Unoutreaching or Intransitive._An Outline of English Speech-craft

Transcriber's Note

Italic text is indicated by _underscores_, and bold text by =equals

signs=.

AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECH-CRAFT

BY WILLIAM BARNES, B.D.

‘_Præsens Angli sermonis forma magis magisque recedit a stirpe

antiquâ_’--Lexicon Frisicum, by JUSTUS HALBERTSMA, under ‘Dunsi’

[Illustration]

LONDON

C. KEGAN PAUL & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1878

(_The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved_)

FORE-SAY.

This little book was not written to win prize or praise; but it is put

forth as one small trial, weak though it may be, towards the upholding

of our own strong old Anglo-Saxon speech, and the ready teaching of it

to purely English minds by their own tongue.

Speech was shapen of the breath-sounds of speakers, for the ears of

hearers, and not from speech-tokens (letters) in books, for men’s eyes,

though it is a great happiness that the words of man can be long holden

and given over to the sight; and therefore I have shapen my teaching as

that of a speech of breath-sounded words, and not of lettered ones; and

though I have, of course, given my thoughts in a book, for those whom

my voice cannot reach, I believe that the teaching matter of it may

all be put forth to a learner’s mind, and readily understood by him,

without book or letters. So, for consonants and vowels, as letters, I

put breath-pennings and free-breathings, and these names would be good

for any speech, of the lettering of which a learner might know nothing.

On the grounds here given, I have not begun with _orthography_, the

writing or spelling of our speech, or of any other, while as yet the

teaching or learning of the speech itself is unbegun.

I have tried to teach English by English, and so have given English

words for most of the lore-words (scientific terms), as I believe

they would be more readily and more clearly understood, and, since we

can better keep in mind what we do than what we do not understand,

they would be better remembered. There is, in the learning of that

charmingly simple and yet clear speech, pure Persian, now much mingled

with Arabic, a saddening check; for no sooner does a learner come to

the time-words than he is told that he should learn, what is then put

before him, an outline of Arabic Grammar. And there are tokens that,

ere long, the English youth will want an outline of the Greek and Latin

tongues ere he can well understand his own speech.

The word _grammar_ itself seems a misused word, for _grapho_ is to

write, and _graphma_, worn into _gramma_, means a writing, and the word

_grammatikē_ meant, with the Greeks, booklore or literature in the

main, and not speech-teaching alone.

Whether my lore-words are well-chosen is a question for the reader’s

mind. I have, for better or worse, treated the time-words, and

nearly all the parts of speech, in a new way. I have clustered up

the time-words as weak or strong on their endings, rather than on

their headings, which had nothing to do with their forshapening or

conjugation. Case I have taken as in the thing, and not in the name of

it, as case is the case into which a thing falls with a time-taking,

and case-words (prepositions) and case-endings are the tokens of

their cases. The word _preposition_ means a foreputting, or word put

before; but then _from_ and _to_, in _herefrom_, and _therefrom_, and

_hitherto_, and _thereto_, are postpositions.

I have tried, as I have given some so-thought truths of English speech,

to give the causes of them, and hope that the little book may afford a

few glimpses of new insight into our fine old Anglo-Saxon tongue.

To any friend who has ever asked me whether I do not know some other

tongues beside English, my answer has been ‘No; I do not know English

itself.’ How many men do? And how should I know all of the older

English, and the mighty wealth of English words which the English

Dialect Society have begun to bring forth; words that are not all of

them other shapes of our words of book-English, or words of their very

meanings, but words of meanings which dictionaries of book-English

should, but cannot give, and words which should be taken in hundreds

(by careful choice) into our Queen’s English? If a man would walk with

me through our village, I could show him many things of which we want

to speak every day, and for which we have words of which Johnson knew

nothing.

Some have spoken of cultivated languages as differing from uncultivated

ones, and of the reducing of a speech to a grammatical form.

What is the meaning of ‘cultivate’ as a time word about a speech?

The Latin dictionary does not help us to its meaning, and it might

be that of the French _cultiver_, from which we should have, by the

wonted changes, to _cultive_. The Romans said _colere deum_ and _colere

agrum_, but not _agrum cultivare_; and we may believe that _colo_, with

_deus_ or _ager_, bore the same meaning, ‘to keep or hold (with good

care),’ and a speech is cultivated by the speaking as well as by the

writing of it, and a speech which is sounding over a whole folkland

every moment of the day cannot be uncultivated. ‘Not with good care,’

it may be said. Yes; most people speak as well as they can, as they

write as well as they can, from the utterer of a fine rede-speech

(oration), and the clergyman who gives unwritten sermons, down to the

lowly maiden who dresses as finely as she can; and to try to dress

herself well is a token that she will try to express herself well.

King Finow, of the Tonga Islands, gave a fine speech, as Mr. Mariner

tells us, at his coming to the throne; and it may be well said that he

made it, as he had made it in thought, ere he came to the meeting.

What is meant by the reducing of a speech to a grammatical form, or to

grammar, is not very clear. If a man would write a grammar of a speech,

of which there is yet none, what could he do but show it forth as it is

in the shape which its best speakers over the land hold to be its best?

To hold that a tongue had no shape, or a bad one, ere a grammar of it

was written, seems much like saying that a man had no face, or a bad

one, till his likeness was taken.

HEADS OF MATTER.

PAGE

Free Breathings 1

Breath-pennings 2

Word-strain and Speech-strain 3

Thing-names 4

Thing-sundrinesses 4

Thing Mark-words:

Sex 5

Kindred 5

Size 5

Tale 6-9

Outshowing Mark-words 10, 12

Persons 11

Suchness 12

Pitches of Suchness 13

Time-taking and Time-words 14

Intransitive 14

Transitive 15

Cause Time-takings 15

Time-giving 15

Words in _-ing_ 17

Strong and Weak Time-words 18-26

Sundriness of Time-taking 26

Helping Time-words, _can_, _may_, _shall_, _must_ 27

Person, Tale, Mood, Time 27, 30

Historic Time-wording 30

Case 31

Way-marks and Stead-marks 33

Thought-wording, Speech-wording 35

Twin Time-takings 35

Speech-trimming 36

Miswording 36-42

Word-sameness 38

Odd Wordshapes 42, 43

Wordiness 44

Hard Breathing 44

Mark Time-words (Participles) 45

Words of Speech-craft, and others 47

Power of the Word-endings 83

Goodness of a Speech 86

SPEECH-CRAFT.

SPEECH-CRAFT (Grammar), called by our Saxon fore-fathers _Staef-craeft_

or _Letter-craft_, is the knowledge or skill of a speech.

The science of speech in the main, as offmarked from any one speech

(Philology), may be called _Speech-lore_.

Speech is the speaking or bewording of thoughts, and is of sundry kinds

of words.

Speech is of breath-sounds with sundry breathings, hard or mild, and

breath-pennings, which become words.

(1) A freely open breathing through the throat, unpent by tongue or

lips, as in the sounds =A=, =E=, =O=, =OO=, which are pure voicing. The

main ones in English are--

1. =ee=, in _meet_.

2. =e=, in Dorset speech.

3. =a=, in _mate_.

4. =ea=, in _earth_.

5. =a=, in _father_.

6. =aw=, in _awe_.

7. =o=, in _bone_.

8. =oo=, in _fool_.

Besides this open speech-breathing there are two kinds of

breath-penning.

(2) The dead breath-penning, as in the sounds =AK=, =AP=, =AT=, =AG=,

=AB=, =AD=, which end with a dead penning of the sounding breath.

In =AK= and =AG= it is pent in the throat.

In =AP= and =AB= with the lips.

In =AT= and =AD= on the roof.

=K=, =P=, =T= are hard pennings; =G=, =B=, =D= are mild pennings, the

breathing being harder in the former and softer in the latter.

Then there are half-pennings of the sounding breath, which is more or

less but not wholly pent, but allowed to flow on as through the nose in

=AMH=,

=ANH=,

=AM=,

=AN=,

=ANG=;

as in the half-pent sounds--

=AKH=,

=AF=, =AV=,

=ATH=, =ATHE=,

=ALL= (Welsh), =AL=,

=ARH=, =AR=,

=AS=, =AZ=,

=ASH=, =AJ= (French),

half-pent by the tongue and mouth-roof.

For a hard breathing the mark is =H=, as _and_, _hand_; _art_, _hart_.

+---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+

| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |

+---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+

|(1) =C=, =K= (Throat)|(5) =KH= German |(14) =G= |(18) =GH= |

|(2) =NK= in _ink_ | and |(15) =NGH= like|(19) =NG= |

|(4) =T= |(6) =F= | not |(21) =M= |

| |(10) =RH= Welsh | |(25) =Z= |

| |(11) =S= | |(26) =J= |

| |(12) =SH= | | French |

| |(13) =NH= | |(27) =N= |

+---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+

Words are of breath-sounds, and some words are one-sounded, as _man_;

and others are tway-sounded, as _manly_; and others many-sounded, as

_unmanliness_.

There is word-strain and speech-strain.

The high word-strain (accent) is the rising or strengthening of the

voice on one sound of a word, as _man´ly_.

The high speech-strain (emphasis) is the rising or strengthening of the

voice on a word of a thought-wording.

The voice may both rise and fall on the same sounds, as _nō_.

In English and its Teutonic sister speeches the strain keeps on

the root or stem-word, as _man_, _man´ly_, _man´liness_; though in

clustered words, with their first breath-sounds the same, the strain

may shift for the sake of clearness, as ‘Give me the _tea_´pot’--the

tea_kettle_ is given, and thereupon the bidder may say ‘the teaPOT´,’

not the teaKETTLE.

In Greek the accent shifts in word-building, and likes mainly to settle

at about two times or short breath-sounds from the end of the word;

and in Welsh it settles mostly on the last breath-sound but one, as

_eis´tedd_, a sitting; _eistedd´fod_, a sitting-stead; _eisteddfod´an_,

sitting-steads, or bardic sessions.

Besides the word-strain (accent) and the speech-strain (emphasis),

there is a speech-tuning (modulation) of the voice (voice-winding),

which winds up or down with sundry feelings of the mind, and with

question and answers and changes of the matter of speech.

Things may be _matterly_ (concrete) or bodies of matter, as a _man_, a

_tree_, a _stone_; or

Things may be _unmatterly_ (abstract), not bodies of matter, as

_faith_, _hope_, _love_, _shape_, _speed_, _emptiness_.

It is not altogether good that a matterly and unmatterly thing should

be named by the very same word, as _youth_, a young man, and _youth_,

youngness.

THINGS AND THING-NAMES.

Things are of many kinds, as a _man_, a _bird_, a _fish_; an _oyster_,

a _sponge_, a _pebble_; _water_, _air_, _earth_; _honey_, _gold_,

_salt_.

The names of things may be called THING-NAMES.

But there are one-head thing-names (proper names), the names each of

some one thing of its kind; as _John_, the miller; _Toby_, the dog;

_Moti_, the lady’s Persian cat.

With Christian names may be ranked the so-called _patronymics_, or

_sire-names_, taken from a father’s name, as William _Johnson_, Thomas

_Richardson_; or in Welsh, Enid Verch _Edeyrn_; or in Hebrew Jeroboam

_Ben-nebat_.

Thing Sundriness and Thing Mark-words.

☛ _Mark_ is here to be taken in its old Saxon meaning, _mearc_--what

bounds, defines, describes, distinguishes.

The Welsh call the adjective the _weak name_ or noun, _enw gwan_.

Sundriness of Sex, Kindred, Youngness, and Smallness.

Marked by sundry names or mark-words, or mark endings.

SEX.

The stronger or _carl_ sex, as a _man_; the weaker or _quean_ sex, as a

_girl_; the _unsexly_ things, as a _stone_.

Husband, wife.

Father, mother.

Brother, sister.

In Saxon the sexes in mankind were called _halves_ or _sides_, the

spear-half and the spindle-half.

Man, woman.

Boy, girl.

Buck, doe.

Stag, hind.

Ram, ewe.

Cock, hen.

_He_-goat, _she_-goat.

King, queen.

Duke, duchess.

KINDRED, YOUNGNESS, OR SMALLNESS.

Father, son.

Mother, daughter.

Mare, foal.

Hind, fawn.

Cat, kitten.

Duck, duckling.

Goose, gosling.

Ethel, etheling.

SMALL THINGS.

By forlessening mark-endings:

-_y_, -_ie._

Lass, lassie.

Dog, doggie.

-_kin._

Man, mannikin.

-_el_, -_l._

Butt, bottle (of hay).

Pot, pottle.

Nose, nozzle.

By mark-words:

A _wee_ house, a _little_ boy.

For bigness the English tongue wants name-shapes.

We have _bul_, _horse_, and _tom_, which are mark-words of bigness or

coarseness.

Bulfinch.

Bullfrog.

Bulhead (the Miller’s Thumb. Pen-bwll, _Welsh_).

Bulrush.

Bulstang (the Dragonfly).

Bullspink.

Bulltrout.

_Horse._

Horse-bramble.

Horse-chesnut.

Horse-laugh.

Horse-leech.

Horse-mushroom.

Horse-mussel.

Horse-tinger.

Horse-radish.

_Tom._

Tomboy.

Tomcat.

Tomfool.

Tomnoddy.

Tomtit.

The words _bul_ and _horse_ are not taken from the animals.

Sundriness in Tale.

By tale mark-words, as _one_, _five_, _ten_, and others onward.

Sundriness in Rank.

By rank-word, as _first_, _fifth_, _tenth_, _last_.

_An_, _a_, the so-called indefinite article, is simply the tale

mark-word _an_, one.

_Saxon_, an man.

_Ger._, ein mann.

_West Friesic_, in.

_East Friesic_, en.

_Holstein_, en.

_New Friesic_, ien.

We use _a_ before a consonant, and _an_ before a vowel, as _a_ man,

_an_ awl. But it is not that we have put on the _n_ to _a_ against the

yawning, but it is that the _n_ has been worn off from _an_.

The Frieses and Holsteiners now say _ien man_ and _en mann_.

The mark-word _an_, _a_ is of use to offmark a common one-head name, as

‘I have been to _a white church_’ (common); or, without the mark-word,

‘I have been to _Whitechurch_’ (one-head), the name of a village

so called. ‘He lives by _a pool_’; ‘he lives by _Pool_’ (a town in

Dorset). ‘He works in _a broad mead_’; ‘he works in _Broadmead_’ (in

Bristol).

As the Welsh has no such mark-word, it might be thought that it cannot

give these two sundry meanings; and the way in which it can offmark

them shows how idle it is to try one tongue only by another, or to talk

of the unmeaningness or uselessness of the Welsh word moulding.

_Llan-Tydno_ would mean _a church of Tydno_, but the parish called ‘The

Church of Tydno’ is in Welsh _Llandydno_, which, as a welding of two

words, hints to the Welsh mind that _Llandydno_ is a proper name, and

so that of a parish.

_Hoel da_ would mean _a good Hoel_; but to Hoel, the good king, the

Welsh gives as a welded proper name _Hoel dda_; and to _Julius Cæsar_

the Welsh gives, as one welded proper name, _Iolo-voel_, Julius-bald,

whereas _Iolo-moel_ would mean some bald Julius.

One sundriness of tale, the marking of things under speech--as _onely_

(singular) or _somely_ (plural)--is by an onputting to the thing-name

for _someliness_ a mark-ending, or by a moulding of the name into

another shape or sound.

By mark-endings, _-es_, _-s_, _-en_, _-n_.

Lash, lashes.

Cat, cats.

House, housen.

Shoe, shoon.

By for-moulding, as _foot_, _feet_--_tooth_, _teeth_; or by both

word-moulding or sound-moulding and an ending, as _brother_, _brethren_.

When the singular shape ends in _-sh_, _-ss_, or _-x_, _-ks_, it takes

on _-es_ for the somely, as _lash_, _lashes_; _kiss_, _kisses_; _box_,

_boxes_.

And surely, when the singular shape ends in _-st_, our Universities or

some high school of speech ought to give us leave to make it somely

by the old ending -_en_ or _-es_ instead of _-s_--_fist_, _fisten_,

_fistes_; _nest_, _nesten_, _nestes_.

What in the world of speech can be harsher than _fists_, _lists_,

_nests_?

It is unhappy that the old ending in _-en_, which is yet the main one

in West Friesic, should have given way to the hissing _s_.

Where common names with the definite mark-word become names of places

they are wont to lose the article, as _The Bath_, in Somerset, is now

_Bath_; _The Wells_, in Somerset, _Wells_; _Sevenoaks_, not _The Seven

Oaks_, in Kent.

In our version of Acts xxvii. 8, we have a place which is called _The

Fair Havens_, instead of _Fairhavens_ without the mark-word, as the

Greek gives the name.

Other thing mark-words offmark all of the things of a name or set from

others of another name or set.

_All_ birds, or _all_ the birds in the wood; or all taken singly, as

_each_ or _every_ bird; or somely, as _set_ or _share_; _some few_ or

_a few_; _many_ or _a many_ birds.

_Another_ or _others_ beyond one or some under speech.

_Any one_ or _more_ of a some, either apple or any apples.

_Both_, for the two without others; or

_Much_ or _little_ grass.

Many mark-words were at first thing-names.

_Many_ was a _menge_, a main or upmingled set; and a great many men

would mean a great set or gathering of men.

_Few_ was _feo_, which seems to have meant at first a cluster or herd;

and a few men was a few (cluster) of men.

_Some_ was a _sam_ or _som_, a set or upmingled mass; and _some_ men

was a _sam_ or _som_ of men.

Now if the speech is about the set, it may be onely, as ‘There _is_ a

great many,’ ‘there _is_ a small few,’ or ‘a few’; but if the speech is

about the bemarked things, the mark-word may well be somely--‘many men

_are_’; ‘few men _are_’; ‘some men _are_.’

In the queer wording, ‘many a man,’ ‘many a flow’r is born to blush

unseen,’ it is not at all likely that _a_ is the article. It is

rather a worn shape, like _a_ in _a-mong_ (an-menge), or _a-hunting_

(an-huntunge), of the Saxon case-word _an_ or _on_, meaning _in_; and

it is not unlikely that _man_ has, by the mistaking of _a_ for an

article, taken the stead of _men_--‘an maeng an men,’ a many or mass in

men; as we say ‘a herd in sheep,’ ‘a horde in gold.’ So far as this is

true the mark-word may be somely--‘many a man or men,’ ‘a main in men

_are_.’

_None_ (Saxon _na-an_, no one) should have a singular verb--‘None _is_

(not _are_) always happy.’

Some mark-words are for a clear outmarking (as single or somely) of

things outshown from among others.

Outshowing Mark-words.

(Near things.)

Single. Somely.

_This_ man. | _These_ men.

(Farther off.)

_That._ | _Those._

(Still farther off, or out of sight.)

_Yon._

The so-called definite article _the_ is a mark-word of the same kind as

_this_, _that_, _these_, and _those_.

The word _the_ in ‘the more the merrier’ is not the article _the_--to

a name-word. It is an old Saxon outshowing mark-word meaning with that

(_mid þy_). ‘The more the merrier’; _þy_ (with that measure), they are

more; _þy_ (with that measure), they are merrier.

In the wording ‘the man _who_’ or ‘the bird _which_ was in the garden,’

_who_ and _which_ are not the names, but are tokens or mark-words of

the things--_who_ of the _man_, and _which_ of the _bird_.

A thing may be marked by many mark-words, as ‘the (never to be

forgotten) day,’ ‘the (having to me shown so many kindnesses) man is

yet alive.’

A long string of mark-words may, however, be found awkward, and so we

may take a name-token _who_ for the _man_, and, instead of the words

‘having to me shown so many kindnesses,’ say, ‘who showed me so many

kindnesses.’

_Who_ or _that_ is the name-token for menkind, and _which_ or _that_

for beings of lower life or of no life, as ‘the man _who_’ or ‘the bird

or flower _which_ was in the garden.’

_Who_ and _which_ are used in the asking of questions--‘_Who_ is he?’

‘_What_ is that?’

The name-token should follow close on the forename for the sake of

clearness. ‘Alfred sold, for a shilling, the _bat which_ William gave

him,’ not ‘Alfred sold the bat for a _shilling which_ William gave

him,’ if it was the _bat_ that was given to him by William.

These mark-words take the stead of thing-names, and are _Name-stead

words_, and clear the speech of repetitions of the names. The baby may

say ‘Baby wants the doll,’ but at length learns to say ‘_I_ want the

doll’; or ‘_Papa_, take _baby_,’ and afterwards ‘_You_ take _me_’; or

‘Give _baby_ the _whip_--the _whip_ is _baby’s_,’ for ‘_It_ is _mine_.’

A man may be beholden to the speech in three ways:--

(1) He may be the speaker, called the First Person;

(2) He may be spoken to, the Second Person (the to-spoken thing);

(3) He may be spoken of, the Third Person (the of-spoken thing);

and some mark-words are for the marking of things without their names,

both in tale and their sundry beholdenness to the speech:--

Single. Somely.

1st Person.

_I._ _We_.

2nd Person.

_Thou._ _Ye_, _you_.

3rd Person.

_He_, _she_, _it_.

Here the sex is marked.

_It_ is sometimes put for an unforeset thing-name of an unbodily cause

or might, as ‘_it_ rains’; ‘_it_ freezes.’

For a child or an animal of unknown sex we may take the neuter (or

sexless) mark-word _it_. ‘_It_ (the child) cries.’

SUCHNESS OR QUALITIES,

and mark-words or mark-wording of suchness, as _good_, _bad_, _long_,

_heavy_.

Suchness may be marked by one word, as ‘a _white_ lily,’ or by a some

or many of words, as ‘a _very white_ lily,’ or ‘a _most dazzlingly

white_ lily,’ or ‘a lily as _white as snow_.’

Things are marked as having much of something, as _hilly_, _stony_,

_watery_; or made of something, as _golden_, _wooden_, _woollen_; or

having some things, as _two-legged_, _three-cornered_, _long-eared_,

or _loved_ or _hated_; of the same set or likeness of something, as

_lovely_, _quarrelsome_, _manly_, _childish_; wanting of something, as

_beardless_, _friendless_.

Pitches of Suchness.

The Suchnesses of Things are of sundry pitches, which are marked by

sundry shapes or endings or bye-words of the mark-words, as ‘My ash is

_tall_, the elm is _taller_, and the Lombardy poplar is the _tallest_

of the three trees’; or ‘Snow is _whiter_ than chalk,’ or ‘Chalk is

_less white_ than snow,’ or ‘John is the _tallest_ or _least tall_ of

the three brothers.’

These Pitch-marks offmark sundry things by their sundry suchnesses,

as ‘The _taller_ or _less tall_ man of the two is my friend,’ or ‘The

_tallest_ man is _less tall_ than the tree,’ or ‘The _least tall_ man

is _taller_ than the girl.’

The three Pitches may be called the _Common Pitch_, the _Higher Pitch_,

and the _Highest Pitch_.

The Welsh has a fourth Pitch-word, called the _Even Pitch_, as _pell_,

far; _pellach_, farther; _pellaf_, farthest; _pelled_, as far (as

something else).

_Younger_ may mean _younger_ reckoned from young, or _younger_ reckoned

from _old_; as ‘Alfred at 80 is younger than Edward at 85.’ In this

case we may well say _less old_.

_Worse_ (wyrse) is shapen from _wo_, _wa_, _we_, a stub-root which

means _wrong_, _atwist_, _bad_ in any way, and is our _woe_.

The _r_ in _weor_ is most likely of a forstrengthening and not a

comparative meaning--_weor_, _wyr_, very bad; _weorer_, _wyrer_, still

more strongly bad. But, not to double the _r_, men might have put a

strengthening _s_, and so had _weors_.

TIME-TAKING.

You cannot behold a thing in your mind otherwise than in or under some

doing or in some form of being.

Every case of being or doing is a taking of time, as ‘the lily _is_

white,’ ‘the man _strikes_,’ ‘the bird _flies_ or _was hit_.’ For

though the _being_ white, or the _striking_ or _flying_ or _hitting_

was only for the twinkling of an eye, it took time; for the eyelid

takes time, however short it may be, to flit down and up over the

eyeball. Thence the word commonly called the _verb_ may be called the

_Time-taking word_ or _Time-word_, as it is called by the Germans _Das

Zeitwort_; or, as it is the main word of the thought and speech, it is

the _Thought-word_ or _Speech-word_; or, as it is called in Latin and

other tongues, the _Word_.

Welsh speech-lore has called the verb the _soul_[1] of the

thought-wording.

[1] ‘Enaid yr ymadrod yw’r ferf.’

Among the thousands of sundriness of time-taking there are some wide

differences which should be borne in mind.

Unoutreaching or Intransitive.

Time-takings, which must or may end with the time-taking thing, as

_To be._ John cannot _be_ another man.

_To sleep_; _to walk_. John cannot _sleep_ or _walk_ another man.

Outreaching (Transitive).

Time-takings that may begin with the time-taking thing, and reach out

to another, as

_To strike_; _to see_. John may _strike_ or _see_ another man.

Time-giving.

If a man, A, takes time against another, B, as _to see_ B, we should

more truly say of B that he _gives_, not _takes_, the time which A

takes.

The time-words for unoutreaching time-takings may be called

_Unoutreaching_; of the outreaching ones, _Outreaching_; of the

time-givings, _Time-giving_.

In some cases there is between the time-taking thing and the

time-giving thing a middle one--the thing, tool, or matter with which

the time is taken, as ‘John hit William _with_ a stone’ or ‘a cane.’

But then, again, this wording is shortened by the putting of the name

of the mid-thing as a time-word, as ‘John _stoned_ or _caned_ William.’

And this brings in a call for the marking of two sundry kinds of

time-words--the strong or moulded, and weak or unmoulded time-words.

A time-word, when it tells a taking of time by one thing against

another, is in the outreaching (active) _voice_--‘John strikes the

iron.’ When it tells of the giving of time, it is in the time-giving

(passive) _voice_. When it tells of an unoutreaching time-taking it is

in the middle _voice_.

For the causing of another thing to take time some tongues have set

shapes of the time-word, as, in Hindustani, _durna_, to run; _durāna_,

to make another run.

We have hardly any of such words, though such are--

Lie, lay.

Sit, set.

Rise, raise.

Time-takings for becoming or making another thing become otherwise are

marked by the ending _-en_ on the mark-word, as

To blacken.

To whiten.

_Misdoing_ by the fore-eking _mis-_:--

Mistake.

Misread.

_Longer-lasting time-takings_ marked by the ending _-er_, as

Chat, chatter (to chatter much or long).

Fret, fritter.

Sway, swagger.

_Short_ or _small time-takings_ by endings such as

_-ock_, _-ick_.

Whine, whinnock.

whinnick (to whine smally).

_-el_, _-l_.

Prate, prattle.

Jog, joggle.

Crack, crackle.

A time-taking, taken as a deed or being without any time-taking thing,

is taken as a _thing_, and its name is a _Thing-name_, as _to write_.

As in Greek the Infinitive mood, _tò gráphein_, the ‘to write’; and

in Italian, _il scrivere_, the ‘to write’ (the deed of writing or a

writing), so the Infinitive mood-shape of the Saxon time-word was

taken as a thing-name after the preposition _to_, to or for, as _to

huntianne_ (to or for the deed to hunt or hunting), as ‘Why does Alfred

keep those dogs?’ ‘To huntianne.’

Thence we have our wording--

‘Any chairs _to mend_?’ (any chairs to or for the deed mending),

‘A house _to let_,’

‘Letters _to write_,’

‘A tale _to tell_,’

which is all good English.

It is an evil to our speech that the thing-shape now ending in _-ing_

should be mistaken for the mark-word ending in _-ing_.

Unhappily two sundry endings of the old English have worn into one

shape. They were _-ung_ or _-ing_ and _-end_.

_Singung_ is the deed of singing, a thing. _Singend_ is a mark-word, as

in the wording ‘I have a _singing_ bird.’

_Sailing_ and _hunting_, in the foregiven thought-wordings, are

thing-names, and not mark-words. _Sailing_ is _segling_, as ‘ne mid

_seglinge_ ne mid rownesse’ (neither with sailing nor rowing).--Bede 5,

‘_Wunigende_ ofer hyne’ (_woning_ [mark-word] over him).--Matt iii. 16.

‘Sy _wunung_ heora on west’ (be their _woning_ [thing-name]

waste).--Ps. lxviii 30.

‘Ða genealaehton hym to Farisaer hyne _costigende_’ (then came near to

him the Pharisees _tempting_ [mark-word] him).--Matt xix. 3.

‘Ne gelaede þu us on _costnunge_’ (lead us not into _tempting_

[thing-name]).--Lord’s Prayer.

So ‘haelende,’ Matt v. 23; ‘haeling’; ‘bodigende,’ Matt. x. 35;

‘bodung,’ Luke xi. 32.

‘Waere þu to-daeg, on huntunge?’ (not _huntende_) (wert thou to-day on

or in hunting?)--Aelfric’s Dialogue.

‘Hwaet dest þu be þinre huntunge?’ (not _huntende_) (what dost thou by

thy hunting?)--Aelfric.

‘_The_ CALLING _of_ assemblies I cannot away with.’--Isa. i. 13. Not

‘calling assemblies,’ which, if _calling_ were a mark-word, would mean

assemblies that call.

The right speech-trimming with the thing-names in _-ing_ is to trim

them in the old English way as thing-names in their cases; as,

‘We are the _offscouring_ of all things unto this day.’--1 Cor. iv. 13.

Not ‘We are the offscouring all things.’

‘For that righteous man, IN _seeing_ and _hearing_, vexed his righteous

soul.’

‘By _the_ WASHING _of_ regeneration and (_the_) RENEWING _of_ the Holy

Ghost.’--Titus iii. 5. Not ‘He saved us by the washing regeneration and

renewing the Holy Ghost.’

The ending _-er_ of the time-taker (_deeder_, name-word) is, not

unclearly, the Celtic, Welsh _gwr_, or in word-welding _-wr_, the Latin

_-or_; as,

Welsh, _barn_, doom; _barnwr_, a doom-man.

Latin, _canto_, to sing; _cantor_, a sing-man.

Thence _-er_ seems a far less fitting ending for a tool-name than

the old Saxon _-el_; and a tool for the whetting of knives would be

more fitly called a _whettel_ than a whetter. _Choppel_, chopper;

_clippels_, clippers.

All new time-words now taken or shapen from other tongues must be

unmoulded.

We say _shoot_, shot (not _shooted_); but _loot_, looted (not _lot_),

_loot_ being the Hindustani _lootna_, to rob or plunder.

So time-words, which are known English words, of another kind, names

or mark-words, are mostly unmoulded.

The shapening of the time-words hangs rather more on their endings than

on their headings.

The oddest are those which end in the throat-pennings--=NG=, =NK=, =K=,

=G=; and those ending in roof-pennings--=T=, =D=.

Because the _-d_ of the roof-penning _-ed_ is so unlike a

throat-penning, which cannot easily stand with it: and because the =T=

and =D= are like _d_ as roof-pennings, and (_see_ Table) they may run

into them.

=-ING= ROOT-WORDS (strong).

The wording of a time-taking (predicate) with its speech-thing

(subject) is a _Thought-wording_ (proposition).

_Strong_ or _moulded time-words_ are such as, for a time-taking of

foretime, are moulded (without any out-eking) into another shape or

sound, as

I sing, I sang.

It flies, it flew.

The _weak_ or _unmoulded time-words_ take on, unmoulded, an ending such

as _-ed_, as

He stones, he _stoned_.

He canes, he _caned_.

All time-words that are known names of things are unmoulded, as

To Plaster, plastered.

Bud, budded.

Comb, combed.

Cap, capped.

Dust, dusted.

Fish, fished.

Gate, gated.

Water, watered.

Heap, heaped.

Mind, minded.

Name, named.

Pen, penned.

Stone, stoned.

Very many of our time-words are unmoulded from the same cause--that

they are names of things; although such names of things, having become

worn more or less out of shape, or having fallen out of use, may not

show themselves to our minds what they are.

_To hunt_ makes _hunted_; why? From _hound_, to hunt, meaning at first

to seek with a hound.

It may, however, be said, ‘Is to hunt from _hound_, or hound from _to

hunt_?’

Such a point is, in very many cases, cleared out by the Anglo-Saxon,

in which ‘to hunt’ is _hunt-i-an_, not _hunt-an_; and the _i_, a worn

shape of _ig_, shows that _huntian_ is from _hund_, hound, and so hound

is not from hunt.

The time-word from the thing _hunt-ig-an_, _hunt-i-an_, is to _houndy_,

to take time with a hound.

We say

Cling, clung.

Fling, flung.

Sling, slung.

But we should say ‘he _ringed_ (not rung) his pig’; ‘he _stringed_ his

harp’; _ring_ and _string_ being _things_.

The _strong_ or _moulded time-words_ are nearly or quite all words

ending in one single breath-penning, and of a close sound (1, 2, 3, or

4 of the Table), as

=-ING=, Cling, clung.

=-INK=, Sink, sank.

=-K=, Speak, spoke.

=-L=, Steal, stole.

=-T=, Smite, smote.

=-R=, Tear, tore.

=-V=, Weave, wove.

Other time-words, name-words, or stem-words, and broad-sounded ones (5,

6, 7, 8 of the Table), are nearly all weak or unmoulded.

WEAK.

The ending =-NG= in broad-sounded words--

Clang, clanged.

Bung, bunged.

Long, longed.

=-NK,= BROAD.

Bank, banked.

Clank, clanked.

Flank, flanked.

And in

Blink, blinked.

Link, linked.

Clink, clinked.

=-K,= BROAD, LONG STEM-WORDS (weak).

Bake, baked.

Croak, croaked.

Hawk, hawked.

Rake, raked.

_Make_ was heretofore _maked_:

‘For aevric rice man his castles _makede_.’--Sax. Chron. MCXXXVI.

=K= wore out, whence

Maked, ma-ed, maed, made.

=-K,= SHORT.

Back, backed.

Clack, clacked.

=-G,= SHORT.

Beg, begged.

Clog, clogged.

All but _dig_, dug. What a pity to put it out of keeping with all of

the others! It is _digged_ in the Bible.

=-T,= LONG STEM-WORDS.

Bait, baited.

Bate, bated.

Bleat, bleated.

Bloat, bloated.

Clout, clouted.

Float, floated.

=-T,= SHORT STEM-WORDS.

Bat, batted.

Bet, betted.

Clot, clotted.

=-TH.=

Breathe, breathed.

=-T=, SHORT (weak shortened).

Cut, cut.

Hit, hit.

Let, let.

Set, set.

&c.

The wear of these words was thislike:

Let-_ede_.

Let-_de_.

The mild penning, _d_, after a hard one, _t_, became hard, _t_. Whence

_lette_, let, with the two _tt run into one_. A pity!

So were shapen _feed_, _fedde_, _fed_; _lead_, _ledde_, _led_; _read_,

_redde_.

WEAK =-D= (long).

Crowd, crowded.

Fade, faded.

WEAK =-D= (short).

Bed, bedded.

Bud, budded.

=-L=, BROAD SOUND (long).

Brawl, brawled.

Call, called.

A few of them are shortened, as _feel_, _feeld_, _felt_.

=-N=, LONG.

Clean, cleaned.

Frown, frowned.

=-N=, SHORT STEM-WORDS.

Din, dinned.

Pin, pinned.

Sin, sinned.

=-R=, BROAD SOUNDS.

Blare, blared.

Care, cared.

_Dare_ now makes _durst_; but in Friesic it is unmoulded--‘and ne

_thuradon_ nâ wither forskina’ (and _dared_ not to show themselves

again).

=-R=, SHORT.

Bar, barred.

Purr, purred

Stir, stirred.

=-S= and =-Z=, LONG.

Pose, posed.

Praise, praised.

Blaze, blazed.

Close, closed.

Daze, dazed.

Raze, razed.

=-SS.=

Bless, blessed.

Guess, guessed.

=-SH.=

Blush, blushed.

Clash, clashed.

=-P=, LONG.

Heap, heaped.

Peep, peeped.

Reap, reaped.

Gape, gaped.

Cope, coped.

Hope, hoped.

Mope, moped.

Stoop, stooped.

Weak. Shortened.

Creep, crep’d.

Keep, kep’d.

Leap, lep’d.

Sleep, slep’d.

Weep, wep’d.

Sweep, swep’d.

=-P=, SHORT.

Cap, capped.

Hap, happed.

Hop, hopped.

Stop, stopped.

WEAK =-B= (short).

Blab, blabbed.

=-V=, LONG.

Crave, craved.

Grave, graved.

Rave, raved.

=-F=, SHORT.

Huff, huffed.

Cough, coughed.

=-M=, LONG.

Blame, blamed.

All but _come_, came.

Stub-roots.

Time-words ending in an open breathing. Most of them are weak:--

Bay, bayed.

Bow, bowed.

Brew, brewed.

Claw, clawed.

Say, said.

Stew, stewed.

A few of them are moulded:--

Blow, blew.

Crow, crew.

Grow, grew.

Slay, slew.

All those that end in two or three sundry breath-pennings are weak:--

=-NCH=, Pinch, pinched.

=-ND=, Land, landed.

=-NGE=, Lounge, lounged.

=-NT=, Grant, granted.

=-PL=, Cripple, crippled.

=-PT=, Intercept, intercepted.

=-RB=, Barb, barbed.

=-RC=, Cork, corked.

=-RD=, Hord, horded.

=-RG=, Charge, charged.

=-RL=, Hurl, hurled.

=-BL=, Bubble, bubbled.

=-CL=, Cackle, cackled.

=-DL=, Huddle, huddled.

=-FL=, Ruffle, ruffled.

=-FT=, Heft, hefted.

=-GL=, Naggle, naggled.

=-LP=, Gulp, gulped.

=-LK=, Chalk, chalked.

=-LD=, Mould, moulded.

=-LP=, Help, helped.

=-LV=, Calve, calved.

=-MB=, Climb, climbed.

=-MP=, Pump, pumped.

=-MT=, Tempt, tempted.

=-RM=, Harm, harmed.

=-RN=, Burn, burned.

=-RP=, Carp, carped.

=-RT=, Flirt, flirted.

=-RTH=, Earth, earthed.

=-SS=, Miss, missed.

=-SP=, Clasp, clasped.

=-ST=, Consist, consisted.

(All but _cast_, formerly _casted_.)

=-TCH=, Hatch, hatched.

=-TL=, Bottle, bottled.

=-RST=, Burst, bursted.

A few time-words ending with a throat-penning mark the heretofore time

by some oddness of shape; as,

Bring, brought.

Think, thought.

They were opened in sound, and also took the ending _ode_, _od_ (our

_ed_), and then came into our shapes by sundry wonted changes:--

_-ing_ (as of _bring_) became _-ong_.

_-ing-ed_ became (1) _-ong-ed_.

_-ong-ed_ „ (2) _-ong’d_.

_-ong’d_ „ (3) _-onk’d_.

Then the _d_, a mild penning after a hard penning (_k_), became hard,

_t_:--

_-onk’d_ became (4) _-onk’t_.

_-onk’t_ „ (5) _-ok’t_.

_-ok’t_ „ (6) _-o’t_,

as _k_ and _t_ are harsh together. Whence--

Bring bro’t (brought).

Buy (_bycg_, A.S.) bo’t.

Seek (_sec_, A.S.) so’t.

Teach (_taec_, A.S.) to’t.

Our _gh_ as in _taught_ is the now unuttered (though still written)

throat-penning.

Time-takings or time-givings may be taken as thing-marks, as ‘the

_hunting_ dog’; ‘the _hunted_ hare.’

The sundry moods of time-takings are marked by sundry shapes of the

time-word, or by bye-words or mark-words--_shall_, _will_, _can_,

_may_, _must_.

The timings of time-takings are marked by sundry shapes of the

time-word, and by bye-words or mark-words to it, as ‘the bird flies’ or

does fly, or flew or did fly, or will fly.

Under-Sundrinesses of Time-takings.

Time-takings are of sundry kinds, under sundry names, as _to be_, _to

walk_, _to strike_.

Under-time-markings may be by single words, as ‘to write _well_ or

_ill_, _slowly_ or _quickly_’; or by two or three words, as ‘he runneth

_very swiftly_’; or by clusters of words, as ‘he runs _with most

amazing speed_’; or ‘he works _in a very skilful way_.’

Fitting of the Time-word to all the cases of Person, Time, and Mood.

In this fitting the time-word is helped by sundry bye-words or

under-mark-words.

_Can_, from the Saxon _cun-n-an_, to ken, know, to know how. ‘I _can_

write,’ I know how to write.

The heretofore time-shape of _Ic can_ was _Ic cuðe_, for which we have

now _I could_, with an _l_ which was never in the root of the word, and

for which there is not any ground.

_May._--_Mag-an_, the stem of maht, _might_, means _to strongen_, to be

or become strong (Lat. _valere_), as is shown by cases of its use in

Saxon and other Teutonic tongues.

In an old Friesic good wish at the drinking to the health of a bride

and bridegroom we find ‘Dat se lang lave en wel mage,’ that they long

live and well _may_ (_strongen_, _bene valeant_); and in Saxon, ‘Hu

maeg he?’ how mays he? (_strongens_ or _valet_).

_Shall._--_Sceal-an_, meant, as a stem, to offmark, distinguish, or to

_skill_ in the meaning of 1 Kings v. 6--‘Ic sceal dón,’ I offmark or

skill to do; as what I am bent to do.

‘Thou shalt love the Lord thy God.’ Thou markest or clearly seest to

love the Lord thy God.

‘Thou shalt not steal.’ Thou markest this. Not to steal.

_Must._--_Mot-an_, _most-an_, is most likely a stem of the word

_mag-an_, to strongen (_valere_).

The _-st_ would strengthen the meaning of _mag_ (may) as it does in

_-est_ of _longest_. So ‘I must go’ (Ic moste gán) would mean ‘I am

overmighted by another’s might to go.’

Time-words are fitted

To _Person_, as

I am. | Thou art. | He is.

To _Tale_, as

I am. | Thou art. | He is.

We are. | Ye are. | They are.

To _Time_, as

I am (now). | I was (heretofore).

I shall be (hereafter).

To _Mood_, as

I write, or shall write.

I may or can write, or might or could or should write.

If I write, or if I had written.

Things and Time-takings.

Timing of time-takings is the marking of their times, as _now_,

_heretofore_, or _hereafter_.

TIME.

_Now_ or _hereat_.

I am, or I love, or am loved.

_Heretofore done._

I was, or I loved, or was loved.

_Heretofore ongoing._

I was, or I was a-loving or I did love.

_Now ended._

I have been, or I have loved, or have been loved.

_Heretofore ended._

I had been, or I had loved, or had been loved.

_Heretofore ongoing, ended._

I had been a-loving.

_Hereafter doing._

I shall be, or I shall love, or shall be loved.

_Hereafter ongoing._

I shall be a-loving.

_Hereafter ended._

I shall have been, or shall have loved, or shall have been loved.

_Hereafter ended, ongoing._

I shall have been a-loving.

Single and stringly time-takings of the same name, as ‘Mary _sold_

me some apples yesterday.’ There was a single selling; but under the

wording ‘Mary formerly _sold_ apples in the market,’ it is clear that

under the same word _sold_ is meant a string of sellings.

So under the wording ‘_Write_ your name’ is understood a single

writing; but under the wording ‘If you would write readily, write every

day,’ the same word _write_ implies a string of writings.

Some tongues (as the Greek and Russian) have two shapes of the

time-words for these two cases of time-taking; as, Greek--

‘Take thy bill and write fifty’ (γράψον, _aorist_).--Luke xvi. 6.

‘Jesus, stooping down, wrote on the ground’ (ἔγραφεν, _imperfect_,

ondoing shape, _wrote on_).

But Acts xxv. 26, ‘About whom I have nothing certain to write’

(γράψαι, _aorist_, to write off once for all).

See the Greek text of the 3rd Epistle of John v. 13--‘I had many

(things or many times?) to _write_ (γράφειν, ondoing shape), but I will

not with pen and ink _write_ (γράψαι) to thee’ (_aorist_, offdoing

form).

An understanding of the difference between the _aorist_ and ondoing

shapes is of weight in the reading of the Gospel. ‘To _make

intercession_, to _intercede_ for them.’--Heb. vii. 25. To intercede

once for all, at the doom-day? No. To intercede on always; for the word

is not in the _aorist_ shape, but in the present ondoing form, _to be

interceding_.

Historic Time-wording.

A time-shape of a time-word used in an unwonted way for the telling of

a string of deeds, as, in English, the present time-shape is so used

for deeds of foretime, as ‘He _opens_ the door, _walks_ in, coolly

_takes_ a chair, _sits_ down, and _tells_ the maid he wishes to see me.’

So ‘Philip _findeth_ Nathanael, and _saith_ unto him,’ &c.--John i. 45.

The Moods of Time-takings.

MOOD.

The wording of the time-taking may be; as,

(1) Now or heretofore true, or hereafter sure, as ‘He _is_, or _was_,

or _will be_’; ‘He _sings_, or _sang_, or _will sing_.’ _The Truth

Mood._

(2) That it may or can, or could or might be so taken, as ‘He may or

can go.’ _The Mayly Mood._

(3) Or that it is to be wished that it may or might be taken, as ‘I

wish,’ or ‘Oh that I could go.’ _The Wish Mood._

Or that it is a hinge time-taking on which another hangs, as ‘If you

ask (hinge), you will receive (on-hang).’

Or as bidden to be taken, as ‘Go thy way.’

Stead-marks and Way-marks of Time-takings.

CASE.

Things named in speech, so as to mark the stead of the beginning or

end, or of the way of the time-taking at any point of its length or

outreach in time or room, are Case-things.

There are, however, two cases which are speech-cases and not

stead-marks or way-marks:--

(1) That of the of-spoken thing (nominative), the thing of which the

speech speaks, as ‘The bird flies’; and

(2) The to-spoken thing (vocative), as ‘O sing, sweet bird.’

Cases are marked by shapes of thing-names or by case-words, or by the

setting of the case-word either after or before the time-word, as

‘The dog drove out the cat,’ where the dog is the beginning of the

time-taking; or ‘The cat drove out the dog,’ where the dog is the end

of it, and is shown to be so by the setting of its name after the

time-word.

_Source._

‘The bird flew from, or off, or out of the _tree_.’

‘He died of or from _intemperance_.’

The _tree_ and _intemperance_ are source-marks of _flew_ and _died_.

_End or Aim._

‘John loved _George_.’

‘He went to or towards _London_.’

‘Edwin worked for _wages_, or strolled along by the _stream_.’

_The Stead Case._

‘John was in the _field_ or at the _church_.’

_The Tool._

‘Alfred wrote with a _pen_.’

‘The bird flew before, behind, over, under, above, below, by, around,

or through the _gate-turret_,’ which is the way-mark of _flew_.

There is a Source-mark which is a source of the time-taking, not as

being only that thing, but as being a thing then in some shape or kind

of time-taking.

‘(_a_) The wind being against us, (_b_) we made but little way.’ _a_ is

the source of _b_, ‘we made but little way,’ not from the wind simply

as wind, but as also being against us.

‘You being my leader, I shall overcome.’

This is commonly called the absolute case (allfree case); though the

wind is not free of a time-taking (being against us). It may be called

the ‘thing-so-being’ case.

Some tongues mark many of the cases by sundry endings of the

thing-name, but we have in common names only one ending for case, the

possessive, as ‘the horse’s mane,’ ‘John’s house.’

In name-tokens we have three case-forms, as _thou_, _thy_,

_thee_--_thy_ for the possessive, and _thee_ for all the other cases.

‘The bird flew _from_ the apple-tree _in_ the corner _of_ the garden,

_through_ the archway, and _under_ the elm _by_ the barn, _round_ the

hayrick, and on _over_ the stream just _below_ the willow, and _above_

the bridge, and then _to_ the stall, and on _towards_ the wood, and

_into_ an ivy-bush.’

Here the sundry named things are way-marks which mark the place of the

_flying_ in its beginning and end, and at sundry points of its length.

Such stead-marks or way-marks may be taken as in either of one or two

or three cases, as they may be either stead-marks or way-marks, and as

their beholdingness to the time-taking may be reckoned to it or from it

to themselves.

‘The bird flew _over_ or _under_ or _by_ the tree.’ The flying at first

reached on nearer towards the tree, and then reached off again farther

from it, so that the tree was at first in the case of a toness, and

then in the case of a fromness, with the flying.

But under the wording ‘the roof is _over_ the floor,’ or ‘the floor is

_under_ the roof,’ the time-taking _is_ is a staid and not an ongoing

one, and either the roof or the floor may be in the fromness or toness

case, as the height may be reckoned from it to the other, or to it from

the other.

A housemother may say ‘We live near (_to_) Fairton’ (toness case);

yet an hour afterwards she may say ‘We live too far _from_ Fairton

(fromness case) to step in readily for errands.’

Her abode may be four miles from Fairton, so that the time-taking

_live_ is as far from Fairton in one case as the other; and yet it puts

it in two sundry cases.

‘If Alfred gave to Edred a field,’ the time-taking _gave_ ended in the

mid-thing, the field (the endingness case), but it put the field to

Edred, as his, in the toness case.

The place of a time-taking may be shown by one place-mark, or by two or

three, of which a latter may mark the place of a former, as ‘The rooks

build _in_ the elms, _above_ the house,’ where the elms mark the place

of the _building_, and the house marks that of the place-mark (the

_elms_).

But some case-words are made up of a smaller case-word and a

thing-name, as ‘Alfred sat _beside_ the wall.’ _Beside_ being ‘by the

_side_,’ and the side of the wall (whereof case).

The figure for _case-shifting_, or the changing of the case-tokens, is

called in Gr. _enallage_ as

‘I have ten sovereigns _in my purse_’; ‘_My purse_ contains ten

sovereigns.’

‘_The pump has_ a new handle’; ‘There is a new handle _to the pump_.’

‘The carpet _in_ the hall’; ‘The carpet _of_ the hall.’

‘The brother _of_ or _to_ that lady.’

‘John _likes_ cricket or is _fond of_ cricket.’

‘Greedy _of_ gain or _for_ gain.’

‘Think _of_ me or _on_ me.’

‘He was killed by a blow _of a club_ or _with a club_.’

‘He spoke _in_ the balcony or _from_ the balcony.’

THOUGHT-WORDING, SPEECH-WORDING,

is the setting of words or a bewording of thought or speech (syntax).

A thought-wording (proposition) is a bewording of the case of a thing

with its time-taking. ‘The boy is good’ or ‘the boy plays.’

A thought-wording may have more thing-names and time-words, as ‘The

boys and girls read and play.’

Thought-wordings (propositions) may be linked together in sundry ways,

though mostly by Link-words (conjunctions). ‘Men walk _and_ birds fly’;

‘I sought him, _but_ I found him not’; ‘I waited at the door _while_

Alfred went into the house.’

Twin Time-takings.

The _Hinge_ Time-taking, on which the other hangs, and the _Hank_

Time-taking which hangs on the Hinge one, as ‘If ye ask (_hinge_), ye

shall receive (_hank_).’

There are sundry kinds of hinge time-takings, as one or the other or

both of the time-takings may or may not be trowed or true or sure.

(1) _Hinge_ and _hank_, trowed--‘As ye ask (as I trow you do), so ye

receive (I trow).’