A glance at the map of Asia will show us China occupying a large
portion of its south-eastern shores.
Towards the north, at some distance from the coast of the Yellow Sea,
is situated Pekin, the capital, the residence of the Emperor. South
of it is found the city of Nanking, on the banks of the mighty river
Yangtse-Keang, second in size only to the Amazon and Mississippi.
Some distance again south of the mouth of this river, and off the
large city of Ningpo, is situated the island of Chusan, while on the
southernmost part of the country, on the river of the same name, is
the celebrated commercial city of Canton. The river of Canton is
navigable up to the city for large ships, but there are numerous
bars, and a succession of forts to be passed. As Canton was the only
Chinese port allowed for foreign commerce, a crowd of merchants from
all the provinces collected there, and the warehouses contained the
most valuable productions and manufactures of the country. The city
consists of three towns divided by high walls: the streets are
narrow, paved with small round stones in the middle, and flagged at
the sides. A large portion of the population exists on the water in
boats. The British and other foreign merchants have factories where
they reside, and where their property is stored.[1] The lower orders
of Chinese are supposed to have come originally from India, but they
were conquered by the Tartars, by whom they are now governed, and
from whom all the upper orders are descended. The population of
China amounts to 260,000,000 souls. They are the most industrious
people of the East, but though they had reached a high state of
civilization two thousand years ago, they have probably made but
little progress since that time. Their chief characteristic is to
adhere to all that is established, and to reject all that is new.
Though they have great guns, they still use a firearm, similar to the
ancient matchlock, fired from a stand, called a jingal, as well as
bows and arrows and shields; and their war junks, though of great
size, are very unwieldy and unfit for sea.
The Chinese are ruled by an Emperor, who is absolute, and their
government is most despotic. They were taught to consider themselves
superior to all the world, and to look upon foreigners with the
utmost contempt, fit only to be the slaves of their Emperor. For
many years the English, as did all other European nations, submitted
to every description of indignity they chose to inflict for the sake
of the benefits derived from a commercial intercourse with them. The
chief officers of Government are called Mandarins. They rank in
classes--those of the first class being Ministers of State, Rulers of
Provinces, Generals and Admirals, while captains of ships and
governors of towns rank also as mandarins of lower grade. The most
important product and export of China is tea, which is shipped from
Canton, a certain number of Chinese merchants enjoying a monopoly of
the trade, and transacting all business with the foreign merchants.
The chief article of import which more particularly demands our
notice is opium. The three chief places in India where the poppy
grows, are Malwa, Patna, and Benares. The opium trade with China has
existed since 1780, from which time till the year 1834 the East India
Company enjoyed a monopoly of it, but by a bill introduced by Lord
Glenelg (then Mr. Grant) in 1833, the trade was thrown open; and
three officials were appointed at Canton to superintend it. The East
India Company were also debarred from trading. It is supposed that
throwing open the trade very much increased smuggling; at all events
the Chinese Government now turned their attention to the subject, and
the importation of opium was forbidden under severe penalties, the
pretext being that the drug was highly injurious to the habits and
morals of the people. The real, or at all events the chief, reason
was, that as silver alone was given in exchange for opium, they were
afraid that the country would be drained of that precious metal, and
probably also those in authority who were accustomed to receive
bribes for allowing its admission, found that it entered the country
by other channels from which they gained no benefit. Be that as it
may, the court at Pekin seemed resolved, in 1839, to put a stop to
it, and appointed a High Commissioner, Lin, to proceed to Canton for
that purpose. To prove that he was in earnest, he ordered a Chinese
opium smuggler to be strangled, and then shut up the British
merchants in their factory, and demanded the delivery of all the
opium on board the ships in the river. At the same time the British
flag was fired on, British ships were violently detained, and a
Chinaman having been accidentally killed by a British seaman, the
life of a British subject was demanded in return.
In short it became evident that all commercial intercourse would soon
be put a stop to, and that probably much British property would be
destroyed, and the lives of British subjects sacrificed, unless some
strong measures were instantly taken by the British Government to
bring the Chinese to order. Captain Elliot, R.N., who was at that
time Chief Superintendent of Trade, acted on the occasion with the
greatest promptitude, courage, and decision.
He sent home despatches with an account of the state of affairs,
declared himself and the British merchants forcibly detained, and
demanded a delivery of the opium from the merchants for her Majesty's
government, and then gave it up to the Chinese authorities. By these
proceedings, he gained time, and enabled all the teas ready to be
shipped to be got off, as their non-reception in England would have
caused a serious defalcation in the revenue. It must be understood
that the war in China was undertaken not to compel the people to
receive a pernicious drug like opium, but to punish the Government
for the numerous injuries and insults they had offered to the
English, and by teaching them to respect our power, to induce them to
trade with us on fair and equal terms, and to treat us in future as
one civilized people should treat another; also to demand reparation
of grievances, and payment for the property of British subjects
destroyed at Canton, to obtain a guarantee against similar
occurrences in future; and, what was of the greatest importance, to
open up the trade at the different ports along the coast.
With these objects to be accomplished, a large squadron, with a
number of transports containing a considerable body of troops, were
despatched in 1840 by the Governor-General of India to the China seas.
The following were among many other causes the British had of
complaint against the Chinese, and for which the latter refused any
compensation or redress:--
The general insolent behaviour of all officials, both towards British
authorities and merchants.
The breaking open Lord Napier's luggage. Driving away his native
servants. Firing on Her Majesty's ships 'Imogene' and 'Andromache.'
Closing the communication for purposes of commerce to the English
between Canton and Whampoa.
Firing on a British boat from the Forts of the Boca Tigris.
Seizing the property of British merchants. Imprisoning British
merchants.
Claiming the life of a British subject, on account of a Chinaman
having been killed accidentally by an Englishman. The attack on a
British boat, and murder of her crew by Chinese.
[1] Situated on an island at the entrance of the Bay of Canton is
Macao, a town and settlement of the Portuguese. It was given to them
by the Chinese Emperor in 1586, in return for assistance they
afforded him against the pirates who infested the coast. About ten
miles below Canton is the port of Whampoa.
COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR. ACTION BETWEEN H.M.S.
'VOLAGE' AND 'HYACINTH,' AND A SQUADRON OF
CHINESE WAR-JUNKS,
November 3rd, 1859.
Her Majesty's ships 'Volage,' Captain H. Smith, and 'Hyacinth,'
Captain Warren, were lying in the mouth of the Canton river, when
information was sent by Captain Elliot, the Superintendent of Trade,
to Captain Smith, that a large fleet of war-junks, under the command
of Admiral Kwan, was assembled near Chuenpee, for the purpose
probably of attempting the destruction of the British merchant
shipping off Hong Kong. The intention of the Chinese was evident
from the erection of batteries overlooking the shipping of Hong Kong,
the assemblage of war-junks in the neighbouring bay, and the
encampment of numerous bodies of troops at the back of the boundary
wall at Macao; in addition to which, High Commissioner Lin and the
Governor had issued proclamations, threatening the seizure of the
Superintendent and all British subjects. Captain Elliot went on
board the 'Volage' on the 28th of October, when both ships got under
weigh, but, owing to light winds, did not reach the Bogue till the
2nd November, when they anchored in front of an imposing force of
war-junks and fire-vessels. Here a letter was sent on board the
Admiral's junk to the Commissioners by Lieutenant Hamilton,
accompanied by Mr. Morrison, the Chinese Interpreter, demanding the
intentions of the Chinese. These gentlemen were well received, and a
request forwarded by them for the ships to move further down, and
they were informed that a reply would be sent the next day. No
reply, however, came, and on the 3rd, at 9:30 A.M., Captain Smith
perceiving the war-junks and fire-vessels, 29 in number, getting
under weigh and bearing down upon him, the 'Volage' and 'Hyacinth'
immediately weighed anchor and stood towards them under easy sail.
On this the Chinese flotilla anchored in a line about a mile from
them. Captain Smith now sent the interpreter for a reply to his
communication, when his own letter to the High Commissioner was
returned to him. After this want of courtesy, as it was evident the
Chinese had sent this imposing force out for the purpose of
intimidation, Captain Smith considered, for the honour of the British
flag and the safety of the merchant vessels, it was necessary to
compel them to return to their former anchorage, lest they might slip
by him at night and carry their menaces into execution.
He accordingly at noon gave the signal to engage, and the British
ships, then lying-to at the extreme end of the Chinese line, bore
away in close order, having the wind on the starboard beam. In this
way, under easy sail, they ran down the Chinese line, pouring in a
destructive fire. The ships, having the wind abeam, were able to run
up again from the other extremity of the line, with their larboard
broadsides bearing on the enemy. The Chinese, undaunted at first by
the tremendous fire to which they were exposed, answered it with
spirit, and their Admiral Kwang behaved with much courage. His
war-junk was evidently better manned and armed than the rest of the
fleet, and relying on this, he weighed or cut his cable, and bore
down in handsome style to engage the British ships. His junk carried
twelve guns, which he fought with much skill and courage; in less,
however, than three-quarters of an hour, the shots from the British
ships had told with terrible effect on him and the rest of his fleet.
One blew up, three sunk, several were shattered and deserted by their
crews, and the remainder retired in the greatest confusion, that of
the Admiral, evidently in a sinking state, to the anchorage above the
battery. The 'Volage' escaped without any injury; but the
'Hyacinth,' which was for some time surrounded by the junks, had one
man slightly wounded, and got her main-yard much damaged.
Captain Smith having effected his object, the return of the war-junks
above the fort, and not wishing to cause any unnecessary bloodshed,
at one, P.M., made the signal to terminate the action, and returned
that night to Macao. He there embarked a number of British residents
who had gone there while negotiations were pending, and proceeded to
Hong Kong, leaving the 'Hyacinth' at Macao.
It afterwards appeared, that from the British ships retiring without
inflicting further punishment on the Chinese, Admiral Kwan, on his
return to Canton, boasted that he had gained a great victory, and was
in consequence covered with rewards and honours, while it encouraged
his countrymen to persevere in the contest. Captain Smith acted
perfectly right; but it is another of many examples of the difficulty
of dealing with barbarians, and the danger often of treating them
with leniency and forbearance until they have completely succumbed.
All trade with the English was now prohibited, though American
vessels brought down teas from Canton to the ships lying outside the
Boca Tigris, and carried back goods in return.