminoles did not choose to live in idleness. They saw
the flourishing farms of the Spanish settlers and wished to have farms
of their own.
So it happened that when Osceola was a boy he saw the Indians around him
make the beginnings of what they believed would be permanent homes. He
saw them cultivate the soil and tend their herds of cattle and horses
and hogs. He watched them build their dwellings and
storehouses--palmetto lodges without walls for themselves, substantial
log cribs for their corn and potatoes.
When a child, he imitated not only the warriors and hunters, but made
cornfields of sand with tall grass spears for cornstalks, and built
"camps" and corncribs out of little sticks.
[Illustration: FISHING WITH A SPEAR]
As he grew older he often hoed the corn and ground the koontee and drove
the cattle. He did cheerfully the work of a farmer, though he liked best
to hunt and fish and explore. He had a strong boat made by burning out
the heart of a large cypress log. In this he often glided swiftly and
noiselessly down some stream where the salmon trout lived. He held in
his right hand a tough spear, made of a charred reed with a barbed end.
When he saw a fish almost as large as himself close at hand he hurled
his harpoon at it with all his force. And the fish darted off, leaving a
trail of crimson in the clear water and dragging the boat behind it; for
the boy clung to the end of the spear and soused the wounded fish in the
water until its strength was exhausted. Then with the help of a friend
he dragged it into the boat, and began to watch for another fish.
Osceola was so energetic that he enjoyed work for its own sake. He had
unusual endurance, and could keep at work or play long after others were
tired. He was a famous ball player, and distinguished himself at the
green corn dances. There he drank without flinching such large draughts
of the bitter "black drink" that he was nick-named by some "Asseola,"
which means "black drink."
Once when acting as a guide for a party of Spanish horsemen he asked
them why they rode so slowly. They told him that as he was unmounted
they traveled easily to accommodate him. He laughed and replied that
they might go as fast as they liked, they would hear no complaint from
him. At this they spurred their horses to a livelier pace. Then seeing
that Osceola still seemed to be making little effort they rode faster
and faster to test his swiftness and strength. They were soon convinced
that the young Indian had made no idle boast, and rode the entire day as
if all the members of the party had had horses. When they reached the
end of their journey Osceola seemed less tired than the horsemen.
Osceola was not only active and enduring. He was also generous and
helpful. His bright face, his frank manner, and true kindness made him a
great favorite with all who knew him, Indians, negroes, or white men.
III. THE FIRST SEMINOLE WAR
When Osceola was a light-hearted boy of twelve, with kind impulses
toward every one, something happened to rouse in him a bitter hatred, a
thirst for blood.
During the War of 1812 large numbers of negroes in the South took
advantage of the general excitement to make good their escape from
bondage. The Indians welcomed them and shielded them from bands of slave
hunters that made sallies into the Spanish territory for the purpose of
recapturing them. In this the Indians were aided by the British, who saw
an opportunity to make trouble for the republic on its southern border,
while the United States troops were occupied on the Canadian frontier. A
British agent built a strong fort on Spanish soil on the Appalachicola
River. After the close of the war the British withdrew and left the
fort, well filled with ammunition, in the hands of the Indians and
negroes.
The Seminoles and their negro friends rejoiced over this. They could not
foresee the doom that this fort was to bring upon them.
For many years the Southern people had complained bitterly against the
Seminole Indians for "stealing," as they said, their slaves. The
"stealing" consisted in receiving and protecting runaways. The feeling
against the Indians was so strong that expeditions into Spanish
territory had been made by people on the frontier to capture slaves and
punish the Seminoles. But this fort would now be a hindrance to such
forays, and the slaveholders demanded that it should be destroyed.
They were so persistent in their demands that General Andrew Jackson
gave General Gaines directions to invade Spanish territory with United
States troops to blow up the fort and return the "stolen negroes" to
their rightful owners.
For miles up and down the Appalachicola River the land along the banks
was cultivated and divided into small farms, where Indians and negroes
lived. When these farmers learned of the approach of the enemy they fled
with their wives and children to the fort for protection. Over three
hundred men, women, and children crowded into the fort, feeling sure of
safety. But when the troops attacked them by land and water, and the
cannon roared about the walls of the fort, they were panic-stricken. The
women and children shrieked and wrung their hands. The men did not know
what to do; they rent the air with fearful yells, but made little
attempt at resistance. What would they not have given to exchange the
fort walls for an open boat and the endless waterways of the forest?
They were not left long to fear and regret. The enemy promptly
accomplished its purpose. A redhot ball reached the powder magazine of
the fort. A terrible explosion followed, destroying the fort and
bringing instant death to two hundred and seventy of its inmates.
The story of the horrible death, of the mutilated bodies of the injured
men carried off on the boats of the white men, spread all over Florida.
At every camp fire the tale was told, and all the old savage thirst for
vengeance was stirred in the hearts of men who had begun to care for
crops and herds and to dream of days of peace.
The Indians knew that peace with the white man was best for them. But
Indian blood had been shed and peace was impossible. Preparations began
at once for what was afterward known in history as the First Seminole
War. The Indians bought arms and powder from Spanish and British
traders. They practised shooting. They explored the country for safe
retreats and excellent ambushes. They raised their crops and harvested
them. A year passed before the first stroke of vengeance fell.
A boat carrying supplies to Fort Scott was surprised by Indians, and its
crew, passengers, and military escort were overpowered and killed. The
War Department had been expecting some hostile act on the part of the
Seminoles, and was ready for war. The massacre in the vicinity of Fort
Scott is usually regarded as the cause of the war of 1818, though it was
not without its cause, as has been shown.
General Jackson promptly invaded Florida with a strong force of United
States troops and Creek Indians, to punish the Seminoles. He was met by
a motley crowd of Indians and negroes. Even children joined their
fathers to resist the approach of the whites and Creeks. Though they did
not present an imposing appearance, the Florida Indians and their allies
proved to be desperate fighters.
[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON]
General Jackson first moved against the settlements on the
Appalachicola. The Indians and negroes made a stand and fought a battle,
but were obliged to retreat. Jackson then secured the provisions the
Indians had stored there, burned the villages and pushed on to St. Marks
and then to the valley of the Suwanee.
On this march he was much troubled by Indians who hung along his path,
making frequent swift attacks and then vanishing in the wilderness. At
Old Town a battle was fought in which the Maroons gave the Indians brave
assistance. Here again the forces of Jackson were victorious. After
suffering heavy losses, the Indians and their allies retreated. They
were pursued by a detachment of Jackson's men and driven far to the
south.
The Indians had taken the precaution to move the negro women and
children out of reach of the American army, fearing that they would be
captured and carried back into slavery, but they had been less careful
to conceal their own squaws and pappooses, and Jackson made hundreds of
them captives.
The battle of Old Town closed the war. Jackson, feeling that the Indians
had been thoroughly beaten, withdrew from Florida, leaving fire and
desolation in his track.
The boy Osceola, strong and straight, and with the spirit of an eagle,
had played a man's part in the war. He combined with the reckless
courage of youth a determination that made him capable of good service
in Indian warfare. He was a good scout and an unexcelled messenger.
Swift and light, and sure as the arrow he shot from his bow, he had
carried signals from chief to chief, he had crept as a spy past the
pickets of the enemy, he had acted as runner and guide, taking women and
children from exposed villages to the secret recesses of the forest. Nor
had his youth exempted him from doing the more deadly work of war.
The Seminoles had lost heavily in the war, but as a nation they had
gained some things of great value. The hardships they had suffered
together gave the various tribes a stronger feeling of fellowship than
they had had before. Black men had fought shoulder to shoulder with red,
and would henceforth be less their inferiors and more their friends.
IV. GRIEVANCES
Not many days passed after General Jackson withdrew his army from
Florida before the Seminoles were again established on the fertile lands
from which they had been driven. They brought with them their flocks and
herds. Before long their simple dwellings were re-built and the Seminole
villages seemed as prosperous as ever.
The slaveholders of the South felt that Florida was still a dangerous
neighbor. They saw that to mend matters it was necessary that Florida
should be made a part of the United States in order that the government
should have authority over the Seminoles. So, in the year 1821, through
the influence of Southern statesmen the territory of Florida was
purchased from Spain for five million dollars.
Now that the people of the United States owned Florida they wished to
occupy the land, but the Seminoles claimed it. Many were unwilling to
recognize the justice of this claim, however; for it was held that as
the Indians were not native tribes but were Creeks they should be
compelled to go back to Georgia and live with their kindred.
This proposal gave the Indians great alarm. They expected momentarily
that an attempt would be made to expel them from their homes. By
spreading a report that Jackson was coming to seize their property and
drive them back to live with the Creeks, bands of lawless men created
such a panic among the Indians that they fled into the forests and
swamps, leaving their provisions and property for the plunderers to
carry off.
Border troubles increased until action could not be postponed longer. A
council was called at Camp Moultrie in 1823, where a treaty was made
between the United States government and the Seminole Indians.
By the terms of this treaty the Indians were to give up all their land
north of the Withlacoochee River, except a few tracts reserved for
chiefs. They were bound to stay within the limits of the lands assigned
them, and if found in the northern part of the territory without
passports were to suffer thirty-nine stripes on the bare back, and give
up their firearms. They were also pledged to assist in recapturing
fugitive slaves, who in the future should seek refuge among them.
In return for what they had given up the Seminoles were to receive from
the United States at once, provisions for one year and six thousand
dollars worth of cattle and hogs; and for twenty years thereafter, an
annuity of five thousand dollars was to be paid to them. They were also
assured that their rights would be protected. The United States promised
"to take the Florida Indians under their care and patronage, and afford
them protection against all persons whatsoever," and to "restrain and
prevent all white persons from hunting, settling, or otherwise
intruding, upon said lands."
The effects of this treaty were neither beneficial nor lasting. The
Indians were moved from their homes to the southern part of the
peninsula, where the land was poor. While they had once been happy and
prosperous, they now became miserable and destitute, and dependent on
the annual allowance from the government. The lands they relinquished
were soon occupied by white settlers, and the red men and the white were
again neighbors. Of course, the border troubles were renewed. The white
men would never be satisfied until the Indians were expelled from the
peninsula altogether.
The Indians were aware that the white settlers were eager to have them
sent away. They tried to keep peace and avoid trouble. If any of their
number violated the treaty, the Indians punished him themselves, even
inflicting the ignominious thirty-nine stripes. The white men, however,
were bent on making mischief. Indeed, one of the lawmakers of the
Territory said frankly: "The only course, therefore, which remains for
us to rid ourselves of them, is to adopt such a mode of treatment
towards them as will induce them to acts that will justify their
expulsion by force."
The Indians had yielded many points for the sake of peace, but they were
determined not to leave Florida. They believed that if they could abide
by the terms of the treaty of Camp Moultrie for its full period of
twenty years the United States government would admit their right to
stay in Florida permanently.
Osceola was most active in trying to preserve peace. He had now grown to
manhood. He had married Morning-Dew, the daughter of a chief, and they
were living together happily near Fort King. Osceola was not a chief,
but he was well known and liked among the Indians. He used his influence
to keep the rash young men from violating the treaty. He wished to see
the Seminoles do their full duty to the white people, not because he was
fond of the white race, but because he thought it well for the Indians
that the peace should not be broken.
[Illustration: OSCEOLA]
His eagerness to keep the Indians in order made him greatly liked at
Fort King. His services were often demanded there as guide or informer.
But while he made every effort to keep the Indians from doing wrong, he
did not think the white men blameless and said so frankly. He accused
them of failure to punish men who were guilty of committing crimes
against the Indians, of unfairness in seizing negroes, of theft of
property, and of withholding annuities. Osceola's was a good kind of
patriotism--he did not consider his enemies right, but he wanted his
own people to be right, and did his best to make them so.
But Indians, who are by nature revengeful, could not be expected to
endure wrongs without some retaliation. Their complaints of injustice
were met by the proposition that they move beyond the Mississippi, out
of the white man's reach.
The nature of their grievances is clearly shown in a "talk" which Chief
John Hicks sent to the President in January, 1829. He said:
" * * * We are all Seminoles here together. We want no long talk; we wish
to have it short and good. We are Indians and the whites think we have
no sense; but what our minds are, we wish to have our big father know.