Transcriber's Note.
Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent
hyphenation has been retained.
Small capitals have been rendered as full capitals, while italics are
indicated by _underscores_.
Bold font, in which the author's own translation of the Epistle has
been printed, is indicated by =equal signs=. These last signs also
extend over Greek or Hebrew that the author has inserted in the
translation, and markers for footnotes to it.
Sidenotes mark individual verses of the Epistle. These have been
inserted in the text before the start of each verse.
A list of the 'Expositor's Bible' series has been shifted to the end
of the book.
THE EXPOSITOR'S BIBLE
EDITED BY THE REV.
W. ROBERTSON NICOLL, M.A., LL.D.
_Editor of "The Expositor," etc._
THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE ROMANS
BY
HANDLEY C. G. MOULE, M.A.,
PRINCIPAL OF RIDLEY HALL, CAMBRIDGE
LONDON
HODDER AND STOUGHTON
27, PATERNOSTER ROW
MDCCCXCIV
_Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury._
TO THE REV. ROBERT SINKER, D.D.,
LIBRARIAN OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
MY FRIEND OF THIRTY-TWO YEARS,
TO WHOSE KINDNESS AND KNOWLEDGE
I AM DEEPLY AND INCREASINGLY INDEBTED,
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED.
H. C. G. M.
Hearing read, as I do continually, the Epistles of the blessed Paul
... I delight in the enjoyment of his spiritual trumpet, and my heart
leaps up, and my longings set me glowing, as I recognize the voice so
dear to me, and seem to image the speaker all but present to me, and
to see him in discourse. But I mourn and am distressed, because all do
not know this man as they should know him.... It is from hence our
myriad evils spring--from our ignorance of the Scriptures. Hence grows
this epidemic of our heresies; hence our neglected lives, hence our
unfruitful toil.
ST CHRYSOSTOM, _Preamble to Homilies on the Epistle to the Romans_.
PREFACE
He who attempts to expound the Epistle to the Romans, when his sacred
task is over, is little disposed to speak about his Commentary; he is
occupied rather with an ever deeper reverence and wonder over the Text
which he has been permitted to handle, a Text so full of a marvellous
man, above all so full of GOD.
But it seems needful to say a few words about the style of the running
Translation of the Epistle which will be found interwoven with this
Exposition.
The writer is aware that the translation is often rough and formless.
His apology is that it has been done with a view not to a connected
reading but to the explanation of details. A rough piece of rendering,
which would be a misrepresentation in a continuous version, because it
would be out of scale with the general style, seems to be another
matter when it only calls the reader's attention to a particular point
presented for study at the moment.
Again, he is aware that his rendering of the Greek article in many
passages (for example, where he has ventured to explain it by "_our_,"
"_true_," etc.) is open to criticism. But he intends no more in such
places than a suggestion; and he is conscious, as he has said
sometimes at the place, that it is almost impossible to render the
article as he has done in these cases without a certain exaggeration,
which must be discounted by the reader.
The use of the article in Greek is one of the simplest and most
assured things in grammar, as to its main principles. But as regards
some details of the application of principle, there is nothing in
grammar which seems so easily to elude the line of law.
It is scarcely necessary to say that on questions of literary
criticism which in no respect, or at most remotely, concern
exposition, this Commentary says little or nothing. It is well known
to literary students of the Epistle that some phenomena in the text,
from the close of ch. xiv. onwards, have raised important and complex
questions. It has been asked whether the great Doxology (xvi. 25-27)
always stood where it now stands; whether it should stand at the close
of our ch. xiv.; whether its style and wording allow us to regard it
as contemporary with the Epistle as a whole, or whether they indicate
that it was written later in St Paul's course; whether our fifteenth
and sixteenth chapters, while Pauline, are not out of place in an
Epistle to Rome; in particular, whether the list of names in ch. xvi.
is compatible with a Roman destination.
These questions, with one exception, that which affects the list of
names, are not even touched upon in the present Exposition. The
expositor, personally convinced that the pages we know as the Epistle
to the Romans are not only all genuine but all intimately coherent,
has not felt himself called to discuss, in a devotional writing,
subjects more proper to the lecture-room and the study; and which
certainly would be out of place in the ministry of the pulpit.
Meantime, those who care to read a masterly _debate_ on the literary
problems in question may consult the recently published volume (1893),
_Biblical Studies_, by the late Bishop Lightfoot, of Durham. That
volume contains (pp. 287-374) three critical Essays (1869, 1871), two
by Bishop Lightfoot, one by the late Dr Hort, on _The Structure and
Destination of the Epistle to the Romans_. The two illustrious
friends,--Hort criticizing Lightfoot, Lightfoot replying to
Hort,--examine the phenomena of Rom. xv.-xvi. Lightfoot advocates the
theory that St Paul, some time after writing the Epistle, issued an
abridged edition for wider circulation, omitting the direction to
Rome, closing the document with our ch. xiv., and then (not before)
writing, as a finale, the great Doxology. Hort holds to the practical
entirety of the Epistle as we have it, and reasons at length for the
contemporaneousness of xvi. 25-27 with the rest.[1]
We may note here that both Hort and Lightfoot contend for _the
conciliatory_ aim of the Roman Epistle. They regard the great passage
about Israel (ix.-xi.) as in some sense the heart of the Epistle, and
the doctrinal passages preceding this as all more or less meant to
bear on the relations not only of the Law and the Gospel, but of the
Jew and the Gentile as members of the one Christian Church. There is
great value in this suggestion, explained and illustrated as it is in
the Essays in question. But the thought may easily be worked to
excess. It seems plain to the present writer that when the Epistle is
studied from within its deepest spiritual element, it shews us the
Apostle fully mindful of the largest aspects of the life and work of
the Church, but also, and yet more, occupied with the problem of the
relation of the believing sinner to God. The question of personal
salvation was never, by St Paul, forgotten in that of Christian
policy.
To return for a moment to this Exposition, or rather to its setting;
it may be doubted whether, in imagining the dictation of the Epistle
to be begun and completed by St Paul _within one day_ we have not
imagined "a hard thing." But at worst it is not an impossible thing,
if the Apostle's utterance was as sustained as his thought.
It remains only to express the hope that these pages may serve in some
degree to convey to their readers a new _Tolle, Lege_ for the divine
Text itself; if only by suggesting to them sometimes the words of St
Augustine, "_To Paul I appeal from all interpreters of his writings_."
RIDLEY HALL, CAMBRIDGE,
ALL SAINTS' DAY, 1893.
[1] See also Westcott and Hort's _N. T. in the Original Greek_,
vol. 2, Appendix, pp. 110-114 (ed. 1).
ERRATA.
Page 113, line 8, _for_ "circumcision" _read_ "uncircumcision."
Page 263, line 15, _for_ "אָמֵו" _read_ "אָמֵן."
Forasmuch as this Epistle is ... a light and way unto the whole
Scripture, I think it meet that every Christian man not only know it,
by rote and without the book, but also exercise himself therein
evermore continually, as with the daily bread of the soul. No man
verily can read it too oft, or study it too well; for the more it is
studied, the easier it is; the more it is chewed, the pleasanter it
is; and the more groundly it is searched, the preciouser things are
found in it, so great treasure of spiritual things lieth hid therein.
W. TYNDALE, after LUTHER.
Towards the close of one of my nights of suffering, at half-past four,
I asked my kind watcher ... to read me a chapter of the Word of God.
He proposed the eighth of the Epistle to the Romans. I assented, but
with the request that, to secure the connexion of ideas, he would go
back to the sixth, and even to the fifth. We read in succession the
four chapters, v., vi., vii., viii., and I thought no more of
sleep.... Then we read the ninth, and the remaining passages, to the
end, with an interest always equal and sustained; and then the first
four, that nothing might be lost. About two hours had passed.... I
cannot tell you how I was struck, in thus reading the Epistle as a
whole, with the seal of divinity, of truth, of holiness, of love, and
of power, which is impressed on every page, on every word. We felt, my
young friend and I, ... that we were listening to a voice from heaven.
A. MONOD, _Adieux_, § V., _Quelques Mots sur la Lecture de la Bible_.
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I
TIME, PLACE, AND OCCASION 1
CHAPTER II
THE WRITER AND HIS READERS 10
ROMANS i. 1-7
CHAPTER III
GOOD REPORT OF THE ROMAN CHURCH: PAUL NOT ASHAMED
OF THE GOSPEL 23
ROMANS i. 8-17
CHAPTER IV
NEED FOR THE GOSPEL: GOD'S ANGER AND MAN'S SIN 38
ROMANS i. 18-23
CHAPTER V
MAN GIVEN UP TO HIS OWN WAY: THE HEATHEN 48
ROMANS i. 24-32
CHAPTER VI
HUMAN GUILT UNIVERSAL: HE APPROACHES THE CONSCIENCE
OF THE JEW 56
ROMANS ii. 1-16
CHAPTER VII
JEWISH RESPONSIBILITY AND GUILT 67
ROMANS ii. 17-29
CHAPTER VIII
JEWISH CLAIMS: NO HOPE IN HUMAN MERIT 78
ROMANS iii. 1-20
CHAPTER IX
THE ONE WAY OF DIVINE ACCEPTANCE 90
ROMANS iii. 21-31
DETACHED NOTE 100
CHAPTER X
ABRAHAM AND DAVID 103
ROMANS iv. 1-12
DETACHED NOTE 115
CHAPTER XI
ABRAHAM (ii.) 117
ROMANS iv. 13-25
CHAPTER XII
PEACE, LOVE, AND JOY FOR THE JUSTIFIED 128
ROMANS v. 1-11
DETACHED NOTES 140
CHAPTER XIII
CHRIST AND ADAM 143
ROMANS v. 12-21
CHAPTER XIV
JUSTIFICATION AND HOLINESS 156
ROMANS vi. 1-13
CHAPTER XV
JUSTIFICATION AND HOLINESS: ILLUSTRATIONS FROM HUMAN
LIFE 170
ROMANS vi. 14--vii. 6
CHAPTER XVI
THE FUNCTION OF THE LAW IN THE SPIRITUAL LIFE 187
ROMANS vii. 7-25
CHAPTER XVII
THE JUSTIFIED: THEIR LIFE BY THE HOLY SPIRIT 203
ROMANS viii. 1-11
CHAPTER XVIII
HOLINESS BY THE SPIRIT, AND THE GLORIES THAT SHALL
FOLLOW 218
ROMANS viii. 12-25
CHAPTER XIX
THE SPIRIT OF PRAYER IN THE SAINTS: THEIR PRESENT
AND ETERNAL WELFARE IN THE LOVE OF GOD 231
ROMANS viii. 26-39
CHAPTER XX
THE SORROWFUL PROBLEM: JEWISH UNBELIEF; DIVINE
SOVEREIGNTY 244
ROMANS ix. 1-33
DETACHED NOTE 261
CHAPTER XXI
JEWISH UNBELIEF AND GENTILE FAITH: PROPHECY 264
ROMANS x. 1-21
CHAPTER XXII
ISRAEL HOWEVER NOT FORSAKEN 282
ROMANS xi. 1-10
CHAPTER XXIII
ISRAEL'S FALL OVERRULED, FOR THE WORLD'S BLESSING,
AND FOR ISRAEL'S MERCY 294
ROMANS xi. 11-24
CHAPTER XXIV
THE RESTORATION OF ISRAEL DIRECTLY FORETOLD: ALL
IS OF AND FOR GOD 307
ROMANS xi. 25-36
CHAPTER XXV
CHRISTIAN CONDUCT THE ISSUE OF CHRISTIAN TRUTH 321
ROMANS xii. 1-8
CHAPTER XXVI
CHRISTIAN DUTY: DETAILS OF PERSONAL CONDUCT 336
ROMANS xii. 9-21
CHAPTER XXVII
CHRISTIAN DUTY; IN CIVIL LIFE AND OTHERWISE: LOVE 348
ROMANS xiii. 1-10
CHAPTER XXVIII
CHRISTIAN DUTY IN THE LIGHT OF THE LORD'S RETURN
AND IN THE POWER OF HIS PRESENCE 361
ROMANS xiii. 11-14
CHAPTER XXIX
CHRISTIAN DUTY: MUTUAL TENDERNESS AND TOLERANCE:
THE SACREDNESS OF EXAMPLE 374
ROMANS xiv. 1-23
CHAPTER XXX
THE SAME SUBJECT: THE LORD'S EXAMPLE: HIS RELATION
TO US ALL 393
ROMANS xv. 1-13
CHAPTER XXXI
ROMAN CHRISTIANITY: ST PAUL'S COMMISSION: HIS INTENDED
ITINERARY: HE ASKS FOR PRAYER 408
ROMANS xv. 14-33
CHAPTER XXXII
A COMMENDATION: GREETINGS: A WARNING: A DOXOLOGY 421
ROMANS xvi. 1-27
CHAPTER I
_TIME, PLACE, AND OCCASION_
It is the month of February, in the year of Christ 58.[2] In a room in
the house of Gaius, a wealthy Corinthian Christian, Paul the Apostle,
having at his side his amanuensis Tertius, addresses himself to write
to the converts of the mission at Rome.
The great world meanwhile is rolling on its way. It is the fourth year
of Nero; he is Consul the third time, with Valerius Messala for his
colleague; Poppæa has lately caught the unworthy Prince in the net of
her bad influence. Domitius Corbulo has just resumed the war with
Parthia, and prepares to penetrate the highlands of Armenia. Within a
few weeks, in the full spring, an Egyptian impostor is about to
inflame Jerusalem with his Messianic claim, to lead four thousand
fanatics into the desert, and to return to the city with a host of
thirty thousand men, only to be totally routed by the legionaries of
Felix. For himself, the Apostle is about to close his three months'
stay at Corinth; he has heard of plots against his life, and will in
prudence decline the more direct route from Cenchrea by sea, striking
northward for Philippi, and thence over the Ægæan to Troas. Jerusalem
he must visit, if possible before May is over, for he has by him the
Greek collections to deliver to the poor converts of Jerusalem. Then,
in the vista of his further movements, he sees Rome, and thinks with a
certain apprehension yet with longing hope about life and witness
there.
A Greek Christian woman is about to visit the City, Phœbe, a
ministrant of the mission at Cenchrea. He must commend her to the
Roman brethren; and a deliberate Letter to them is suggested by this
personal need.
His thoughts have long gravitated to the City of the World. Not many
months before, at Ephesus, when he had "purposed in the Spirit" to
visit Jerusalem, he had said, with an emphasis which his biographer
remembered, "I must also see Rome" (Acts xix. 21); "_I must_," in the
sense of a divine decree, which had written this journey down in the
plan of his life. He was assured too, by circumstantial and perhaps by
supernatural signs, that he had "now no more place in these parts"
(Rom. xv. 23)--that is, in the Eastern Roman world where hitherto all
his labour had been spent. The Lord who in former days had shut Paul
up to a track which led him through Asia Minor to the Ægæan, and
across the Ægæan to Europe (Acts xvi.), now prepared to guide him,
though by paths which His servant knew not, from Eastern Europe to
Western, and before all things to the City. Amongst these providential
preparations was a growing occupation of the Apostle's thought with
persons and interests in the Christian circle there. Here, as we have
seen, was Phœbe, about to take ship for Italy. Yonder, in the great
Capital, were now resident again the beloved and faithful Aquila and
Prisca, no longer excluded by the Claudian edict, and proving already,
we may fairly conclude, the central influence in the mission, whose
first days perhaps dated from the Pentecost itself, when Roman
"strangers" (Acts ii. 10) saw and heard the wonders and the message of
that hour. At Rome also lived other believers personally known to
Paul, drawn by unrecorded circumstances to the Centre of the world.
"His well-beloved" Epænetus was there; Mary, who had sometimes tried
hard to help him; Andronicus, and Junias, and Herodion, his relatives;
Amplias and Stachys, men very dear to him; Urbanus, who had worked for
Christ at his side; Rufus, no common Christian in his esteem, and
Rufus' mother, who had once watched over Paul with a mother's love.
All these rise before him as he thinks of Phœbe, and her arrival,
and the faces and the hands which at his appeal would welcome her in
the Lord, under the holy freemasonry of primeval Christian fellowship.
Besides, he has been hearing about the actual state of that
all-important mission. As "all roads led to Rome," so all roads led
from Rome, and there were Christian travellers everywhere (i. 8) who
could tell him how the Gospel fared among the metropolitan brethren.
As he heard of them, so he prayed for them, "without ceasing" (i. 9),
and made request too for himself, now definitely and urgently, that
his way might be opened to visit them at last.
To pray for others, if the prayer is prayer indeed, and based to some
extent on knowledge, is a sure way to deepen our interest in them, and
our sympathetic insight into their hearts and conditions. From the
human side, nothing more than these tidings and these prayers was
needed to draw from St Paul a written message to be placed in
Phœbe's care. From this same human side again, when he once
addressed himself to write, there were circumstances of thought and
action which would naturally give direction to his message.
He stood amidst circumstances most significant and suggestive in
matters of Christian _truth_. Quite recently his Judaist rivals had
invaded the congregations of Galatia, and had led the impulsive
converts there to quit what seemed their firm grasp on the truth of
Justification by Faith only. To St Paul this was no mere battle of
abstract definitions, nor again was it a matter of merely local
importance. The success of the alien teachers in Galatia shewed him
that the same specious mischiefs might win their way, more or less
quickly, anywhere. And what would such success mean? It would mean the
loss of the joy of the Lord, and the strength of that joy, in the
misguided Churches. Justification by Faith meant nothing less than
_Christ all in all_, literally all in all, for sinful man's pardon and
acceptance. It meant a profound simplicity of personal reliance
altogether upon Him before the fiery holiness of eternal Law. It meant
a look out and up, at once intense and unanxious, from alike the
virtues and the guilt of man, to the mighty merits of the Saviour. It
was precisely the foundation-fact of salvation, which secured that the
process should be, from its beginning, not humanitarian but divine. To
discredit _that_ was not merely to disturb the order of a missionary
community; it was to hurt the vitals of the Christian soul, tinging
with impure elements the mountain springs of the peace of God. Fresh
as he was now from combating this evil in Galatia, St Paul would be
sure to have it in his thoughts when he turned to Rome; for there it
was only too certain that his active adversaries would do their worst;
probably they were at work already.
Then, he had been just engaged also with the problems of Christian
_life_, in the mission at Corinth. There the main trouble was less of
creed than of conduct. In the Corinthian Epistles we find no great
traces of an energetic heretical propaganda, but rather a bias in the
converts towards a strange licence of temper and life. Perhaps this
was even accentuated by a popular logical assent to the truth of
Justification _taken alone_, isolated from other concurrent truths,
tempting the Corinthian to dream that he might "continue in sin that
grace might abound." If such were his state of spiritual thought, he
would encounter (by his own fault) a positive moral danger in the
supernatural "Gifts" which at Corinth about that time seem to have
appeared with quite abnormal power. An antinomian theory, in the
presence of such exaltations, would lead the man easily to the
conception that he was too free and too rich in the supernatural order
to be the servant of common duties, and even of common morals. Thus
the Apostle's soul would be full of the need of expounding to its
depths the vital harmony of the Lord's work _for_ the believer and the
Lord's work _in_ him; the co-ordination of a free acceptance with both
the precept and the possibility of holiness. He must shew once for all
how the justified are bound to be pure and humble, and how they can so
be, and what forms of practical dutifulness their life must take. He
must make it clear for ever that the Ransom which releases also
purchases; that the Lord's freeman is the Lord's property; that the
Death of the Cross, reckoned as the death of the justified sinner,
leads direct to his living union with the Risen One, including a union
of will with will; and that thus the Christian life, if true to
itself, _must_ be a life of loyalty to every obligation, every
relation, constituted in God's providence among men. The Christian who
is not attentive to others, even where their mere prejudices and
mistakes are in question, is a Christian out of character. So is the
Christian who is not a scrupulously loyal citizen, recognizing civil
order as the will of God. So is the Christian who in any respect
claims to live as he pleases, instead of as the bondservant of his
Redeemer should live.
Another question had been pressing the Apostle's mind, and that for
years, but recently with a special weight. It was the mystery of
Jewish unbelief. Who can estimate the pain and greatness of that
mystery in the mind of St Paul? His own conversion, while it taught
him patience with his old associates, must have filled him also with
some eager hopes for them. Every deep and self-evidencing
manifestation of God in a man's soul suggests to him naturally the
thought of the glorious things possible in the souls of others. Why
should not the leading Pharisee, now converted, be the signal, and the
means, of the conversion of the Sanhedrin, and of the people? But the
hard mystery of sin crossed such paths of expectation, and more and
more so as the years went on. Judaism outside the Church was stubborn,
and energetically hostile. And within the Church, sad and ominous
fact, it crept in underground, and sprung up in an embittered
opposition to the central truths. What did all this mean? Where would
it end? Had Israel sinned, collectively, beyond pardon and repentance?
Had God cast off His people? These troublers of Galatia, these fiery
rioters before the tribunal of Gallio at Corinth, did their conduct
mean that all was over for the race of Abraham? The question was agony
to Paul; and he sought his Lord's answer to it as a thing without
which he could not live. That answer was full in his soul when he
meditated his Letter to Rome, and thought of the Judaists there, and
also of the loving Jewish friends of his heart there who would read
his message when it came.
Thus we venture to describe the possible outward and inward conditions
under which the Epistle to the Romans was conceived and written. Well
do we recollect that our account is conjectural. But the Epistle in
its wonderful fulness, both of outline and of detail, gives to such
conjectures more than a shadow for basis. We do not forget again that
the Epistle, whatever the Writer saw around him or felt within him,
was, when produced, infinitely more than the resultant of Paul's mind
and life; it was, and is, an oracle of God, a Scripture, a revelation
of eternal facts and principles by which to live and die. As such we
approach it in this book; not to analyse only or explain, but to
submit and to believe; taking it as not only Pauline but Divine. But
then, it is not the less therefore Pauline. And this means that both
the thought and the circumstances of St Paul are to be traced and felt
in it as truly, and as naturally, as if we had before us the letter of
an Augustine, or a Luther, or a Pascal. He who chose the writers of
the Holy Scriptures, many men scattered over many ages, used them each
in his surroundings and in his character, yet so as to harmonize them
all in the Book which, while many, is one. He used them with the
sovereign skill of Deity. And that skilful use meant that He used
their whole being, which He had made, and their whole circumstances,
which He had ordered. They were indeed His amanuenses; nay, I fear not
to say they were His pens. But HE is such that He can manipulate as
His facile implement no mere piece of mechanism, which, however subtle
and powerful, is mechanism still, and can never truly cause anything;
HE can take a human personality, made in His own image, pregnant,
formative, causative, in all its living thought, sensibility, and
will, and can throw it freely upon its task of thinking and
expression--and behold, the product will be His; His matter, His
thought, His exposition, His Word, "living and abiding for ever."
* * * * *
Thus we enter in spirit the Corinthian citizen's house, in the
sunshine of the early Greek spring, and find our way invisible and
unheard to where Tertius sits with his reed-pen and strips of papyrus,
and where Paul is prepared to give him, word by word, sentence by
sentence, this immortal message. Perhaps the corner of the room is
heaped with hair-cloth from Cilicia, and the implements of the
tent-maker. But the Apostle is now the guest of Gaius, a man whose
means enable him to be "the host of the whole Church"; so we may
rather think that for the time this manual toil is intermitted. Do we
seem to see the form and face of him who is about to dictate? The mist
of time is in our eyes; but we may credibly report that we find a
small and much emaciated frame, and a face remarkable for its arched
brows and wide forehead, and for the expressive mobility of the
lips.[3] We trace in looks, in manner and tone of utterance, and even
in unconscious attitude and action, tokens of a mind rich in every
faculty, a nature equally strong in energy and in sympathy, made both
to govern and to win, to will and to love. The man is great and
wonderful, a master soul, subtle, wise, and strong. Yet he draws us
with pathetic force to his heart, as one who asks and will repay
affection.
As we look on his face we think, with awe and gladness, that with
those same thought-tired eyes (and are they not also troubled with
disease?) he has literally seen, only twenty years ago, so he will
quietly assure us, the risen and glorified JESUS. His work during
those twenty years, his innumerable sufferings, above all, his spirit
of perfect mental and moral sanity, yet of supernatural peace and
love,--all make his assurance absolutely trustworthy. He is a
transfigured man since that sight of Jesus Christ, who now "dwells in
his heart by faith," and uses him as the vehicle of His will and work.
And now listen. The Lord is speaking through His servant. The scribe
is busy with his pen, as the message of Christ is uttered through the
soul and from the lips of Paul.
[2] See Lewin, _Fasti Sacri_, § 1854, etc.
[3] See Lewin, _Life and Epistles of St Paul_, ii. 411, for an
engraving of a fine medallion, shewing the heads of St Paul and St
Peter. "The medal is referred to the close of the first century or the
beginning of the second."