_The arrival of the populace at Osterley Park.--The commencement
of the festivities.--Dancing on the Tight and Slack
Rope.--Balancing.--Conjuring.--Optical illusions.--Various
games.--The Penthalum.--The Banquet.--Grand display of
Fire-works.--Conclusion._
Never had the rosy fingers of Aurora shown so much reluctance in
unbarring the gates of the East, as on the morning of the Osterley
Jubilee; at least, so thought about half a score peasants, who, fevered
by anxiety and expectation, had arisen from their beds long before the
break of day.
At length, however, the sun arose; but indignant no doubt at the
accusations he had so unjustly suffered, he immediately veiled his
fiery countenance in dark and lowering clouds: here, then, was a fresh
source of doubt and anxiety; would the day be rainy? The gardener at
Overton Lodge was immediately sought and consulted; and cheering as
were his predictions, they scarcely succeeded in dispelling the gloom
which shaded many a fair countenance. The apprehension of
disappointment was, however, suddenly relieved; for between nine and
ten o’clock the sun re-appeared, beaming in all his glory, and shedding
the brightest refulgence on the scene of the approaching festivities.
At this period hundreds of villagers, dressed in their holiday attire,
were seen pouring along the high road, or winding their way through the
verdant valleys. So admirable had been the arrangements for the
admission of the populace into the park, that great as was the
concourse of spectators, not the slightest impediment occurred during
their entrance.
At half-past ten o’clock the whole population of the country had
assembled; the various performers were on their respective stages; and
the arrival of Major Snapwell and his guests was eagerly expected, as a
signal for the commencement of the festivities of the day.
At length a distant murmur was heard in the direction of the house,
which gradually increased as it approached the meadow, until it swelled
into one grand and universal chorus. The vicar appeared with his wand
of office, which he no sooner waved in the air than the murmur
gradually subsided. Major Snapwell and his friends, Harry Beacham and
his bride, and the Seymours with their children, and numerous visitors,
followed. The several bands, stationed on the platforms erected before
the show-booths, simultaneously struck up the national anthem, in which
the whole multitude joined, and produced one of the most surprising and
thrilling effects ever witnessed.
There were eight booths appropriated to the exhibitions; and it had
been arranged that each should commence at the same time, and repeat
its performances eight times during the day; so that by dividing the
spectators into eight groups, and delivering to each person a ticket
distinguished by a particular number, every spectator at once knew the
booth into which he was to enter; and having witnessed the exhibition,
he was directed to exchange his ticket; by which means every chance of
confusion was avoided, and each person was enabled to witness,
successively, every performance.
The vicar and the party entered the first booth, and were followed by
all those whose ticket was distinguished by No. 1.; those of No. 2. at
the same time entered the second booth, and so on.
The first show was appropriated to the various exhibitions of vaulting,
tumbling, balancing, and rope-dancing. The vicar expressed high delight
on observing that the stage was decorated with branches. “In the
ancient theatre,” said he, “the stage was originally planted with trees
to _shade_ the actors; hence scene, so called from the Greek word
signifying a shade.”[74]
During the performances of the balancer, Tom Seymour’s attention was
riveted on the artist; he watched every movement, and examined its
effect in preserving the centre of gravity within the base. “Papa,”
cried the delighted boy, “I never experienced so much interest in a
performance of this kind, until I was capable of explaining the
principles upon which it was conducted. I have attentively followed
every change of position, and discovered the effect of such changes
upon the line of direction.”[75] As to the _wire-dancing_, Tom
observed, that he saw very plainly the swinging of the wire backwards
and forwards diminished the difficulty, and assisted the actor in
keeping his equipoise.
Mr. Seymour was highly delighted with these remarks; and, casting an
intelligible look at Mr. Twaddleton, who was seated near him, he
exclaimed, “Well, vicar, you will surely now admit that the pleasures
which arise from sport are heightened by the admixture of science.”
“My dear Mr. Seymour,” replied the vicar, “you well know that I have
long since become a convert to your principles; I confess, however, had
that not been the case, the expression of satisfaction and delight
which have just fallen from my little playmate, Tom, would have removed
all my prejudices.”
“See, see!” exclaimed Louisa, “how very extraordinary! I declare that
the plate, sword, key, and tobacco-pipe, are all balanced as they
revolve on the chin of the performer.”
“And do you not know, Louisa,” replied Tom, “that the revolution of the
plate and sword, which appears to render the execution so much more
astonishing, actually diminishes the difficulty of the performance?”[76]
Thus did Tom Seymour continue to point out successively the
philosophical principles upon which each of the tricks might be
supposed to depend.
The next booth into which our party entered was that of Crank Smirky,
the celebrated conjuror, who invited the company to witness his
wonderful display of the art of legerdemain: he was dressed as an
astrologer, with a loose gown of green velvet, and a red cap; he had a
long grey beard, and his nose was bestraddled by a pair of green
spectacles.
“Ladies and gentlemen,” said the mystic professor, “I shall have the
honour of convincing you this day, that my single hand is more than a
match for all the sharp eyes of Overton. You will admit that a
beautiful eye makes silence eloquent,--a kind eye, contradiction an
assent,--and an enraged eye, beauty deformed; but my hand shall, by its
magic influence, make eloquence dumb, assent a contradiction, and
deformity beautiful.”
So saying, the professor beckoned a villager, who sat near the stage,
to approach and assist him in the performance of his first grand trick.
“Dobby,” exclaimed his terrified wife, “sit thee still; that man has
dealings with the old one; I would not that he should touch your
garment for all the gingerbread in the fair.”
This exclamation of the terrified wife set the whole audience in a
roar, and produced a confusion which the skilful conjuror is always
anxious to create, when any sly work is to be performed. In truth, this
scene had been previously concerted by the renowned Crank Smirky, who
had engaged this said Dobby as his confederate. A series of very
amusing tricks were then performed with cards and counters; such, for
instance, as desiring some person to draw a card from the pack, and
having observed what it was, to return it; which card, to the wonder of
the company, was immediately found in Dobby’s pocket. Mr. Seymour
informed his children that the explanation of this trick would serve to
show the manner in which most of the deceptions on cards were
performed. He said, that the conjuror’s pack of cards always contained
a card, technically termed a ‘_brief_ card,’ or ‘the _old gentleman_,’
which is one made on purpose by the card-maker, and is a little larger
than any of the rest; the performer always knows it by feeling it, and
can easily force it upon the unsuspecting drawer; should he, however,
attempt to take any other, the conjuror, under some pretence, shuffles
again, till at length he induces him to take the one intended for him.
After the card has been introduced again into the pack, the performer,
without any difficulty, withdraws it, and the confederate is called
upon to produce the duplicate which had been previously placed in his
pocket.
The children were told that the several deceptions with coin, or
counters, which they had witnessed, were accomplished by a species of
dexterity acquired only by practice, and termed ‘_palming_;’ it
consisted in being able to retain a shilling, halfpenny, or counter, in
the palm of the hand, while it remained extended; thus the performer
desires any one to reckon five pieces, which are accordingly placed on
the table before him, the conjuror then takes them up, and having
dexterously palmed one, he adds it to the number as he places it in the
hand of the unsuspecting person.
Tom and his sisters expressed themselves much pleased and surprised
with the dexterity of the performer; “But,” added the intelligent boy,
“I should be much more gratified by tricks that were indebted for their
mystery to some philosophical principle.”
Mr. Seymour and the vicar again interchanged looks that strongly marked
the feelings which had been excited by this observation. The former
turning to his son, said, that if he waited patiently, he would shortly
be gratified in that wish, for he knew Crank Smirky was prepared to
exhibit some recreations in divination, that were founded on the
science of numbers.
Nor was Mr. Seymour mistaken; for after a few more specimens of his
dexterity, the conjuror requested Mr. Twaddleton, who was sitting
directly in his front, to take an _even_ number of counters in one
hand, and an _odd_ number in the other; and he would tell him, he said,
in which hand he held the even number. Mr. Twaddleton having complied
with the request, he was farther desired to multiply the number in the
right hand by any _even_ number he pleased, as, for instance, 2; and
that in the left hand by an odd number, as 3.
“I have done so,” said the vicar.
“Then be pleased to add together the two products, and tell me whether
the sum be odd or even.”
“It is odd,” replied Mr. Twaddleton.
“If so,” said the conjuror, “the even number of counters will be in
your right hand.”
The vicar exposed the counters, and admitted the correctness of the
conjuror’s decision.(55)
“Ladies and gentlemen,” exclaimed the man of mystery, “I now humbly
crave your silent attention, while I exhibit one of the most wonderful
examples of my art. Here is a ring,--there a shilling,--and there a
glove. I shall presently request each of the three gentlemen before me,
to take one of those articles, so secretly as to prevent the
possibility of my discovering the choice he may have made. I have here,
you perceive, twenty-four counters; _one_ of which I shall give to you,
Mr. Seymour; _two_ to you, reverend sir; and _three_ to you, my young
philosopher; the remaining eighteen shall remain on the table. Now,
gentlemen, I shall retire, and during my absence, you will be so good
as to distribute the three articles in any way you may think proper.”
The professor, accordingly, walked off the stage; when Mr. Seymour took
the ring; the vicar the shilling; and Tom Seymour the glove. The
conjuror, on his return, said that he had one more favour to request,
that the person who had the ring should take from the eighteen counters
on the table as many as he already possessed; the one with the shilling
twice as many; and the person with the glove, four times as many as he
before possessed. The conjuror again retired, in order that the
distribution might be made without his observing it. On returning, the
conjuror, having first cast his eye upon the counters that remained on
the table, informed the company that Mr. Seymour had taken the ring,
Mr. Twaddleton the shilling, and the young gentleman the glove. The
moment the parties assented to this decision, the whole company
expressed their satisfaction and astonishment by thunders of applause.
“That is really very ingenious,” observed the vicar.
“How could he perform it?” said Tom: “it is evident that his only guide
was the number of counters left on the board.”
“I understand the process by which it was accomplished, and will
endeavour, at some future time, to explain it,” replied Mr. Seymour.(56)
A number of similar tricks followed, all of which depended upon some
algebraical calculation; and the performance was concluded to the
entire satisfaction of all present.
The next exhibition was of a very different character: it consisted in
a variety of optical representations and illusions. The camera obscura
presented a moving picture of the surrounding scene. The phantasmagoria
exhibited a variety of ghastly objects, which alternately receding
from, and approaching the audience, called forth shrieks of terror and
amazement. Amongst the most appalling of these figures, was the
headless horseman of Sleepy Hollow, so inimitably described in the
Sketch Book: it will be remembered that the body of this trooper having
been buried in the church-yard, its ghost was believed to ride forth
every night in quest of its head, and that the rushing speed with which
he passed along the hollow, like a midnight blast, was owing to his
being in a hurry to get back to the church-yard before day-break. This
rapid movement was admirably represented in the phantasmagoria: at
first the figure appeared extremely diminutive, and at a great
distance; but almost immediately its size became gigantic, and it
seemed as if within a few feet of the audience, and then suddenly
vanished. After an instant of utter darkness, the figure was again
visible at a great distance: the schoolmaster, Crane, was also seen
belabouring the starveling ribs of his steed, old Gunpowder, and
quickening his pace towards the very spot where the spectre was
stationed. The whole audience were breathless with horror. Crane
arrived at the bridge, over which the headless figure opposed his
passage. “Mercy upon us!” cried a faint voice from one of the back
seats, “the ghost has found his head, and is carrying it before him on
the pommel of his saddle.”--“Hush, hush!” cried another voice; Crane’s
horse had taken fright; away he dashed through thick and thin; stones
flying and sparks flashing at every bound. Crane’s flimsy garments
fluttered in the air, as he stretched his long lank body away over his
horse’s head, in the eagerness of his flight. The goblin pressed hard
upon him; he was not more than a yard behind him, when he was seen to
take up his head, and with gigantic force to hurl it at the pedagogue;
it encountered his cranium with a tremendous crash; he was tumbled
headlong in the dust; the goblin whisked past like a whirlwind, and the
company were once again in total darkness.
“Upon my word,” exclaimed Mr. Seymour, “this is one of the most
complete illusions I ever witnessed.”
“It is most ingeniously managed,” said the vicar.
“Papa,” cried Tom, “I am quite impatient to learn how so extraordinary
an effect can have been produced. You told me this morning that a
phantasmagoria was nothing more than an improved magic lantern; but how
is it possible for the slides to be so managed as to make the figures
approach and retire from you, and above all, to make them move their
bodies, and throw their arms into different attitudes?”
“In the first place, the figures only _appear_ to approach you, for
they are thrown upon a surface which never changes its place; the whole
is therefore an optical illusion, arising from the fact that we
estimate the distance of an object by its apparent magnitude; when,
therefore, the figure began to diminish in size, the mind instantly
assumed that it was receding from the eye; and the illusion was still
farther heightened by the absence of all other objects[77] by which it
might be compared.”
At this moment Mr. Seymour was interrupted by the appearance of the
performer who announced his intention of submitting another optical
illusion, which, he trusted, would afford equal satisfaction.
“Papa,” cried Tom, “how much do I regret my ignorance of optics. It is
a great disappointment to me that I should witness so many curious
exhibitions, without being able to understand the principles upon which
they depend.”
“I promise you, my dear boy,” replied Mr. Seymour, “that you shall be
instructed in this branch of science during the Christmas vacation.
Enjoy, therefore, the present amusements, and instead of repining at
your ignorance, anticipate the pleasure which you will receive, when
you shall be able to explain them.”
A series of extraordinary effects were now exhibited by means of
concave mirrors.[78] Aërial images were produced, so illusive in their
appearance, that the spectators could not believe in their
immateriality, until they attempted to grasp them. In this manner were
presented flowers, fruit, a human skull, and a dagger; the latter of
which terrified the spectator by the sudden and violent manner in which
its point approached him. With this illusion the amusements concluded;
the light of day was admitted; and the performer stepping forward,
announced the termination of his exhibition in the words of
Shakspeare:--
“Our revels now are ended: these our actors,
As I foretold you, were all spirits, and
Are melted into air, into thin air.”
The villagers, as they poured out of the booth, and mingled with their
companions in the fair, with their wonted propensity for the
marvellous, related, in most exaggerated terms, the wonders they had
encountered in the region of shadows. Nothing is swallowed with more
avidity than tales of mystery, especially if spiced with a few grains
of horror; we cannot, therefore, be surprised at the anxiety so
generally by those who had not yet witnessed the optical performances
to exchange their tickets for such as would secure their admission into
the popular booth.
The next entertainment was a display of ventriloquism, by a pupil of
the celebrated Baron de Mengen.
“Now,” said the vicar, “we are to witness a deception upon the ear,
such as we have just seen practised on the eye.”
Mr. Twaddleton was quite correct in this observation; for,
notwithstanding all the mystery with which the subject has been
invested by credulity, ventriloquism is nothing more than a skilful
modulation of the voice, so as to imitate the gradations of sound, as
they effect the ear in nature under all the circumstances of distance
and obstruction; in short, imposing upon the ear as a perspective
painting does upon the eye.
The crowd which had assembled round the spot was now dispersed by the
appearance of a placard, announcing the suspension of all the
performances for two hours; and informing the populace that the
interval would be devoted to various sports and pastimes in the
adjoining field.
The revellers accordingly hastened to the spot where the several sports
were to take place, and to which they were directed by the sound of a
bugle.
We have stated that a small enclosure had been prepared for the youths
of the village, who were to perform the “_ludus Trojæ_,” or Troy game.
The major and his party had taken possession of the seat, placed for
their accommodation under an awning; and the boys, classically dressed,
and furnished with little arms and weapons, were mustered in _circo_.
Each youth was mounted on a pony; and the troop having rode round the
ring, and surveyed the spectators, the vicar arose from his seat, and,
like the sage Epytides, gave the signal of attack by a crack of the
whip. They now arranged themselves in two battalions, and hurling their
javelins with an air of proud defiance, wheeled and charged, and urged
the sportive war; at the conclusion of the game, the vicar called the
principal youth, or “_princeps juventutis_,” and presented him with a
basket of fruit, which he desired him to divide amongst his companions.
The populace now separated into different groups; one party proceeded
to witness a wrestling-match; another to see the foot-race; a third to
be present at a match of quoits; for the vicar had provided all these
games, in imitation of the ancient _Penthalum_ or _Quinquertium_. While
observing the game of quoits, the vicar displayed much classical
erudition; he said that Homer had represented Ajax and Ulysses as
greatly skilled in the sport; and that Ovid, when he brings in Apollo
and Hyacinth playing at it, had given a very elegant description of the
exercise.[79] Scaliger, he continued, is of opinion, that the throwing
the _discus_, or quoit, is but an improvement of the old sport of
casting the sheep-hook; a conjecture which, the vicar thought, received
some support from a passage in the fourth Iliad.
“Mr. Twaddleton,” cried Mr. Seymour, “you look at every sport with the
eye of a classic or antiquary; I, on the other hand, as you well know,
cautiously examine every action, to discover whether some scientific
principle may not find an illustration. On the present occasion, I am
desirous of directing the attention of the children to the manner in
which yonder skilful player hurls his quoit.”
“I do not exactly comprehend the object they have in view in throwing
the quoits,” said Louisa.
“Do you not perceive that two iron pins, or _hobs_, are driven into the
ground, at the distance of eighteen or twenty yards asunder?” asked her
father.
“To be sure, and I suppose that each player attempts to hit one of
those pins.”
“The players stand at one of the _hobs_, and throw an equal number of
quoits at the other; the nearest of them to the hob are reckoned
towards the game. When they have cast all their quoits, the candidates
go over to the point at which they have been throwing, and when they
have determined the state of the game, they throw their quoits back
again at the hob where they had before stood; and thus continue to act,
on alternate sides, till the game is ended.”
“I now understand it,” cried Louisa.
“You doubtless know, Mr. Twaddleton,” said Mr. Seymour, “that the
casting of stones, darts, and other missiles, was among the amusements
practised in the twelfth century by the young Londoners.”
“_Casting of the bar_,” replied the vicar, “was formerly a part of a
hero’s education; and kings and princes were admired for their agility
and grace in throwing ‘the stone, the bar, and the plummet.’ Henry the
Eighth, even after his accession to the throne, retained the casting of
the bar among his favourite amusements. The sledge-hammer, and, among
rustics, an axle-tree, were also used for the same purpose as the bar
and the stone.”
“The game of quoits is certainly far superior to such pastimes,” said
Mr. Seymour, “on account of its depending less on mere strength, and
more upon superior skill.”
“Did not you say, papa, that its action would illustrate some principle
of science? I have been looking at the quoit, which I perceive is a
circular piece of iron with a hole in the middle, but I cannot discover
in what manner any scientific principle can be connected with its
motion.”
“If you will attentively observe a skilful player, you will perceive
that he steadies the flight of the quoit, by imparting to it a spinning
motion; were he not thus to _rifle_ it, you would find that it would
fly very far from the mark.”
“Upon the same principle, I suppose, that we impart to the ball a
spinning motion at the game of _bilboquet_?”
“Precisely so,” replied her father, who also stated that the body was
made to rotate on its shortest axis, for the reasons before
explained.[80]
The “_penthalum_” having been concluded, the populace retired into
several booths which were appropriated to refreshments. The shows then
re-commenced; those not already described were principally devoted to
the exhibition of wild animals, an entertainment which the vicar
considered as sanctioned by the highest classical authority; although
he, at once, rejected a proposition made by the major, to render the
amusement still more in accordance with ancient custom, by encouraging
a fight between a lion and a tiger.
The hour had now arrived for the grand banquet; and, by the command of
the major, the band paraded the fair, playing the inviting tune of “Oh,
the roast beef of Old England.” The populace hastened to the tent, and
each took his place according to the number upon his ticket.
We shall not detain our readers by an account of the dinner; it will be
sufficient to state, in the language generally used upon such
occasions, that the whole went off with great eclat, and gave universal
satisfaction to the delighted guests.
For the amusement of his military friends, the major had made
arrangements for reviving the ancient game of quintain. It may be
necessary to state that the quintain is a pastime of high antiquity. It
was originally nothing more than the trunk of a tree, or a post set up
for the practice of young beginners in chivalry. Afterwards a staff, or
spear, was fixed in the earth, and a shield, hung upon it, was the mark
to strike at. The dexterity of the performer consisted in smiting the
shield in such a manner as to break the fastening and to bring it to
the ground. In process of time, this diversion was much improved;
instead of the staff and shield, a grotesque wooden figure was
introduced, and it was so contrived to move upon a pivot, that if it
were struck unskilfully, it would turn out and give the performer a
severe blow. The quintain which the major had prepared for the present
occasion consisted of a wooden figure, fixed upon a pivot, and holding
in its outstretched arm a bag of flower. Those who ran at it, and
missed it, were of course laughed at; while those who struck the figure
full with his lance gave the beam a sudden whirl; and unless he was
very nimble, was covered with flower from the bag which was thus
brought into contact with him.
The reader must now be contented to retire from the scene of frolic,
and leave the villagers to the undisturbed enjoyment of their jollity.
The major and his party returned to the house, where they remained
until the hour approached at which the fire-works were to be
discharged, and the festivities of the day concluded. Mr. Seymour
accompanied his children to the stage, erected for the pyrotechnic
exhibition, in order that he might explain the construction of the
fire-works before they witnessed them in action.
“Upon my word, the major has provided most liberally for our
entertainment!” exclaimed Mr. Seymour, as he ascended the steps which
led to the platform. “I declare there is a forest of _rockets_! and
what magnificent _Pin-wheels, Tourbillions, Marroons, Pots des
Aigrettes, Gerbes, Courantins, and Roman Candles_.”
“Are those paper cylinders, with long sticks, rockets?” enquired Tom.
“They are; and if you will attend to me, I will explain the principle
of their construction. They have ever been considered as holding the
first place amongst single fire-works, and deservedly so; not only on
account of the splendid appearance they present when fired by
themselves, but from their extensive application in increasing the
beauty of other exhibitions. The rocket, you perceive, consists of a
strong paper cylinder, which is filled with a suitable composition; it
is crowned with a head, or ‘_pot_,’ as it is technically termed,
charged with various materials, which throws out sparks, stars, and
other decorations, as soon as it takes fire in the air, after the body
of the rocket has been consumed. You may observe that the head is made
to terminate in a point, which greatly facilitates its passage through
the air. The whole is affixed to a straight stick, which, like the
rudder of a ship, makes it turn to that side towards which it is
inclined, and consequently causes the rocket to ascend in a straight
line.”
“But, papa,” observed Louisa, “all the rockets have not straight rods;
see, there is one, with a crooked stick.”
“That is for the purpose of causing the rocket to ascend in the form of
a screw: the first effect of the bent rod will be to make the rocket
incline towards that side to which it is bent; but its centre of
gravity bringing it afterwards into a vertical situation, the result of
these two opposite efforts will be, that the rocket will ascend in a
zig-zag or spiral form. In this case, however, since it displaces a
greater volume of air, and describes a longer line, it will not ascend
so high as if it had been impelled in a straight direction; but I think
you will admit that, on account of the singularity of this motion, it
produces a very agreeable effect.”
“And what causes the rocket to ascend into the air?” asked Tom.
“It is a subject which has engaged the attention of several most
distinguished philosophers; the explanation, however, offered by Dr.
Hutton appears to me to be the most satisfactory. He says, ‘that at the
moment when the powder begins to inflame, its expansion produces a
torrent of elastic fluid, which acts in every direction; that is,
against the air which opposes its escape from the cartridge, and
against the upper part of the rocket; but the resistance of the air is
more considerable than the weight of the rocket, on account of the
extreme rapidity with which the elastic fluid issues through the neck
of the rocket to throw itself downwards, and therefore the rocket
ascends by the excess of the one of these forces over the other.’”
Tom observed, that he thought Dr. Hutton’s explanation very simple and
plausible.
“Dr. Hutton adds,” continued Mr. Seymour, “that the rocket could not
rise unless a sufficient quantity of elastic fluid were produced, and
hence arose the expedient of piercing the rocket with a conical hole,
so as to make the composition burn in conical strata, which, having
much greater surface, produce a much greater quantity of inflamed
matter and elastic fluid. Without such a contrivance, the composition
would inflame only in circular coats of a diameter equal to that of the
rocket; and experience has shown that this is not sufficient for the
purpose. Some years ago a plan was suggested for producing the
propulsion of a vessel in this way; by the force of a steam-engine, a
stream of water was to be shot out of the stern, the impulse of which,
upon the water in the river, was to push forward the boat. It is a
curious fact, that Nature has employed the same expedient for the
motion of some aquatic insects. The larva of the dragon-fly, according
to Adams, swims forward by ejecting water from its tail.”
“What are those fire-works, attached to the lines?” asked Tom.
“Those, my dear, are line-rockets, or _courantines_,[81] and which,
instead of rising into the air, run along the line, to which they are
attached by means of a hollow cylinder. Their motion is to be explained
upon the same principle as that of the sky-rocket; a force is generated
by the escape of elastic matter, and as the rocket is confined to the
rope, it is made to run along the line, instead of ascending into the
air.”
“That is clear enough,” said Louisa; “but see, papa, there is the
figure of a dragon on yonder rope!”
“That is merely a runner for the courantine, which is constructed in
that form, for the purpose of rendering the exhibition more surprising.
I dare say it is filled with various compositions, such as golden rain,
and fires of different colours, which will greatly heighten the effect:
indeed this pyrotechnic amusement may be infinitely varied.”
“Are not those _pin-wheels_, which are elevated above the railing?”
said Tom.
“Yes; they are pin or Catharine wheels, and if you will look at them,
you will perceive that they are of very simple construction; consisting
merely of a long paper tube, filled with inflammable matter, and rolled
round a small circle of wood, so as to form a helix or spiral line.”
“The circle of wood, I suppose, is pierced in the middle for the
purpose of receiving a pin, by which the wheel is attached to the
post,” said Tom.
“Exactly so; and the cause of their revolution is the same as that
which produces the flight of the rocket; the impulse of the air forces
back the ignited part of the wheel, which generates, as it were, a
centrifugal force, while the attachment of the pipe, by preventing its
obeying such a force, may be said to represent the centripetal force,
and thus is the revolution of the wheel continued, until the whole of
the composition is consumed.”
“I think you told us, when speaking of the thaumatrope,[82] it was the
rapidity with which the flame revolved, that occasioned the star-like
appearance which is exhibited by this fire-work,” observed Louisa.
“Undoubtedly, my dear; it cannot be otherwise.”
The party now examined the remaining specimens of the pyrotechnic art.
Mr. Seymour informed them that _marroons_ were nothing more than small
cubical boxes, filled with a composition proper for making them burst,
and thence producing a loud report. He said that they were principally
used in combination with other pieces, or to form a battery, in which,
by different lengths of quick match, they were made to explode at
distinct intervals. Mr. Seymour added, that when the cases were made
cylindrical, instead of being cubical, they exchanged the name of
marroon for that of _saucisson_. Louisa enquired the nature of certain
cylindrical cases she observed on the stage, and was informed that they
were _gerbes_, a species of fire-work, which throws up a luminous and
sparkling jet of fire, and from a supposed resemblance to a
water-spout, has derived the appellation of _gerbe_. Mr. Seymour next
pointed out to Tom a row of _Roman candles_, some of which were fixed
quite perpendicular, others inclining at different angles, so that the
balls might be projected to various distances, and thus produce a more
varied effect. He observed, that, to his taste, it was by far the most
beautiful fire-work ever exhibited.
“I am quite impatient for the exhibition,” cried Tom; “pray, papa, what
is the hour? I think it was determined to let them off at ten o’clock.”
“It is now about eight o’clock; we will, therefore, return to the
house: we shall, however, I suspect, have a curious sight to witness in
our way through the fair; for by this time every booth is illuminated.”
The scene was indescribably beautiful, and might be said to resemble an
enchanted island. The trees were lighted up with an endless profusion
of Chinese lanterns, of various colours, and decorated with fantastic
transparencies, which produced an effect highly graceful and pleasing.
The booths were richly studded with lights; and, near the platform, on
which the villagers were enjoying the country dance, was erected a
pyramid, which blazed with several hundred variegated lamps.
At ten o’clock the commencement of the fire-works was announced by a
shower of rockets. The music ceased; and the dancers, together with the
spectators who had gathered around the platform, hastened to the spot,
whither they were summoned by the sound of trumpets, to witness the
pyrotechnic entertainment which was to crown the festivities of the day.
The little Seymours had been stationed by their father in the most
favourable spot for seeing the exhibition; and highly were the major
and his party delighted with the observations which fell from the
intelligent children on the occasion.
“Observe, Louisa, the rocket as it ascends describes a parabola,”[83]
cried Tom.
“Oh, how extremely beautiful! see, the head has burst, and is
discharging a number of brilliant stars! What is that red spark which
is now falling to the ground, papa?”
“That is the ignited stick of the rocket,” replied his father.
“Take care, Louisa, do not hold your face up,” exclaimed Tom; “for as
the rocket bursts over our heads, the stick may fall upon us.”
“I scarcely expected such an observation from you, Tom,” said his
father, “after the sensible remark you just made respecting the
parabolic path of the rocket; do not you remember, that when a
projectile has reached its greatest altitude, it will descend in a
curve similar to that in which it ascended?”
“True, true,” answered Tom; “I see my error; the stick must, of course,
fall at a considerable distance from us.”
“Look! look!! There goes a _courantine_: how it ran along the rope!”
exclaimed Louisa.
“There goes another!” cried Tom; “and see, it is the dragon; and I
declare there is another running in an opposite direction;--they meet.
Look at the serpents which they discharge from their mouths! Now they
return to the extremity of the line with great violence. What an
explosion!!!”
In like manner were next exhibited two ships, which, being filled with
serpents, were made to pour their broadsides at each other.
“I never saw better courantines in my life,” said Mr. Seymour; “the
major really conducts the exhibition with great skill; it does him
infinite credit as an engineer.”
“See--see, papa! what a large wheel of fire!” exclaimed Tom, “and the
figure of a man in the centre.”
“A classical device of the vicar beyond all doubt. It is Ixion on a
wheel encompassed by hissing serpents,” observed his father.
This conjecture was soon verified, for the vicar with his usual
animation was heard to exclaim--
________“tortosque Ixionis angues,
Immanemque rotam,”
as Virgil has it.
Another shower of rockets succeeded, and the air resounded with the
applause of the populace.
(Bang)--(bang)--(bang)--
“There go the marroons,” said Mr. Seymour.
The band now struck up a march, and the major completely succeeded, by
having arranged different lengths of quick match, in making them
explode at appropriate intervals, so as to mark correctly the
commencement of each bar of the music which was performing.
“Bravo! bravo!” exclaimed Mr. Seymour; “had Handel witnessed such an
effect, he would have engaged the major as a performer in his grand
choruses.”
“See! what a beautiful fountain of fire--there! now a most brilliant
star is ejected!”--
“It is a Roman candle,” said Mr. Seymour.
A variety of different rockets were next exploded; such as “_Towering_
rockets,” so called from their ascending to a greater height than any
others; an effect which is produced by fixing a smaller rocket on the
top of another of superior dimensions; “_Honorary_ rockets,” which,
when they attain their greatest height, communicate fire to other
rockets affixed to them in a transverse direction, and thus produce a
rapid revolution, and represent, on their return to the ground, a
spiral of descending fire; “_Caduceus_ rockets,” so called from their
resemblance, when in action, to the rod borne by Mercury: the effect is
produced by firing two rockets obliquely on the opposite sides of a
rod, so that they shall form in their flight two spiral lines.
It is not necessary to enumerate the series of beautiful exhibitions
which succeeded; we shall only add, that the concluding fire-work was a
Catharine-wheel of imposing splendour. After having repeatedly changed
its device and colours during its revolution, it at length exploded and
threw out a group of serpents; the dense volume of smoke which followed
this explosion, gradually cleared off, and the appropriate motto of
“FAREWELL,” appeared in brilliant letters of red fire.
In a few minutes, the populace began to separate; they had, however,
scarcely arrived at the gate of the park, when a large rocket ascended,
and bursting over their heads, discharged a parachute, to which was
attached a brilliant light; eight similar rockets were successively
fired, and with the same effect. The major had ingeniously contrived,
by varying the angle, to disengage the floating luminaries in the form
of a crown or circle, which threw a blazing light over the whole
country; nor did it fade until sufficient time had been allowed for the
return of the villagers to their respective homes.
Should our readers have fortunately been infected with a portion of
that good humour and hilarity which elated the hearts of the spectators
upon this memorable occasion, we may conclude our labours with the
cheering hope that they will receive a favourable reception at the
tribunal of public opinion.
[Illustration: Floating luminary.]
-----
Footnote 74:
Σκηνὴ
Footnote 75:
See p. 69.
Footnote 76:
See p. 84.
Footnote 77:
It is to this latter circumstance that the Panorama is principally
indebted for its magical effects.
Footnote 78:
Sir David Brewster has enumerated various extraordinary illusions,
which may be thus produced, in his Work on Natural Magic.
Footnote 79:
Ovid’s Metamorphoses, 10.
Footnote 80:
Page 138.
Footnote 81:
From the French term _courant_, signifying running.
Footnote 82:
See page 344.
Footnote 83:
A scientific critic has offered the following just remark upon this
passage. “The rocket ascends by a constantly acting force, not by a
momentary impulse, as though it were shot from a gun. Supposing the
force arising from combustion to be proportionate to the weight of
the rocket, as long as the force continues to be generated, the
rocket must move in a straight line; after which, having only its own
momentum to oppose its gravitation, it will proceed in a parabolic
curve.”
------------------------------------------------------------------------
ADDITIONAL NOTES;
ADDRESSED MORE ESPECIALLY TO
PARENTS AND PRECEPTORS,
OR TO
THOSE ADVANCED IN SCIENCE.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTENTS OF THE NOTES.
_Note_ _Page_
1. 409. Horologe of Flora.
2. 410. Gravity and centrifugal force.
3. 411. Velocity of light.
4. 412. Velocity of falling bodies.
5. 412. Hydromancy.
6. 414. Coins and medals.
7. 421. Why bodies revolve on the shorter axis.
-- 421. Vis inertiæ.
8. 422. Mechanical powers.
9. 423. Centre of gravity.
10. 423. The Indian blow-pipe.
11. 425. Springs.
12. 427. Elastic chairs and beds.
13. 428. Duck and drake.
14. 428. Vegetable elasticity.
15. 428. A simple orrery.
16. 429. Conic sections.
17. 429. Earthquake of Lisbon.
18. 429. Geology applied to agriculture.
19. 430. Buckland’s researches.
20. 436. The rifle.
21. 438. Centre of percussion.
22. 438. Spinning of the top.
23. 439. The mechanical powers.
24. 446. The cycloid.
25. 447. Billiards.
26. 448. Collision of bodies.
27. 450. Druidical remains.
28. 456. Animal suction.
29. 459. Accidental discoveries.
30. 461. Weight of the superincumbent ocean.
31. 462. _Pecunia_; its derivation.
32. 462. Cause of iridescence.
33. 463. Vegetable barometers.
34. 463. St. Swithin.
35. 464. The whale.
36. 465. Progressive motion in fishes.
37. 466. Flight of birds.
38. 466. Flight of insects.
39. 466. Obliquity of the wings of birds.
40. 467. A mechanical proposition.
41. 467. Kite messengers.
42. 467. Wind.
43. 470. Ancient archery.
44. 472. Sound conveyed by solids.
45. 473. Expressive music.
46. 473. Imaginary forms.
47. 474. Fairy rings.
48. 475. Resonance.
49. 477. Jew’s harp.
50. 478. Verbal telegraph.
51. 479. Electrical telegraph.
52. 479. Carrier pigeons.
53. 481. Origin of popular ceremonies.
54. 482. Chess.
55. 483. Arithmetical trick.
56. 484. A problem in algebra.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
ADDITIONAL NOTES
REFERRED TO BY FIGURES IN THE TEXT.
---------------------
Note 1, p. 4.--THE HOROLOGE OF FLORA.
THE HOROLOGE OF FLORA is alluded to by Pliny with his usual felicity of
thought and expression. “Dedi tibi herbas horarum indices; et ut ne
sole quidem oculos tuos a terra avoces, heliotropium ac lupinum
circumaguntur cum illo. Cur etiam altius spectas, ipsumque cœlum
scrutatis? Habes ante pedes tuos ecce Vergilias.”--_Hist. Nat._ lib.
xviii. c. 27.
Linnæus enumerates forty-six flowers which possess this kind of
sensibility. The following are a few of them, with their respective
hours of rising and setting, as the Swedish naturalist terms them. He
divides them into _meteoric_ flowers, which less accurately observe the
hour of unfolding, but are expanded sooner or later, according to the
cloudiness, moisture, or pressure of the atmosphere.
2nd. _Tropical_ flowers, which open in the morning, and close before
evening every day; but the hour of the expanding becomes earlier or
later, as the length of the day increases or decreases.
3rd. _Equinoctial flowers_, which serve for the construction of Flora’s
dial, since they open at a certain and exact hour of the day, and for
the most part close at another determinate hour: for instance, the
_Leontodon Taraxacum_, dandelion, opens at 5-6, closes at 8-9;
_Hieracium Pilosella_, mouse-ear hawkweed, opens at 8, closes at 2;
_Tragopogon pratensis_, yellow goat’s-beard, opens at sunrise, and
shuts at noon with such regularity, that the husbandman who adopts it
as the signal of dinner-time need not fear to have his pudding too much
or too little boiled; _Sonchus lævis_, smooth sow-thistle, opens at 5,
closes at 11-12; _Lactuca sativa_, cultivated lettuce, opens at 7,
closes at 10; _Tragopogon luteus_, yellow goat’s-beard, opens at 3-5,
closes at 9-10; _Lapsana_, nipplewort, opens at 5-6, closes at 10-11;
_Nymphæaalba_, white water-lily, opens at 7, closes at 5; _Papaver
nudicaule_, naked poppy, opens at 5, closes at 7; _Hemerocallis fulva_,
tawny day-lily, opens at 5, closes at 7-8; _Convolvulus_, opens at 5-6;
_Malva_, mallow, opens at 9-10, closes at l; _Arenaria purpurea_,
purple sandwort, opens at 9-10, closes at 2-3; _Anagallis_, pimpernel,
opens at 7-8; _Portulaca hortensis_, garden purslain, opens at 9-10,
closes at 11-12; _Dianthus prolifer_, proliferous pink, opens at 8,
closes at 1; _Cichoreum_, succory, opens at 4-5; _Hypocharis_, opens at
6-7, closes at 4-5; _Crepis_, opens at 4-5, closes at 10-11; _Picris_,
opens at 4-5, closes at 12; _Calendula Africana_, opens at 7, closes at
3-4, &c.
“Thus in each flower and simple bell,
That in our path betrodden lie,
Are sweet remembrancers who tell
How fast the winged moments fly.”
In like manner may be formed a _calendar_ of Flora: thus, if we
consider the time of putting forth leaves, the _honeysuckle_ protrudes
them in the month of January; the _gooseberry_, _currant_ and _elder_,
in the end of February, or beginning of April; the _oak_ and _ash_ in
the beginning, or towards the middle of May, &c.
Note 2, p. 32.--GRAVITY AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
It may, perhaps, be asked how this decrease of weight could have been
ascertained; since, if the body under examination decreased in weight,
the weight which was opposed to it in the opposite scale must also have
diminished in the same proportion; for instance, that if the lump of
lead lost two pounds, the body which served to balance it must also
have lost the same weight, and therefore that the different force of
gravity could not be detected by such means. It is undoubtedly true
that the experiment in question could not have been performed with an
ordinary pair of scales, but by using a spiral spring it was easy to
compare the force of the lead’s gravity at the surface of the earth,
and at four miles high, by the relative degree of compression which it
sustained in those different situations. We may take this opportunity
of observing, that as the force of gravity varies directly as the mass,
or quantity of matter, a body weighing a pound on our earth would, if
transferred to the sun, weigh 27-3/4 pounds; if to Jupiter, 3-1/10
pounds; if to Saturn, 1-1/9; but, if to the moon, more than three
ounces.
With respect to the effect of the centrifugal force as alluded to in
the text, it may be here observed, that it has been found by
calculation that, at the equator, the diminution of gravity occasioned
by the centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the earth,
amounts to about the 289th part. But since this number is the square of
17, it follows, that, if our globe turned more than 17 times faster
about her axis, or performed the diurnal revolution within the space of
84 minutes, the centrifugal force would predominate over the powers of
gravitation, and all the fluid and loose matters would, near the
equinoctial boundary, have been projected from the surface. On such a
supposition the waters of the ocean must have been drained off, and an
impassable zone of sterility interposed between the opposite
hemispheres. By a similar calculation, combined with that decreasing
force of gravity at great distances from the centre, it may be
inferred, that the altitude of our atmosphere could never exceed 26,000
miles. Beyond this limit, the equatorial portion of air would have been
shot into indefinite space. If it were possible to fire off a cannon
ball with a velocity of five miles in a second, and the resistance of
the air could be taken away, it would for ever wheel round the earth,
instead of falling upon it; and supposing the velocity to reach the
rate of seven miles in a second, the ball would fly off from the earth,
and be never heard of more.
Note 3, p. 35.--VELOCITY OF LIGHT.
It is scarcely possible so to strain the imagination as to conceive the
velocity with which light travels. “What mere assertion will make any
man believe,” asks Sir W. Herschel, “that in one second of time, in one
beat of the pendulum of a clock, a ray of light travels over 192,000
miles, and would therefore perform the tour of the world in about the
same time that it requires to wink with our eyelids, and in much less
than a swift runner occupies in taking a single stride?” Were a cannon
ball shot directly towards the sun, and it were to maintain its full
speed, it would be twenty years in reaching it, and yet light travels
through this space in seven or eight minutes.
Note 4, p. 36.--VELOCITY OF FALLING BODIES.
In order to perform this experiment with the highest degree of
accuracy, a body of considerable specific gravity should be selected,
such as lead or iron; for a common stone experiences a considerable
retardation in falling, from the action of the air. Where the arrival
of the body at the bottom of the cavern to be measured cannot be seen,
we must make allowance in our calculation for the known velocity of
sound; thus, suppose a body were ascertained to fall in five seconds.
As a heavy body near the earth’s surface falls about 16-1/12 feet in
one second of time, or for this purpose 16 feet will be sufficiently
exact; and as sound travels at the rate of 1142 feet per second,
multiply together 1142, 16, and 5, which will give 91360, and to four
times this product, or 365440, add the square of 1142, which is
1304164, and the sum will be 1669604; then if from the square root of
the last number = 1292 the number 1142 be subtracted, the remainder 150
divided by 32 will give 4.69 for the number of seconds which elapsed
during the fall of the body; if this remainder be subtracted from 5,
the number of seconds during which the body was falling and the sound
returning, we shall have 0.31 for the time which the sound alone
employed before it reached the ear; and this number multiplied by 1142,
will give for product 354 feet equal the depth of the well. This rule,
which, it must be allowed, is rather complex, is founded on the
property of falling bodies, which are accelerated in the ratio of the
times, so that the spaces passed over increase in the square of the
times.
The following is a more simple but less accurate rule. Multiply 1142 by
5, which gives 5710; then multiply also 16 by 5, which gives 80, to
which add 1142, this gives 1222, by which sum divide the first product
5710, and the quotient 4.68 will be the time of descent, nearly the
same as before. This taken from 5, leaves 0.32 for the time of the
ascent; which, multiplied by 1142, gives 365 for the depth, differing
but little from the former more exact number.
Note 5, p. 38.--HYDROMANCY.
This superstition still prevails in many parts of England, especially
in Cornwall, where the peasants on certain days of the year assemble at
the springs, or holy wells, and, in the manner stated in the text,
proceed to settle such doubts and enquiries as will not let the idle
and anxious rest. Here, therefore, they come, and, instead of allaying,
deservedly feed their uneasiness; the supposed responses serving
equally to increase the gloom of the low-spirited, the suspicions of
the jealous, and the passion of the enamoured. The superstition,
however, is sanctioned by the highest antiquity. The Castalian
fountain, and many others among the Grecians, were supposed to be of a
prophetic nature. By dipping a fair mirror into a well, the Patræans of
Greece received, as they supposed, some notice of ensuing sickness or
health from the various figures portrayed upon the surface. In Laconia
they cast into a pool, sacred to Juno, cakes of bread-corn; if they
sank, good was portended; if they swam, something dreadful was to
ensue. Sometimes they threw three stones into the water, and formed
their conclusions from the several turns they made in sinking. “From
the several waves and eddies which the sea, river, or other water
exhibited,” says Dr. Borlase, “when put into agitation after a ritual
manner, the ancients pretended to foretell with great certainty the
event of battles; a way of divining recorded by Plutarch in his life of
Cæsar, and still usual among the vulgar in Cornwall; who go to some
noted well, at particular times of the year, and there observe the
bubbles that rise, and the aptness of the water to be troubled, or to
remain pure, on their throwing in pins or pebbles, and thence
conjecture what shall or shall not befall them. The Druids also, as we
have great reason to think, pretended to predict future events, not
only from holy wells and running streams, but from the rain and snow
water, which, when settled, and afterwards stirred, either by oak-leaf
or branch, or magic wand, might exhibit appearances of great
information to the quick-sighted Druid, or seem so to do to the
credulous enquirer, when the priest was at full liberty to represent
the appearances as he thought most for his purpose.”--BORLASE’S
_Antiquities of Cornwall_, p. 140.
In the islands of Scilly there is, or was some years since, a custom of
propitiating fortune by certain ceremonies of this kind. An old
islander regretted to a friend of the author the want of care with
which such ceremonies had of late been conducted, and observed, as the
consequence, that “_they had no luck at all in the islands; not a wreck
had taken place for many months_.”
Note 6, p. 42.--COINS AND MEDALS.
The Latin word _moneta_, for money, is probably more modern than
_pecunia_, and is said to be derived from _moneo_, to advise or mark,
that is, to show by some mark the weight and fineness of the metal of
which coins were composed. Thus, according to Isidorus, “Moneta ita
appellatur, quia monet nè qua fraus in pondere vel metallo fiat.” The
origin of money seems to have been coeval with the first regulations of
civil society, or, at least, it is too remote to be traced by any
authentic history. Barter, that is the exchange of one commodity for
another, was the ordinary mode of traffic in the earlier periods of the
world; a practice which must soon have been discovered extremely
inconvenient, and inadequate to the purposes of commerce; and hence the
invention of a common measure, or standard, according to which all
other things should be estimated. Writers very generally agree in
believing that the metals were first used for such a purpose, as being
almost the only substances whose goodness, and as it were integrity,
were not injured by partition; and which admitted of being melted, and
returned again into a mass of any size or weight. At first, it is
probable that each person cut his metal into pieces of different sizes
and forms, according to the quantity to be given for any merchandize,
or according to the demand of the seller, or the quantity stipulated
between them; to this end they went to market, laden with metal, in
proportion to the purchase to be made, and furnished with instruments
for apportioning it, and with scales for dealing it out, according as
occasion required. By degrees it must have been found commodious to
have pieces ready weighed; and Mr. Pinkerton observes, that such were
prepared without any stated form or impression, but merely regulated to
a certain weight; for _weight_ was the grand standard of ancient
coinage, so that all large sums were paid in weight, even down to the
Saxon period of England. As in Greece the first estimation of money was
merely by weight, so was it in Rome. Silver was the metal first used in
Grecian coinage, but copper in the Roman; the former metal having been
long known to the Romans. The first valuation of Roman money was by the
_libra gravis æris_, or pound of heavy brass: and when by the progress
of their conquests they obtained silver and gold, these were regulated
in the same manner. Let us proceed one step farther in the history of
coins; it is easy to imagine that the growing commerce of money being
disturbed with frauds, both in the weight and the material, the
interposition of public authority became necessary, and that hence
arose the first stamps or impressions of money; to which succeeded the
names of the moneyers, and at length the effigy of the prince, the
date, legend, and other precautions to prevent the alteration of the
species; and thus were coins completed. Gold and silver, in their pure
or unmixed state, are too flexible to make coins sufficiently firm for
general use; and hence the necessity of mixing with them a certain
proportion of some harder metal, and this mixture is called the
_alloy_. The quality of this alloy has been always considered of great
importance with respect to the durability of coins. The most common
metal used for this purpose is copper; and sometimes, for gold, a
mixture of silver and copper. In all well-regulated governments, there
has been a standard fixed by law; that is, a certain proportion between
the quantity of pure metal and its alloy. In England the standard for
gold is 11/12, that is eleven parts of pure metal, and one part of
alloy. The standard for silver is 37/40, a proportion which is said to
have been fixed in the reign of Richard I. by certain persons from the
eastern parts of Germany, called _Easterlings_; and hence the word
_Sterling_, which was afterwards the name given to the silver penny,
and which is now applied to all lawful money of Great Britain.
_Penny_ is derived by Camden from _pecunia_, but others suppose that
the word is formed from _pendo_ to weigh, and the word has been
sometimes written, according to this origin, _pending_. The ancient
English penny, or penig, or pening, was the first silver coin struck in
England, and the only one current amongst our Saxon ancestors. Until
the time of Edward I. the penny was struck with a cross so deeply
indented in it that it might be easily broken, and parted into two
pieces, thence called _half-pennies_, or into four, called
_four-things_, or _farthings_; but that prince coined it without
indenture; in lieu of which he first struck round half-pence and
farthings.
By the term MEDAL, we understand a piece of metal, in the form of a
coin, destined to preserve to posterity the portrait of some great man,
or the memory of some illustrious action. They are distinguished by
their different sizes; those of the larger size, or volume, are called
_medallions_. _Medallets_ is a name given by Pinkerton to those small
pieces, or _missilia_, scattered among the people on solemn occasions;
those struck for the slaves in the Saturnalia, private counters for
gaming, tickets for baths and feasts, tokens in copper and lead, and
the like. Medallions were certainly never intended to become current
coin, as some medals probably were; they were struck purely to serve as
public monuments, or to be presented by the emperor to his friends, and
by the mint-makers to the emperor, as specimens of fine workmanship.
They were struck upon the commencement of the reign of a new emperor,
and other solemn occasions; and frequently, especially the Greek
medallions, as monuments of gratitude, or of flattery. Sometimes they
were trial or pattern pieces, _testimonia probatæ monetæ_; and such
abound after the reign of Maximilian, with the “Tres monetæ” on the
reverse. It is observed, that all the Roman pieces in gold, exceeding
the _denarius aureus_; all in silver, superior to the _denarius_; and
all in brass, superior to the _sestertius_, or what the medallist terms
large brass, are comprehended under the description of medallions. Mr.
Pinkerton, however, thinks that the gold medallions, weighing two,
three, or four aurei only, passed in currency according to their size.
Medallions from the time of Julius to that of Adrian, are very
uncommon, and of very high price; from Adrian to the close of the
western empire they are, generally speaking, less rare. The types of
the Roman medallions are often repeated upon common coin; hence they
appear of less importance than the Greek; impressions of which are
frequently most uncommon, and nowhere else to be found. Many Roman
medallions have S.C., as being struck by order of the senate; those
without these initials, were struck by order of the emperor. Of
Augustus, a noble medallion was found in Herculaneum. There are
medallions of Augustus and Tiberius, struck in Spain; and one of Livia,
at Patræ in Achaia. One in brass, of Antony and Cleopatra; reverse, two
figures in a car, drawn by sea-horses. Of Tiberius there are many; and
also of Claudius, Agrippina, Nero, Galba, Vespasian, and Domitian, &c.
The Greek medallions of Roman emperors are far more numerous than the
Roman; with a few exceptions, however, all medallions are rare and of
princely purchase. Even in the richest cabinet, twenty or thirty
specimens are esteemed a respectable proportion.
The parts of a medal are the two sides, one whereof is called the
_face_, _head_, or obverse; the other the _reverse_. On each side is
the _area_, or _field_; the _rim_, or _border_; and the _exergum_,
which is beneath the ground, whereon the figures represented are
placed. On the two sides are distinguished the _type_, and the
_inscription_, or _legend_. The type, or device, is the figure
represented; the legend is the writing, especially that around the
medal; though in the Greek medals the inscription is frequently on the
area. What we find in the exergum is, generally, no more than some
initial letters, whose meaning we are usually unacquainted with;
though, sometimes, they contain words that may be accounted an
inscription.
The exergum sometimes contains the date of the coin, expressing in what
consulship of the emperor it was struck, as Cos. III. upon the reverse
of an Antoninus. Sometimes it signifies the place where it was struck,
and to which the coin properly belonged, as S. M. AL. for _Signata
Moneta Alexandriœ_, upon the reverse of a Licinius. Sometimes the name
of a province, the reduction of which the medal is designed to
celebrate; as Judæa on the reverse of a Vespasian. Medals usually have
their figures in higher relief than coins.
We have stated that medals are of great importance to the study of
history. They, indeed, furnish the principal proof of historic truth,
as their evidence reaches to the most remote ages, as well as to the
most remote countries. Vaillant, in his learned history of the Syrian
kings, printed at Paris, 1681, first fixed the dates, and arranged the
order of events in ancient historians, by means of these infallible
vouchers. Thus he was enabled to ascertain the chronology and progress
of events of three of the most important kingdoms of the ancient world;
viz. those of Egypt, of Syria, and of Parthia. The study of the Roman
medals has, in this respect, an advantage over that of Greek coins,
since they serve not only to illustrate the chronology of reigns, but
to aid us in the interpretation of particular events. To this purpose,
besides the portrait of the prince, and date of his consulship, or of
his tribunitian power, we have a representation, or poetical symbol, of
some grand event on the reverse. In a word, the series of Roman coins
presents the very best suite of documents relating to the Roman
History. In addition to its historical importance, the medal is
frequently a useful guide to geography, natural history, architecture,
ancient monuments, busts, statues, ceremonies, and the like. See
Addison’s _Dialogues on the Usefulness of Ancient Medals_. On this
subject, also, Pinkerton, in his valuable work on medals, has some
interesting remarks; he says that, to a man of poetical imagination,
the Roman coins must prove an ample source of intellectual delight, by
means of the fine personifications and symbols which are to be found on
their reverse. _Happiness_ has sometimes the caduceus, or wand of
Mercury, which Cicero tells us was thought to procure the gratification
of every wish. In a gold coin of Severus, she has heads of poppy to
express that our prime bliss lies in oblivion of misfortune. _Hope_ is
represented as a sprightly damsel, walking quickly and looking
straightforward. With her left hand she holds up her garments, that
they may not hinder the rapidity of her pace; while, in her right hand,
she holds forth the bud of a flower, an emblem infinitely more
beautiful than the trite one of an anchor, which is the symbol of
Patience, not of Hope. _Abundance_ is imaged as a sedate matron, with a
cornucopiæ in her hands, of which she scatters the fruits over the
ground: but does not hold it up, and keep its contents to herself, as
many poets and painters have represented her. _Security_ stands leaning
on a pillar, indicative of her being free from all designs and
pursuits; and the posture itself corresponds to her name.
Coins also present us with countries and rivers admirably personified.
On the reverse of a colonial coin, rude in execution, of Augustus and
Agrippa, inscribed IMP. and DIVI. F., the conquest of Egypt is
represented by the apposite metaphor of the crocodile, an animal almost
peculiar to that country, and at that period esteemed altogether so,
which is chained to a palm tree, at once a native of the country, and
symbolic of victory. Moreover, a cabinet of medals, of which Rubens is
said to have possessed a very magnificent one, may be considered as
forming the classic erudition of a painter. We may add, that almost all
the uses which connect the science of medals with painting, render it
also subservient to the art of the sculptor, who cannot less than
profit by the study of the Greek coins in particular. The connexion of
the study of ancient coins with architecture, consists in the views of
many of the ancient edifices, which are found in perfect preservation
on medals. Froelich observes, that the coins of Tarsus are very
remarkable for a kind of perspective in the figures. On others are
found triumphal arches, temples, fountains, aqueducts, amphitheatres,
circuses, palaces, columns, obelisks, baths, sea-ports, pharoses, and
the like.
The study of medals affords such a variety of amusement and of
instruction, that we may naturally suppose it to be nearly as ancient
as medals themselves; and yet ancient writers do not furnish us with a
single hint of collections of this kind. In the days of Greece, a
collection of such coins as then existed would not be regarded as an
acquisition of any great value, because it must have consisted only of
those that were struck by the innumerable little states which then used
the Greek characters and language, and of course it would be considered
as a kind of domestic coinage, precluded from extension by the narrow
limits of the intercourse that subsisted between different provinces
and countries. As soon as any communication was opened between the
Romans and the Greeks, the Grecian coins were imitated by the Roman
workmen, and preserved in the cabinets of their senators among the
choicest treasures. In a more advanced period of the Roman empire,
individuals must have formed collections of Roman coins; for we find
that a complete series of silver was lately found in our island,
containing inclusively all the emperors down to Carausius. From the
decline of the Roman empire, most branches of science were enveloped in
darkness, till the revival of letters towards the end of the fifteenth
century. When literature began to be cultivated in Italy, the study of
medals, connected with that of ancient erudition, began to engage
attention. Accordingly Petrarch, who in modern times was amongst the
first persons in Europe that aspired to the celebrity of learning and
genius, was likewise the first to revive the study of medals. This
eminent man, having been desired by the Emperor Charles V. to compose a
book that should contain a history of the coins of illustrious men, and
to place him in the list, is said to have returned for answer, that he
would comply with his desire, whenever the Emperor’s future life and
actions deserved it. Availing himself of this circumstance, he sent
that monarch a collection of gold and silver coins of celebrated men.
“Behold!” said he, “to what men you have succeeded! Behold whom you
should imitate and admire! to whose very form and image you should
compose your talents! The invaluable present I should have given to no
one but yourself; it was due to you alone. I can only know or describe
the deeds of these great men: your supreme office enables you to
imitate them.” In the next age, Alphonso, king of Arragon, caused all
the ancient coins that could be discovered throughout the provinces of
Italy to be collected, which he placed in an ivory cabinet, and always
carried about with him, that he might be excited to great actions by
the presence, as it were, of so many illustrious men in their images.
To those who are desirous of gaining information upon this interesting
branch of antiquarian research, we strongly recommend Mr. Pinkerton’s
_Essay on Medals_.
Having been led to offer these observations on ancient medals, we may,
perhaps, be allowed to make one other digression on a subject naturally
suggested by a visit to the vicarage of our reverend antiquary. The
reader has been told, that “around his house he had arranged several
precious relics, amongst which was an ancient cross, raised upon a
platform on three steps.”
There is much obscurity with regard to the origin and uses of these
stone crosses. We are, however, not disposed to enter into a discussion
of such difficulty; but the reader may be gratified in having presented
to him, in one view, a collection of such crosses as still exist in
various parts of Cornwall.
[Illustration: Two types of stone crosses.]
[Illustration: Four more types of stone crosses.]
Note 7, p. 49.--BODIES REVOLVE ON THE SHORTER AXIS.
Upon this subject, the reader is requested to turn to page 138, where
it is stated that a body will permanently rotate only on its shortest
axis. The philosophy of the fact is simply this--while a body revolves
on its axis, the component particles of its mass move in circles, the
centres of which are placed in the axis; a centrifugal force therefore
is generated, which is resisted by the cohesion of the parts of the
mass, and this tendency of each particle to fly off is expended in
exciting a pressure upon the axis; and it is this strain which produces
the effect in question, the axis of no pressure being alone the
permanent axis.
VIS INERTIÆ, p. 59.--The criticism of the vicar upon this subject is
scientifically judicious; but the literary reader who has justly
appreciated his character, may be inclined to ask how it could have
happened that he should have overlooked the classical authority by
which the expression is countenanced; we cannot answer the question,
but we will supply the deficiency. The connecting two ideas, which at
first sight appear opposed to each other, constituted a figure of
speech much used both by the Greeks and Romans. Euripides delighted in
it, which was a sufficient reason for Aristophanes to satirise it.
Horace has given us several examples of it, as “_Insaniens
sapientia_”--“_Strenua inertia_.”
Note 8, p. 62.--THE MECHANICAL POWERS.
Mechanical powers are simple arrangements by which we gain power at the
expense of time; thus, if a certain weight can be raised to a certain
height by unassisted strength, and the same thing is afterwards done
with one tenth part of the exertion, through the use of a mechanic
power, it will be found to occupy ten times as much time. In many
cases, however, loss of time is not to be put in competition with the
ability to do a thing; and since the advantages which the mechanical
powers afford to man, by enabling him to perform feats which, without
their assistance, would have been for ever beyond his reach, are
incalculably great, the waste of time is overlooked, and is much more
than balanced in the general result. It is true, that if there are
several small weights, manageable by human strength, to be raised to a
certain height, it may be full as convenient to elevate them one by
one, as to take the advantage of the mechanical powers in raising them
all at once; because the same time will be necessary in both cases: but
suppose we should have an enormous block of stone, or a great tree, to
raise; bodies of this description cannot be separated into parts
proportionable to the human strength without immense labour, nor,
perhaps, without rendering them unfit for those purposes to which they
are to be applied; hence then the great importance of the mechanical
powers, by the use of which a man is able to manage with ease a weight
many times greater than himself.
To understand the principle of a mechanical power, we must revert to
the doctrine of momentum. It will be remembered, that a small ball,
weighing only two pounds, and moving at the rate of 500 feet in a
second, will produce as much effect as a cannon ball of ten pounds in
weight, provided it only moved at the rate of 100 feet in the same
time; in like manner a ball weighing one pound may be made to balance
another of five pounds, by placing it five times farther from the
centre of motion; for in such a case, for every inch of space through
which the large ball passes, the small one will traverse five inches,
and will thus generate five times the momentum. This may be rendered
still more evident by turning to page 161, and note thereon, where the
_see-saw_ is described, which, in fact, is a true mechanical power. It
will be at once evident, from an inspection of the figure, that the
lesser boy will pass over a much greater space, in equal time, than the
greater boy, and thus generate more momentum, which compensates for his
defect in weight, and renders him a balance for his heavier
companion.--_See note 23._
Note 9, p. 76.--CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Those who have been in the habit of inspecting the works of the
statuary, must frequently have detected the art which he has displayed
in imparting stability to his figures, by lowering their centre of
gravity. The bronze figure of Achilles, in Hyde Park, affords a very
striking illustration of such ingenuity; it is evident, from the
position and height of the figure, that, had not a mass of matter been
added to its base, its stability would have been extremely precarious,
since the slightest movement might have thrown its line of direction
beyond the base; but the addition at the base renders such an accident
impossible, by lowering its centre of gravity. Other examples of
similar contrivance are presented in several celebrated statues,
wherein stability is ensured by the judicious distribution of the
draperies. In the celebrated statue of Peter at St. Petersburgh, the
equilibrium of the mass is thus sustained by the introduction of a
serpent twining upwards to his horse’s tail. The effect, however, is so
unfortunate as to have given occasion for a wit to remark, “It is a
very fine horse, but what a pity that he should have worms!” Nor have
our celebrated painters overlooked a principle, the neglect of which
would have withheld from the most symmetrical figures the charms of
beautiful proportion.
Note 10, p. 93.--THE INDIAN BLOW-PIPE.
“When a native of Macoushi goes in quest of feathered game, or other
birds, he seldom carries his bow and arrows. It is the _blow-pipe_ he
then uses. This extraordinary tube of death is, perhaps, one of the
greatest natural curiosities in Guiana. It is not found in the country
of Macoushi. Those Indians tell you that it grows to the south-west of
them, in the wilds which extend betwixt them and the Rio Negro. The
reed must grow to an amazing length, as the part the Indians use is
from ten to eleven feet long, and no tapering can be perceived in it,
one end being as thick as the other. It is of a bright yellow colour,
perfectly smooth both inside and out. It grows hollow; nor is there the
least appearance of a knot or joint throughout the whole extent. The
natives call it _ourah_. This, of itself, is too slender to answer the
end of a blow-pipe; but there is a species of palma, larger and
stronger, and common in Guiana, and this the Indians make use of as a
case, in which they put the _ourah_. It is brown, susceptible of a fine
polish, and appears as if it had joints five or six inches from each
other. It is called _samourah_, and the pulp inside is easily
extracted, by steeping it for a few days in water. Thus the ourah and
samourah, one within the other, form the blow-pipe of Guiana. The end
which is applied to the mouth is tied round with a small silk-grass
cord, to prevent its splitting; and the other end, which is apt to
strike against the ground, is secured by the seed of the acuero fruit,
cut horizontally through the middle, with a hole made in the end,
through which is put the extremity of the blow-pipe. It is fastened on
with string on the outside, and the inside is filled up with wild
bees-wax. The arrow is from nine to ten inches long. It is made out of
the leaf of a species of palm-tree, called _coucourite_, hard and
brittle, and pointed as sharp as a needle. About an inch of the pointed
end is poisoned with the _wourali_. The other end is burnt, to make it
still harder, and wild cotton is put round it for about an inch and a
half. It requires considerable practice to put on this cotton well. It
must just be large enough to fit the hollow of the tube, and taper off
to nothing downwards. They tie it on with a thread of the silk-grass to
prevent its slipping off the arrow.”
“The Indians have shown ingenuity in making a quiver to hold the
arrows. It will contain from five to six hundred...
“...With a quiver of poisoned arrows slung over his shoulder, and with
his blow-pipe in his hand, in the same position as a soldier carries
his musket, see the Macoushi Indian advancing towards the forest in
quest of powises, maroudis, waracabas, and other feathered game.
“These generally sit high up in the tall and tufted trees, but still
are not out of the Indian’s reach; for this blow-pipe, at its greatest
elevation, will send an arrow 300 feet. Silent as midnight he steals
under them, and so cautiously does he tread the ground, that the fallen
leaves rustle not beneath his feet. His ears are open to the least
sound, while his eye, keen as that of the lynx, is employed in finding
out the game in the thickest shade. Often he imitates their cry, and
decoys them from tree to tree, till they are within range of his tube.
Then, taking a poisoned arrow from his quiver, he puts it in the
blow-pipe, and collects his breath for the fatal puff. About two feet
from the end through which he blows, there are fastened two teeth of
the acouri, and these serve him for a sight. Silent and swift the arrow
flies, and seldom fails to pierce the object at which it is sent.
Sometimes the wounded bird remains in the same tree where it was shot,
and in three minutes falls down at the Indian’s feet. Should he take
wing, his flight is of short duration; and the Indian, following the
direction he has gone, is sure to find him dead. It is natural to
imagine that, when a slight wound only is inflicted, the game will make
its escape. Far otherwise; the wourali poison almost instantaneously
mixes with blood or water, so that if you wet your finger, and dash it
along the poisoned arrow in the quickest manner possible, you are sure
to carry off some of the poison. Though three minutes generally elapse
before the convulsions come on in the wounded bird, still a stupor
evidently takes place sooner, and this stupor manifests itself by an
apparent unwillingness in the bird to move.” ...
“The Indian, on his return home, carefully suspends his blow-pipe from
the top of his spiral roof; seldom placing it in an oblique position,
lest it should receive a cast.”--WATERTON’S _Wanderings in South
America_, p. 58.
Note 11, p. 96.--PENDULUM AND SPRING.
A clock is nothing more than a piece of machinery to maintain the
action of the pendulum, and at the same time to count and register the
number of its oscillations; and by that peculiar property, that one
vibration commences exactly where the last terminates, no part of time
is lost or gained in the juxtaposition of the units so counted.
If some extraneous force were not applied, in a clock or watch, to
maintain or perpetuate the natural vibrations of a pendulum, or
oscillations of a balance, they would soon come to rest, by reason of
friction in the mechanism, and the resistance opposed by the air to the
parts in motion. This force, in the larger clocks, is usually a
suspended weight; but, in the portable clock and watch, it is a spring
coiled in a metallic box, that actuates the wheel-work by gradually
unbending itself.
In the former of these cases, the weight is suspended by a cord or
chain that is coiled round a cylinder when wound up, which cylinder
being of uniform diameter throughout its length, is acted on by the
cord, when fast at the interior end, by a similar force in every
situation; and, therefore, imparts through the train, connected with
its great wheel, invariable impulses to the escapement-wheel, at every
vibration of the pendulum; which pendulum receives therefrom such a
slight push, as is just sufficient to restore the momentum which it
loses from friction and the air’s resistance, and thus the uniform
motion of the pendulum is perpetuated. But when a spring is substituted
for a weight, it is clear that its agency cannot be uniform, since, as
the reader will learn by turning to page 101, it is a general law that
elastic bodies, in the recovery of their form, after the removal of the
compressing force, exert a greater power at first than at last, so that
the whole progress of restoration is a _retarded_ motion. It,
therefore, became necessary to introduce some mechanical contrivance
which might equalize such motion. This correction is effected by an
apparatus termed a FUSEE, and is nothing more than the application of
the wheel and axle; it is that conical barrel seen in most watches
round which the chain coils in the act of winding up. When the fusee is
full of chain, or the watch is wound up, the spring, through the medium
of the chain, will act upon its upper part, which being very near the
centre will give the spring but little power; but, as the spring
uncoils and diminishes in strength, it will act upon a larger part of
the fusee, until at last it gets to the bottom of it, and consequently,
if the several increasing grooves upon it are made to increase in the
same proportion as the power of the spring decreases, an equable force
must be obtained.
Springs may be thus said to afford the means of _packing up_ force, to
be used whenever it is required. Mr. Babbage observes that the half
minute which we daily devote to the winding up our watches is an
exertion by which we _pack_ a quantity of force, which is gradually
expended during the ensuing twenty-four hours. Springs then will enable
us to avail ourselves of inconstant and variable forces which must
otherwise remain incapable of useful application, and the period may
arrive when force will thus become an article of traffic, and machines
be sent to the windmill to be wound up. The manner in which force is
constantly allowed to run to waste is quite extraordinary in the
present advanced state of science. We need only look at the working of
the treadmill. The public are little aware of the enormous sums
annually expended in towing vessels by steam from the Nore to the port
of London; were floating treadmills established, the labour of those,
upon whom punishment has been awarded, might be rendered available to
the most important interests; whereas, with the present system, not
only is this labour entirely lost, but is actually a source of expense,
for machines, with all the accompaniments of engineers, are provided to
counterbalance the force so uselessly generated.
Note 12, p. 97.--ELASTIC CHAIRS AND BEDS.
The elastic property of iron springs has been lately exemplified in a
very striking manner, by the invention of Pratt’s elastic chairs and
beds; which, instead of the usual stuffing of feathers, are filled with
iron wire!!! which is twisted into spiral form. Down itself cannot be
more gentle or springy; it yields to pressure, and yet never becomes
lumpy: beds thus constructed have the advantage of not heating the
body; and, above all, they never require to be shaken or “made.” Had
Vulcan fortunately made such a discovery before his ejectment from
Olympus, his wife, Venus, would surely never have treated him with that
contempt which mythologists have recorded of her; while her
priestesses, the housemaids, must, in gratitude, have been bound to
extend their protection to a benefactor, who could save them so much
daily labour. For particulars of this curious invention, the reader may
consult the _Literary Gazette_ for March 17, 1827.
Note 13, p. 98.--DUCK AND DRAKE.
The phenomenon has been explained as depending upon the inertia of the
parts of matter, which renders a certain time necessary in order to
communicate to any body a sensible motion; so that when a body, moving
with considerable velocity, meets with another of much greater size, it
experiences almost as much resistance as if the latter were fixed.
Nothing is easier to be divided than water; yet, if the palm of the
hand be struck with some velocity against its surface, a considerable
degree of resistance, and even of pain, is experienced from it, as if a
solid body had been struck; nay, a musket ball, when fired against
water, is repelled and even flattened by it. In like manner, if we load
a musket with powder, and, instead of a ball, introduce a candle, and
fire it against a board, the latter will be pierced by the candle end,
as if by a ball. The cause of this phenomenon, no doubt, is, that the
rapid motion with which the candle end is impelled, does not allow it
time to be flattened, and therefore it acts as a hard body.
Note 14, p. 99.--VEGETABLE ELASTICITY.
_Impatiens_, or _Touch me not_, affords a good example. The seed-vessel
consists of one cell with five divisions; each of these, when the seed
is ripe, on being touched, suddenly folds itself into a spiral form,
leaps from the stalk, and disperses the seeds to a great distance by
its elasticity. The capsule of the geranium and the beard of wild oats
are twisted for a similar purpose. (DARWIN’S _Botanic Garden_.) The
seed-vessel of Euphorbia is extremely elastic, projecting the seeds
with great force. An elastic pouch also serves to scatter the seeds of
the Oxalis.
Note 15, p. 125.--A SIMPLE ORRERY.
A very instructive toy might be constructed by placing a taper in the
centre of a japanned waiter, to represent the sun, and fixing in a
watch glass an indian rubber ball, with the parallels of latitude and
meridians painted thereon, with the other characters of the globe.
During its revolution around the candle, in consequence of the tendency
of its centre of gravity to its lowest position, the diurnal and annual
motions, and also the parallelism of its axis, will be represented,
together with the concomitant phenomena.
Note 16, p. 130.--CONIC SECTIONS.
If a cone, or sugar-loaf, be cut through in certain directions, we
shall obtain figures which are termed _conic sections_; thus, if we cut
through the sugar-loaf in a direction parallel to its base, or bottom,
the outline or edge of the loaf where it is cut will be a _circle_. If
the cut is made so as to slant, and not be parallel to the base of the
loaf, the outline is an _ellipse_, provided the cut goes quite through
the sides of the loaf all round; but if it goes slanting, and parallel
to the line of the loaf’s side, the outline is a _parabola_, a conic
section, or curve, to which this note more immediately relates. This
curve is distinguished by characteristic properties, every point of it
bearing a certain fixed relation to a certain point within it, as the
circle does to its centre.
Note 17, p. 134.--EARTHQUAKE OF LISBON.
During the dreadful earthquake of Lisbon, bands of wretches took
advantage of the general consternation to commit the most atrocious
acts of robbery and murder. In fact, a considerable part of the city
was destroyed by incendiaries, who, during the disaster, set fire to
the houses, that they might pillage them with greater impunity.
Note 18, p. 134.--GEOLOGY APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE.
Soils consist of a mixture of different finely divided earthy matter,
with animal or vegetable substances in a state of decomposition. In
order, therefore, to form a just idea of their nature, it is necessary
to conceive different rocks decomposed, or ground into parts and powder
of different degrees of fineness; some of their soluble parts dissolved
by water, and that water adhering to the mass, and the whole mixed with
larger or smaller quantities of the remains of vegetables and animals,
in different stages of decay. Hence it will follow, that certain rocks
will give origin to particular soils; thus poor and hungry soils, such
as are produced from the decomposition of granite and sandstone, remain
very often for ages with only a thin covering of vegetation; while
soils from the decomposition of limestone, chalk, and basalt, are often
clothed by nature with the perennial grasses; and afford, when ploughed
up, a rich bed of vegetation for every species of cultivated plant. In
adverting to this subject, Dr. Buckland, in his inaugural lecture, very
justly observes, that it furnishes an instance of relation between the
vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and of the adaptation of one to the
other, which always implies design in the surest manner; for had not
the surface of the earth been thus prepared for their reception, where
would have been the use of all that admirable system of organization
bestowed upon vegetables? And it is no small proof of design in the
arrangement of the materials that compose the surface of our earth,
that whereas the primitive and granitic rocks are least calculated to
afford a fertile soil, they are for the most part made to constitute
the mountain districts of the world, which, from their elevation and
irregularities, would otherwise be but ill adapted for human
habitation; whilst the lower and more temperate regions are usually
composed of derivative or secondary strata, in which the compound
nature of their ingredients qualifies them to be of the greatest
utility to mankind by their subserviency to the purposes of luxuriant
vegetation.
No doubt, then, can exist as to the important connexion between the
geological structure of a country, and its degree of fertility; but the
subject has not received the attention which it merits. And in the hope
that this note may meet the eye of some zealous geologist, the author
suggests the importance of commencing the enquiry in a primitive
district; for, as we advance from a primitive to an alluvial district,
the relations to which we have alluded become gradually less distinct
and apparent, and are ultimately lost in the confused complication of
the soil itself, and in that general obscurity which necessarily
envelopes every object in a state of decomposition: we can, therefore,
only hope to succeed in such an investigation, by a patient and
laborious examination of a primitive country, after which we may be
enabled to extend our enquiries with advantage through those districts
which are more completely covered with soil, and obscured by luxuriant
vegetation; as the eye, gazing upon a beautiful statue, traces the
outline of the limbs, and the swelling contour of its form, through the
flowing draperies which invest it.
Note 19, p. 135.--BUCKLAND’S RESEARCHES.
The geological researches of Dr. Buckland have been long directed by a
desire to accumulate facts to prove that there must have been an
universal inundation of the earth; and, in his inaugural lecture, he
has presented us with a summary of such facts, which, to use his own
expression, whether considered collectively or separately, present such
a conformity of proofs, tending to establish the universality of a
recent inundation of the earth, as no difficulties or objections that
have hitherto arisen are in any way sufficient to overrule.
In the year 1822, Dr. Buckland read a memoir before the Royal Society,
announcing the discovery of a singular cave at Kirkdale in Yorkshire,
containing an assemblage of fossil teeth and bones of the elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, tiger, and hyæna, and sixteen other
animals; with a comparative view of five similar caverns in various
parts of England, and others on the continent. For this important paper
the society awarded to its author their Copley medal; and it
constitutes the basis of a later and much more extended work, entitled
“RELIQUIÆ DILUVIANÆ; or Observations on the Organic Remains contained
in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial Gravel; and on other Geological
Phenomena, attesting the Action of an Universal Deluge. By the Rev. W.
BUCKLAND, B.D. F.R.S. &c.”
Let us explore the interior of this cavern. It was not till the summer
of 1821, that the existence of any animal remains, or of the cavern
containing them, was suspected. At this time, in continuing the
operations of a large quarry, the workmen accidentally intersected the
mouth of a long hole, closed externally with rubbish, and overgrown
with grass and bushes. As this rubbish was removed before any competent
person had examined it, it is not certain whether it was composed of
diluvial gravel and rolled pebbles, or was simply the debris that had
fallen from the softer portions of the strata that lay above it: the
workman, however, who removed it, and some gentlemen who saw it,
assured Dr. Buckland that it was composed of gravel and sand. In the
interior of the cavern, our indefatigable geologist could not find a
single rolled pebble, nor has he ever seen one bone, or fragment of
bone, that bore the slightest mark of having been rolled by the action
of water.
The original entrance is said to have been very small, and, having been
filled up as above described, there could not have been any admission
of external air through it to the interior of the cavern. Nearly 30
feet of its outer extremity have now been removed, and the present
entrance is a hole in the perpendicular face of the quarry, about three
feet high and five feet broad, which it is only possible for a man to
enter on his hands and knees, and which expands and contracts itself
irregularly from two to seven feet in breadth, and two to fourteen feet
in height. It is unnecessary to enter into farther details; the reader,
if he wishes more minute information, may consult Dr. Buckland’s work.
On entering the cave, the first thing observed was a sediment of soft
mud or loam, covering entirely its whole bottom to the average depth of
about a foot, and concealing the subjacent rock, or actual floor of the
cavern. Not a particle of mud was found attached either to the sides or
roof; nor was there a trace of it adhering to the sides or upper
portions of the transverse fissures, or any thing to suggest the idea
that it had entered through them. The mud was covered by a
_stalagmitic_ crust, which had been formed by the dripping of water
impregnated with calcareous matter, as is common in all the cavities of
limestone; but it is important to remark, that there was not any
alternation of mud with any repeated beds of _stalagmite_, but simply a
partial deposit of the latter on the floor beneath; so that the mud was
encased, like meat in a pie, with an upper and under crust. It was
chiefly in the lower part of the earthy sediment, and in the calcareous
matter beneath it, that the animal remains were found.
In the whole extent of the cave, only a very few large bones have been
discovered that are tolerably perfect; most of them are broken into
small angular fragments and chips, the greater part of which lay
separately in the mud, whilst others were wholly or partially invested
with stalagmite, and others again mixed with masses of still smaller
fragments. In some few places, where the mud was shallow, and the heaps
of teeth and bones considerable, parts of the latter were elevated some
inches above the surface of the mud and its calcareous crust; and the
upper ends of the bones thus projecting, like the legs of pigeons
through a pie crust, into the void space above, have become thinly
covered with calcareous drippings, whilst their lower extremities have
no such incrustation, and have simply adhering to them the mud in which
they have been imbedded.
The effect of the loam and stalagmite in preserving the bones from
decomposition, by protecting them from all access of atmospheric air,
has been very remarkable.
The workmen, in first discovering the bones at Kirkdale, supposed them
to have belonged to cattle that died by a murrain in this district a
few years ago, and they were for some time neglected, and thrown on the
roads with the common limestone; they were, at length, noticed by Mr.
Harrison, a medical gentleman in the neighbourhood, and have since been
collected and deposited in various private and public museums. The
teeth and bones which have been discovered in this cave appear to have
belonged to the _hyæna, tiger, bear, wolf, fox, weasel, elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, deer, hare, rabbit, water-rat,
mouse, raven, pigeon, lark, snipe_, and a small species of _duck_.
The bottom of the cave, on first removing the mud, was found to be
strewed all over like a dog-kennel, from one end to the other, with
hundreds of teeth and bones, or rather broken and splintered fragments
of bones, of all the animals above enumerated; scarcely a single bone
has escaped fracture, with the exception of some of the more solid and
hard bones of the foot; on some of these bones marks may be traced,
which, on applying one to the other, appear exactly to fit the form of
the canine teeth of the hyæna that occur in the cave. The hyæna’s bones
have been broken, and apparently gnawed equally with those of the other
animals. Heaps of small splinters, and highly comminuted, yet angular
fragments of bone, mixed with teeth of all the varieties of animals
above enumerated, lay in the bottom of the den, occasionally adhering
together by calcareous cement. Not one skull is to be found entire; and
it is so rare to find a large bone of any kind that has not been more
or less broken, that there is no hope of obtaining materials for the
construction of a single limb, and still less of an entire skeleton.
The jaw-bones, also, even of the hyænas, are broken to pieces like the
rest.
It must already appear probable, from the facts above described,
particularly from the comminuted and gnawed condition of the bones,
that the cave at Kirkdale was, during a long succession of years,
inhabited as a den by hyænas, and that they dragged into its recesses
the other animals, whose remains are found indiscriminately mixed with
their own: an hypothesis which is certainly strengthened by Dr.
Buckland having found the excrement of the animal in the same cave.
Should it be asked why we do not find, at least, the entire skeleton of
the one or more hyænas that died last, and left no survivors to devour
them; we find a sufficient reply to this question, in the circumstance
of the probable destruction of the last individuals by the waters of
the deluge. On the rise of these, had there been any hyænas in the den,
they would have rushed out, and fled for safety to the hills; and if
absent, they could not by any possibility have returned to it from the
higher levels; that they were extirpated by the catastrophe is obvious,
from the discovery of their bones in the diluvial gravel both of
England and Germany.
The accumulation of these bones, then, appears to have been a process
of years, whilst all the animals in question were natives of this
country. The general dispersion of bones of the same animals through
the diluvial gravel of high latitudes, over a great part of the
northern hemisphere, shows that the period in which they inhabited
these regions was that immediately preceding the formation of this
gravel, and that they perished by the same waters which produced it. M.
Cuvier has, moreover, ascertained that the fossil elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, and hyæna, belong to species now unknown; and as there is
no evidence that they have at any time, subsequent to the formation of
the diluvium, existed in these regions, we may conclude that the period
at which the bones of these extinct species were introduced into the
cave at Kirkdale was before the deluge.
Thus the phenomena of this cave seem referable to a period immediately
antecedent to the general deluge, and in which the world was inhabited
by land animals, almost all bearing a generic, and many a specific
resemblance to those which now exist; but so completely has the
violence of that tremendous convulsion destroyed and remodelled the
form of the antediluvian surface, that it is only in caverns that have
been protected from its ravages, that we may hope to find undisturbed
evidence of events in the period immediately preceding it. The bones
already described, and the calcareous matter formed before the
introduction of the diluvial mud, are what Dr. Buckland considers to be
the products of the period in question. It was indeed probable, before
the discovery of this cave, from the abundance in which the remains of
similar species occur in superficial gravel beds, which cannot be
referred to any other than a diluvial origin, that such animals were
the antediluvian inhabitants not only of this country, but generally of
all those northern latitudes in which their remains are found, (but the
proof was imperfect, as it was possible they might have been drifted or
floated hither by the waters from the warmer regions of the earth,) but
the facts developed in this charnel-house of the antediluvian forests
of Yorkshire demonstrate that there was a long succession of years, in
which the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus had been the prey of
the hyænas, which, like themselves, inhabited England in the period
immediately preceding the formation of the diluvial gravel. Having thus
far described the principal facts to be observed in the interior of
this cave, Dr. Buckland proceeds to point out the chronological
inferences that may be derived from the state of the bones, and of the
mud and stalagmite that accompany them, and to extract the following
detail of events that have been going on successively within this
curious cave:--
First, There appears to have been a period (and, if we may form an
estimate from the small quantity of stalagmite now found on the actual
floor of the cave, a very short one,) during which this aperture in the
rock existed in its present state, but was not tenanted by the hyænas.
The second period was that during which the cave was inhabited by the
hyænas, and the stalactite and stalagmite were still forming.
The third period is that at which the mud was introduced and the
animals extirpated, viz. the period of the deluge. It has been already
stated, that there is not any alternation of this mud with beds of bone
or of stalagmite, such as would have occurred had it been produced by
land floods often repeated; _once_, _and once only_, it appears to have
been introduced; and we may consider its vehicle to have been the
turbid waters of the same inundation that produced universally the
diluvial gravel.
The fourth period is that during which the stalagmite was deposited
which invests the upper surface of the mud.