WEST INDIES_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" Volume 10, Slice 4

1752. _Pierre_ (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.

1782. _Kingston_ (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, L500,000.

1795. _Montego Bay_ (Jamaica). Loss by fire of L400,000.

1805. _St Thomas._ 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, L6,000,000.

1808. _Spanish Town_ (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated

at L1,500,000.

1828. _Havana_ lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.

1843. _Port Republicain_ (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was

burned.

Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires,

more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago,

Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking

generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated

the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general

negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the

development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better

organization of the fire-fighting establishments.

It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire,

and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:--

Port of Spain (Trinidad) March 4, 1895

New Westminster (British Columbia) Sept. 10, 1898

Toronto (Ontario) Jan. 6, 10, and

March 3, 1895

Windsor (Nova Scotia) Oct. 17, 1897

St John's (Newfoundland) July 8, 1892

London--Charterhouse Square Dec. 25, 1889

" St Mary Axe July 18, 1893

" Old Bailey and Fleet Street Nov. 15, 1893

" Tabernacle Street, Finsbury June 21, 1894

" Bermondsey Leather Market Sept. 13, 1894

" " " " May 17, 1895

" Minories Nov. 10, 1894

" South-West India Docks Feb. 8, 1895

" Charlotte and Leonard

Streets, Finsbury June 10, 1896

" Cripplegate Nov. 19, 1897

Nottingham Nov. 17, 1894

Sheffield Dec. 21, 1893

Bradford Nov. 30, 1896

Sunderland July 18, 1898

Dublin May 4, 1894

Glasgow--Anderston Quay Jan. 16, 1897

" Dunlop Street April 25, 1898

As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary

number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public

entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention.

Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in

this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire

prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in

1897 (_Fires at Public Entertainments_), and the results of these fires

analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350

souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in

other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list

extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk

of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has

occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago.

The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far

greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and

property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the

fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual

fire wastage of the world still averages quite L50,000,000 sterling. It

is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss,

insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the

annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say

1897), was about L17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially

reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about L12,000,000 sterling. This

extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,--in spite

of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of

property in buildings--is in the main owing to the fire-preventive

measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great

improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of

intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the

public.

Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more

particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England

since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl's

Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to

have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization

and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made

by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the

fire-preventive side of fire protection.

_Fire Protection._--The term "Fire Protection" is often misunderstood.

Fire-extinguishing--in other words, fire brigade work--is what the

majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well

protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine

establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor role

in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe

their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive

legislation, based on the practical experience and research of

architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal

officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire

combating and fire research.

Under the heading of "Fire Prevention" should be classed all preventive

measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading

"Fire Combating" should be classed both self-help and outside help.

Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a

rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in

Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey

regulations--supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the

treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the

manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of

the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and

continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious

arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire

reports.

Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.

There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, had

some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school _Standard

Reader_ replaced by more instructive ones, which warn children not to

play with matches, and teach them to run for help in case of an

emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been arranged in place

of the meaningless sentences so often used in elementary schools.

There are a number of municipalities where regular warnings are issued

every December as to the dangerous Christmas-tree. In such places

every inhabitant has at least an opportunity of learning how to throw

a bucket of water properly, and how to trip up a burning woman and

roll her up without fanning the flames. The householder is officially

informed where the nearest fire-call point is, and how long he must

expect to wait till the first engine can reach his house. If he is a

newspaper reader, he will also have ample opportunity of knowing the

resources of his town, and the local reporter's fire report will give

him much useful information based on facts or hints supplied by the

authorities.

Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the heading of

"Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with the protection of large

risks, such as factories, stores and public places of amusement, which

lend themselves to regulation. The requirements of the fire survey code

may allow for hydrants or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for

their regular inspection, and the means for self-help may thus be given.

These means will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some

of the employes engaged on the risk are instructed as to their purpose,

and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. The possibility

of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be encouraged by enforcing

regular drills for the employes, and regular inspections to test their

efficiency. There are towns where great reliance is placed on the

efforts of such amateur firemen. In some cities they even receive extra

pay and are formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and

retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.

Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder can scarcely

be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned for the education of

the public, if properly utilized, would assure intelligent behaviour on

the part of a large percentage of the community. There are places where,

without any regulation being attempted, and thanks entirely to the

influence referred to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a

bucket, and a crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the

household. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly

encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference with

personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, with

the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple of scaling

ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given to householders to

learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box of this kind be put in

a fire-station, and certain afternoons in the year be reserved on which

this elementary instruction will be given, and the students afterwards

shown over the fire-station or treated to a "turn-out," a considerable

number will be found to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter

whether curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will

be attained.

Under "outside" help should be understood what is organized, and not

simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or by a neighbour.

The link between self-help and outside help is the fire-call.

_The Fire-Call._--The efficiency of the fire-call depends not only on

the instrument employed and its position, but also on its conspicuous

appearance, and the indications by which its situation may be

discovered. These indications are quite as important as the instruments

themselves. The conspicuousness of the instrument alone does not

suffice. Of the official notifications given in the press, those in

regard to the position of the call-points are among the most useful. An

indication at every street corner as to the direction to take to reach

the point--or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the

nearest call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front

door--may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize

the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It is

immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by bell outside

a fire-station, by a messenger from some special messenger service, by a

call through a telephone, or by an electric or automatic appliance. Any

instrument will do that ensures the call being transmitted with maximum

speed and certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the

locality.

_Outside Help._--Organized outside help may not be limited simply to the

attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements can be made for the

attendance of the local police force, a public or private salvage corps,

an ambulance, or, in some cases, a military guard. Then in some

instances arrangements are made for the attendance of the water and gas

companies' servants, and even officials from the public works office,

insurance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage

corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire brigade,

and others where the police are generally on the spot in good force five

minutes after the arrival of the first engines. There are several cities

where the ambulance wagon and the steamers arrive together, and another

city where the military authorities always send a fire piquet which can

be turned out in a few minutes.

If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank of the

individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire brigade, even if

he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank, should have control, and

his authority be fully recognized. Unfortunately, there are not many

countries where this is the case. The efficiency of outside help depends

in the first instance on the clear definition of the duties and powers

of all concerned--on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the

organization, the theoretically as well as practically correct

executive; and, last but by no means least, on the prestige, the social

standing, the education of commanders and their ability to handle men.

Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,

smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry;

showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for public applause, will be

dangerous.

_Research._--Under the heading "Fire Research" should be included

theoretical and experimental investigation as to materials and

construction, combined with the chronicling of practical experience in

fires, then the careful investigation and chronicling of the causes of

fires, assisted where necessary by a power for holding fire inquests in

interesting, suspicious or fatal cases. Experimental investigation as to

natural and accidental causes as distinct from criminal causes can be

included. Research in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire

inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, by the

senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by immediate

government investigations held on the same lines as inquiries into

explosions and railway accidents.[1] As to general research work, there

are several cities which contribute substantially towards the costs of

fire tests at independent testing stations. Some towns also have special

commissions of experts who visit all big fires occurring within easy

travelling distance, take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as

to how the materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics

as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places such

tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with oil lamps, their

burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.

_The British Fire Prevention Committee._--The British Fire Prevention

Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great

Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February 1899.

It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The members include

civil engineers, public officials holding government appointments,

fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst the

subscribers in the main include the great public departments, such as

the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the

important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial

government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,

together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand has

formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. The

ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council and an

executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription of

members and subscribers. The services of the members of council and

executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket expenses of any

kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals mainly with

questions of regulations, rules and publications of general technical

interest, the tests are probably what have brought the committee into

prominence and given it an international reputation. They are not only

the recognized fire tests of Great Britain, but they rank as universal

standard tests for the whole of the civilized world, and Americans,

just as much as Danes, Germans or Austrians, pride themselves when

some product of their country has passed the official procedure of a

test by the committee. The reports of the tests, which state facts

only without giving criticisms or recommendations, are much

appreciated by all who have the control of public works or the

specification of appliances. The committee does not limit itself

solely to testing proprietary forms of construction or appliances, but

has a number of tests--quite equal to the proprietary tests--of

articles in general use. The ordinary concrete floor or the ordinary

wooden joist floor protected by asbestos boards or slag wool receives

as much attention as a patent floor; and similarly the ordinary

everyday hydrant receives equal attention with the patent hydrant, or

ordinary bucket of water with the special fire extinguisher. The door

tests of the committee, which cover some thirty different types of

doors, deal with no less than twenty ordinary wooden doors that can be

made by any ordinary builder or cabinet-maker. These so-called

non-proprietary tests are made at the expense of the general funds of

the committee, whilst for the proprietary tests the owners have to pay

about two-thirds of the expenses incurred in the form of a testing

fee. The expenses incurred in a test, of course, not only comprise the

actual testing operation of testing, but also the expense of producing

the report, which is always a very highly finished publication with

excellent blocks. The expense incurred also includes the establishment

expenses of the testing station at Regent's Park.

The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire

Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in both

of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National Fire

Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. It

from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent of

Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official

reports, well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and

methods of the countries visited, and serving as most useful reference

publications.

Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both in

respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been most

beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless of the

fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount of

property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage

annually is about L5,000,000. This great annual saving has been

obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British

Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about L23,000, of which

more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary

contributions or subscriptions.

There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although

several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,

notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several

insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American

Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside Great

Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare with the

systematic series of inquiries conducted without any substantial state

aid in London.

_Distribution of Losses._--Property destroyed by fire is practically an

absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the owner, or it may

be distributed among a number of people, who are taxed for it in the

form of a contribution to their national or local fire fund, a share in

some mutual insurance "ring," or the more usual insurance companies'

premium. In the first two cases some expenses have also to be met in

connexion with the management of the fund, "tariff" organization, or

"ring." In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to be

covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance enterprise

as such, and then a further amount for division amongst those who share

the risk of the venture--namely, the insurance company's shareholders.

It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. The

sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss with a

minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly managed company

paying large dividends will cover a loss, but with an unnecessarily

large extra outlay. In every case the loss remains; and as property

may always be considered part of the community, the province or

nation, as the case may be, suffers. It is always in the interest of a

nation to minimize its national losses, no matter whether they fall on

one individual's shoulders or on many, and whether such losses are

good for certain trades or not. With a suitable system of fire

protection it is possible to bring these losses to a minimum, but this

minimum would probably only be reached by an extra expense, which

would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets in the form of municipal

rates than the higher premium for the greater risk. A practical

minimum is all that can be attempted, and that practical minimum

varies according to circumstances.

Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, and the

actual extra cost of this protection should be something less than the

saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a smaller dead

loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure for his

combined contributions toward the losses, the management of his

insurance, and the protective measures. Where there is mutual

insurance or municipal insurance in its best sense, the losses by fire

and the costs of the protection are often booked in one account, and

the better protection up to a certain point should mean a smaller

individual annual share. Where there is company insurance the

municipal rates are increased to cover the cost of extra protection,

while a proportionate decrease is expected in the insurance premiums.

Competition and public opinion generally impose this decrease of the

insurance rates as soon as there is a greater immunity from fire.

Where the insurance companies are well managed and the shareholders

are satisfied with reasonable dividends, practical protection can be

said to find favour with all concerned, but if the protection is

arranged for and the companies do not moderate their charges

accordingly, the reverse is the case.

The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the

maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is

considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which

municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the

effect that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good

fire service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly

managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,

means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has to pay

for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal rate, or in

the form of an increased premium raised to meet the contribution

levied, this is simply juggling with figures.

_Cost._--As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, better

and safer building from the fire point of view means better and more

valuable structures of longer life from the economic aspect. Such better

and safer constructional work pays for itself and cannot be considered

in the light of an extra tax on the building owner. The compilation and

administration of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be

attended to by the same executive authorities as would in any case

superintend general structural matters, and the additional work would at

the most require some increased clerical aid. If the execution of the

fire survey regulations were delegated to the same authority there would

again simply be some extra clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of

perhaps a few extra surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly

efficient, it has been found advisable in several instances to form

parties of three for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be

a fire brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep,

who would have to receive a special retaining fee.

The cost of the public training referred to would be small, as the

elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster's work, and

the Press matters could be easily managed in the fire brigade office.

Payments would have only to be made for advertisements, such as the

official warnings, lists for fire-call points, &c., and perhaps for the

publication of semi-official hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and

drills for amateurs are concerned would be under the control of the fire

brigade. There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase and

maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.

The most expensive items in the system of fire protection undoubtedly

come under the headings "Fire-Call" and "Fire Brigade." As to the

former, there are a number of cities where the cost is modified by

having the whole of the electrical service for the police force, the

ambulance and fire brigade, managed by a separate department. The same

wires call up each of these services, and, as the same staff attend to

their maintenance, the fire protection of a city need only be debited

with perhaps a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed

independently. The combined system has also the great advantage of

facilitating the mutual working of the different services in case of an

emergency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an outlay;

but here again, if the three services work together, the expenses on the

count of fire protection can be lessened. The money rewards given in

some cities to the individuals who first call the fire-engines may

become a heavy item. Their utility is doubtful, and they have formed an

inducement for arson.

As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong active force

should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. The latter should

be as inexpensive as possible, but should at least constitute a

part-paid and disciplined body which could be easily called in for

emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot allow for an active force being

ready for such coincidences as an unusual number of large fires starting

simultaneously, but they must allow for an ample strength always being

forthcoming for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due

consideration for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire

brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the property

owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of the force. The

budget must also allow for an attractive rate of pay, as the profession

is one which requires men who have a maximum of the sterling qualities

which we look for in the pick of a nation. It must also not be

forgotten that the fire service is one of the few where a system of

pensions is the only fair way of recognizing the risks of limb and

health, and at the same time securing that stability in which practical

experience from long service is so essential a factor. The budget must

allow for an ample reserve of appliances.

Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit of its

having a separate section for salvage corps purposes depends on

circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is required, and should be

part and parcel of the municipal brigade and organized on the same lines

with a reserve, no matter whether the insurance of the locality be

managed by the authorities or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it

matters little whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.

Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are items for

fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, due confidence

being placed in the opinions of the fire officers and surveyors, there

is no reason why the outlay should be great. The statistical work would

only require some clerical aid. Where special coroners are retained for

criminal cases some extra money will of course be required; but even

here the costs need not be excessive, as there are many retired fire

brigade officers and fire surveyors who are well suited for the work,

and would be satisfied with a small emolument.

As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places where

special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests of fire

protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the heading "Fire

Protection" have simply to cover the maintenance of hydrants and

tablets, or at the most the cost of the water actually used for

fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the cost of hydrants is shared

with the scavenging department or the commission of sewers, which also

have the use of them. Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to

a private water company, the property owners will be paying their share

for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.

The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving and

for the protection of property. It should be remembered that a good

staircase and a ladder are often as useful for the manoeuvring of the

firemen as for life-saving purposes, and that they are practically as

essential for the saving of property as for saving life. No distinction

need be made between the two risks when speaking of fire protection in

general; but as the safety of the most valueless life is generally

classed higher than that of the most valuable property, it may be well

to give life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.

Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective system is

defective. With good construction and a fire survey, the quick arrival

of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks of detection are as a

rule far too great to encourage its growth.

_Saving of Life._--Under "Fire Prevention" special requirements in the

Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life by requiring

practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. The risks in

theatres and assembly halls require separate legislation. In ordinary

structures no inmate of a building should be more than sixty feet away

from a staircase, and preferably there should be two staircases at his

disposal in the event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only

given to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that

their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater danger

than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of

opening a window has saved many a life.

_Safety of Property._--As far as the protection of property is

concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful

construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of

buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of

skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention

of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by

the materials used in construction.

The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one house

from spreading to another, and a stranger's property, so to say, from

being endangered. This is quite possible, given good party walls

carried well over the roof to a height regulated by the nature of the

risk, the provision of the shutters to windows where necessary, and the

use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a thoroughly good roof--or still

better, a fire-resisting attic floor--can do much. If the locality has a

fire brigade and the force is efficiently handled, "spreads" from one

house to another should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts

are, however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to

localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible for

street improvements.

The division of a building or large "risk" into a number of minor ones

is only possible to a certain extent. There is no need to spend enormous

sums to make each of the minor "risks" impregnable. The desire should be

simply to try to retard the spread for a certain limited time after the

flames have really taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most

fires will have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient

fire-extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can be

on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration from

becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an ordinary well-built house,

for example, if the joists are strong and the boards grooved, if some

light pugging be used and the plastering properly done, if the doors are

made well-fitting and fairly strong, a very considerable amount of

furniture and fittings can remain well alight for half an hour before

there is a spread. In a warehouse or factory "risk" the same holds good.

With well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps

run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary

double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with sheet

iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned for a

considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent" flooring are

exceedingly useful for the division of "risks," and with their aid a

fire can be limited to an individual storey of a building, but it should

not be forgotten that even the best of flooring is useless if carried by

unprotected iron girders supported, say, by some light framing or weak

partition. The general mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete

construction is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,

shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that the

protection of the supports and girder-work requires most careful

attention.

Of the various systems of "patent" flooring, as a rule the simpler forms

are the more satisfactory. It should, however, always be remembered that

any specific form of flooring alone does not prevent a fire breaking

from one "risk" to another. They should go hand in hand with general

good construction, and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the

modern fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their

introduction for fire protection alone. In considering their

introduction, the general advantages which they afford as to spans,

thickness, general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A

practical installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first,

not increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly should

add to the general value of the structure by giving it a more

substantial character.

The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should not be

forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well armed with

shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting glass, and the lifts

not only vertical doors, but also horizontal flaps, cutting up the well

into sections. The question of light partitions must also not be

neglected.

Division of "risks," common-sense construction, and proper staircase

accommodation are really all that fire protection requires, and where

the special Building Act clauses have been kept within the lines

indicated, there has been little friction and discontent. It is only as

a rule when the authorities are eccentric in their demands that the

building owner considers himself harassed by protective measures.

Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the actual

outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey can also

increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen the possibility

of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes or ladders, and a

regular inspection of their efficiency, will do much. The examination of

a rusty door-catch may save a building. The actual preventive work of

the surveyor will, however, mostly consist in warning property owners

against temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty

chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas brackets fixed in

risky positions. Self-help will be greatly facilitated by the judicious

arrangement of fire-extinguishing gear, and a like inspection of its

efficiency. Hydrants and cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so

stiff that the water cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand

pumps and pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest

errors generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of the

fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his efforts are

unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not, perhaps, use the

gear at all.

With regard to regulations governing "special risks," so far as the

safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls is concerned,

attention should be chiefly given to the exits. Spread of fire, and even

its outbreak, are secondary considerations. A panic caused by the

suspicion of a fire can be quite as fatal as that caused by the actual

start of a conflagration. In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct

communication should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the

main staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and

burners should be prohibited.

_Fire-resisting Materials._--One of the greatest misnomers in connexion

with fire prevention was originally the description of certain materials

and systems of construction as being "fire-proof." This has seriously

affected the development of the movement towards fire prevention, for,

having regard to the fact that nothing described as "fire-proof" could

be fire-proof in the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so

described, and in fact everything described as "fire-proof" came to be

looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion and obtain

a better understanding on the subject, the International Fire Prevention

Congress of London in 1903, at which some 800 representatives of

government departments and municipalities were present, discussed this

matter at considerable length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in

consideration of their importance in affecting the whole development of

fire-resisting construction, are published below. It is the

classification of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that

has been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire, and in

numerous other countries, since that date.

The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations

contained in the following statement issued by the British Fire

Prevention Committee:--

The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having given

their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term

"fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably applied

to many building materials and systems of building construction in use

in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that the avoidance of

this term in general business, technical, and legislative vocabulary

is essential.

The executive consider the term "fire-resisting" more applicable for

general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying

qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended

to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or

low temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general

adoption of this term in place of "fire-proof."

Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the

fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,

consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise the

authorities controlling building operations, should clearly

discriminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,

requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city

warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight

requires very different protection from the tenement house of the

suburbs.

The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting

materials and systems of construction affording _temporary_

protection, _partial_ protection, and _full_ protection against fire,

and to classify all building materials and systems of construction

under these three headings. The exact and definite limit of these

three classes is based on the experience obtained from numerous

investigations and tests, combined with the experience obtained from

actual fires, and after due consideration of the limitations of

building practice and the question of cost.

The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for building

materials or systems of construction will be seen from the standard

tables appended for--

I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,

II. Fire-resisting partitions,

III. Fire-resisting doors,

but they could be popularly summarized as follows:--

(a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire for at

least three-quarters of an hour.

(b) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire

for at least one hour and a half.

for at least two hours and a half.

The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the actual

minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and the

application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables by all

technically interested, but for the popular discrimination---which the

executive are desirous of encouraging--the time standard alone should

suffice.

It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards in

this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that the

same standardization may in future be common to all countries, and the

preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization are

already in hand.

_Fire Combating._--As to self-help, complication must always be avoided.

The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest lines. One thing

which must be instilled into him is not to waste water--a sure sign of

lack of training. Of course the drills must be on the same lines as

those of the local brigade, and on no account should other gear be used

for self-help than is generally customary in that force. When

volunteers and regulars work together, the former should always remember

that the paid force are experts, though the regulars must never have

that contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers are

often men who are probably experts in some other vocation outside

fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which a professional

fire-fighter has had.

_Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings._

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

+--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (815.5 deg. C.)| |(9.290 sq. m.) | |

|Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (815.5 deg. C.)| |(18.580 sq. m.)| |

+--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (546.852 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)| |

|Partial Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (820.278 kg.) |(18.580 sq. m.)| |

+--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (1093.706 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)| |

|Full Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (1367.130 kg.) |(18.258 sq. m.)| |

+--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+

kg. = kilogramme.

_Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions._

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (815.5 deg. C.)| (.051 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

|Temporary Protection+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (815.5 deg. C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (.063 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

|Partial Protection +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| (.063 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

|Full Protection +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | | (982.2 deg. C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

kg. = kilogramme.

_Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without

Frames._

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(815.5 deg. C.) | (.051 m.) |(1.858 sq. m.) | |

|Temporary Protection+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(815.5 deg. C.) | |(1.858 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(982.2 deg. C.) | (.063 m.) |(1.858 sq. m.) | |

|Partial Protection +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(982.2 deg. C.) | |(1.858 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(982.2 deg. C.) | (.018 m.) |(2.322 sq. m.) | |

|Full Protection +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

| | | |(982.2 deg. C.) | |(2.322 sq. m.) | |

+--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+

_Transmission of Fire-Calls._--There are several methods of transmitting

the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of course, to run direct to

the nearest fire-station; but this is only possible where the distance

is short. In one or two cities, however, the number of fire-stations is

so great that they are very close to one another, and hence "direct"

calls are generally recorded.

Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is reported at

some public office, police-station or guard-room, where there are always

runners ready to start off to the nearest fire-station. The special

runner is here practically a makeshift for the more modern telegraph or

telephone line, and it is believed that the only city in which this

system is employed is one where the unsettled political atmosphere has

compelled the authorities to prohibit the construction of any telegraph

lines other than those for the use of the general postal service.

Similar messenger services have, however, also been introduced in

connexion with the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises

known as "general messenger" or "call-boy" services, which are organized

for business purposes, have the advantage of including the fire-call and

the police-call. In the same way that a cab can be signalled, a call may

come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready runner makes off to the

fire-station instead of to the cab rank. As a rule, these messenger

offices are near the fire-station. The combination is rather a curious

one, as it embraces the most advanced notions of giving every "risk" its

own fire-call, and the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.

Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely on the

public telephone system, the terms of subscription to which may compel

holders to forward fire messages if required to do so. This system

allows for such development as the payment of retaining fees to porters

in public and other buildings which have a night service, on condition

that the fire-call shall be promptly despatched. The telephones are,

perhaps, even provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should

be remembered that the service always goes through a general telephone

exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.

In the special telephone line system special wires are laid from

buildings which are practically open all the year round direct to their

nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again made for prompt

attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes the place of the telephone, but

this requires the porter or attendant to be specially trained to the

work. To simplify matters, the buildings are sometimes provided with

automatic fire-calls instead of telephones; but the principle of the

system remains the same. In districts where there are few public

offices, the list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has

been frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops,

where night service is not unusual.

What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next. Automatic

fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles are under lock

and key, and the keys are distributed only among policemen, watchmen or

householders, and the messages can, therefore, only be given by persons

known to the authorities.

The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next to the

direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones can be laid

on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an instance where an

attempt was made to give every householder a private fire-call. This

system is, however, unfortunately too extreme for the municipal purse.

If in connexion with some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the

messenger services referred to, it would be a different matter, though

it should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call points

means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire, and a risk of

too many sections of the fire brigade being on the road to it.

Besides these forms of "call," there is also the private alarm.

Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones,

alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which a call

can be given direct from the "risk" involved.

Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most frequented

positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front of a church would

be the best; in others, the front of a public-house. It should always be

remembered that every facility should be given to enable as many people

as possible to know the whereabouts of the call points without any

distinct effort on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar

conspicuous by day, and a coloured lamp by night.

As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box stating

the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the best

methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most in use in a

modern city, and hence the plate is read by many. In an oriental town

the public fountain would, however, take the place of the letter-box.

Plates put up inside every front door are somewhat extreme measures. In

one city red darts are painted on the glass of every street lamp,

indicating the direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign,

however, has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its

meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.

Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a sovereign.

In some places every call is rewarded--even those to chimney fires--and

this often results in an abuse of the privilege. Rogues light fires on

the top of a chimney and then run to call the engines. If a reward be

given, a limitation should be made. In one town no relation or employe

of the owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given for

calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.

No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by mistake. The

possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is a bona fide reason

for a call which should not be discouraged. Malicious alarms should,

however, be treated with the utmost rigour, as the absence of firemen

from their stations always means an extra risk to life and property.

Combined "lynch law" and imprisonment has generally been adopted with

good effect. The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of

the engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that

handed to the police.

The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to

facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the

headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed or the

telephone is used no special arrangements are required, but where the

telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced, the apparatus

must be adapted for this contingency. At some automatic fire-call points

a few signals can be given, at others, a telegraphic or telephonic

transmitter can be applied. Much valuable time may be saved in this way

when more assistance is required.

_Fire Brigades._--The organization of fire brigades varies greatly.

There are brigades where officers and men are practically constantly

ready to attend a fire, and others where they are ready on alternate

days, two days out of every three, or three days out of every four, and

the off day is entirely their own, or at the most, only partially used

by the authorities for some light work. The men off duty are only

expected to attend a fire if there is a great emergency, the brigade

being strong enough without them for ordinary eventualities. Both

systems can be worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service,

which would be only called out for great calamities. They could be

organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the reserve men

might be attached to sections of the regulars and mixed with them when

the occasion arises. The reserves can consist either of retired firemen

who have a few regular drills, or of amateurs who go through a special

course of training, and have some series of drills at intervals, with

preferably a short spell of service every year with the regulars. For

the regulars, forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has

given the most satisfactory results.

The division of the active force may be on a system of a number of small

parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong bodies. Another

system allows for subdivision into sections of equal strength, ranging

from parties of, say, five men with a non-commissioned officer to thirty

non-commissioned officers and men with an officer. The force can, of

course, also simply be divided up into parties or sections of different

strengths not governed by a system of military units. The sections

either can work independently, as units, simply governed by one central

authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor or major

bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole individually

responsible to headquarters.

The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may be "officers

and gentlemen" in the military sense, or have only temporarily done work

with the rank and file when in training. There could also be a

combination of these two systems. Only the captain and deputy-captain

might be officers in the military sense, the sections or divisions being

officered by "non-coms." Some cities have an officer to every thirty

"non-coms" and men, whilst others put a division of as many as two

hundred under a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection

is treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have

really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military

sense have been found essential. They have also been found advantageous

where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing. The prestige of the

fire service has been raised everywhere where the officers, besides

being fire experts, are educated men of social standing. There are

cities where the officers of the fire brigade are in every way

recognized as equal to army or navy men, their social position is the

same, and their mess fulfils the same functions as a regimental mess.

The fire brigade officer is recognized at court, and there is no

ceremonial without him. On the other hand, there are also cities with

brigades several hundred strong where the captain's social standing is

beneath that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary

training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally had some

experience in another profession, such as the army, the navy, or the

architectural and engineering professions, previous to their entering

the fire service. Some brigades recruit from army officers only, and

preferably from the engineers or artillery regiments; others recruit

from among architects and engineers, subject to their having at least

had some military experience in the reserve forces or the volunteers.

Some cities only take engineers or architects, and make a point of it

that they should have no previous military experience. Some previous

experience in the handling of men is essential.

As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are taken as

firemen; others where the engines are manned by sailors. In some towns

the building trades supply the recruits; in others, all trades are

either discriminately or indiscriminately represented. A combination

from the army or navy on the one side and the building trades on the

other is most satisfactory. The knowledge of building construction in

the ranks stands the force in good stead, and has often saved both lives

and property. Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important

trade, much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing their

own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from sedentary trades

should not be excessive. Where there are only men of one trade or

calling, there is often too great a tendency to one-sidedness, and a

great amount of prejudice.

Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for both

officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry men are very

useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary, also a good

memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in a brigade, and should be

transferred to some other service if the fatness be developed during

their engagement with a brigade. Many brigades take only single men,

"non-coms" and officers only being allowed to marry. There are many

brigades where twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the

privates, fifty for the "non-coms," and sixty for the officers.

As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their sections or

units provided with practically the same gear; others where each unit

has a double or treble set, one of which is used according to

circumstances. The section may have a manual engine, a steamer and a

ladder truck at its disposal, and may turn out with either. There are

towns where the units are differently equipped, and steamer or manual

sections called out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where

the sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of engines

and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete with (say) a

chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape. The contrast to this

will be found in the small parties of twos or threes, whose turn-out

would only consist of a small hose trolley or an escape. Of course,

there are all kinds of combinations, the most important of which allows

a section to have one or more independent subsections. Though

practically belonging to the "unit," the subsections work independently

in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long ladder, or

a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The subsections may act as

outposts or simply as specialist parties, which are only called out for

particular work.

As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street stations are

provided for the small parties referred to. In a few cases two small

parties are housed under the same roof. The large bodies that back them

are generally quartered together in extensive barracks, from which any

number of engines and men can be turned out according to the nature of

the call. Then there are cities where every section has its own

well-built station; others where one or two sections are housed

together, according to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a

dozen located at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of

the group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the

other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be the central

station of a district at the same time. The actual working of the

district headquarters would, however, then be kept separate from the

working of the headquarters staff. The latter would, perhaps, have some

sections ready to send anywhere besides the trucks, &c., necessary for

the officers, the general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is

usual to combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the

headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district

centres.

In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts, &c.,

various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory results have

been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not simply a hose-car or

escape-party) can reach any building in the city within six minutes from

the time of the call reaching the station, the six minutes including

both turn-out and run. Where there are exceptionally large or dangerous

risks, this time has had to be shortened to four minutes, and the

possibility of an attendance from a second station assured within six

minutes. In dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have

been obtained where every house can be reached from the district centre

within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters would naturally have

a central position in the city. In one or two instances the headquarters

offices are located in a separate building, which in no way serves as a

fire-station, but simply as a centre through which all orders and

business pass.

The different stations must be in connexion with each other. The special

runner or rider is practically disappearing. The telegraph and

telephone have taken his place. Some cities favour Morse telegraphy,

which certainly had great advantages over the telephone at one time, as

messages could be easily transmitted to several stations with the same

effort, but telephone distributors have now been successfully

introduced. Errors are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and

there is always a record of every message. The most modern forms of

telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the fire service

than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in direct communication with

every station, but every station should be able to communicate with its

neighbour directly, as well as through the headquarters office, and

there should be a direct wire to its district station if it has one.

There should be three routes of communication, so that two should be

always ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters

or the district centres would be in touch with the various auxiliaries

referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and the telephone

exchange.

As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one unit to

answer the first call if they have no particulars, others always turn

out two or three sections, and there are several cities where the

district centre would at least send an officer and a few men as well. In

one brigade, headquarters is always represented by either the chief or

the second officer in the case of a call of this kind. The idea is that

it is always better to have too strong a force quickly in attendance

than too small a number of men, and that it is most important that the

first arrival should be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a

call and one breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being

too great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,

not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other fires

are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines, on account of

a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a call reaches the

firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn out, and if more help is

required other sections will be called up individually. In others the

reinforcements are not called up separately, but the fires are divided

into three classes--small, medium and large; and on the message arriving

of a more extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section

already know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls to

certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may always

be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the same message will

then simultaneously turn out the stronger body without any further

detailed instructions being necessary. In some towns the fire-call

automata are so arranged that the messenger can at once call for the

different classes of fire. This, however, is not to be recommended, as a

messenger will probably consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic

blaze, and will bring out too many engines.

_Equipment._--The following are characteristic features in the equipment

of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure water supply, some

brigades simply attend with hose-cars, life-saving gear and ladders; or,

instead of the hose-cars, take their manuals, which they practically

never use and which serve only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others

take, and make a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with

them ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time is

thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug; and in case of

a hydrant being out of order, there is always sufficient water at hand

until the second hydrant has been found. Many cities have introduced

chemical engines to take the place of this combination of water barrel

and manual engine. A supply of water is carried on the chemical engine.

Some cities always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,

only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at once

used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently of the

pressure there is in the water service. Where there is no good water

service, manuals or steamers have, of course, to be sent out, and are

supplied either from the low-pressure service or from the natural

waterways or wells. There are still a large number of cities where the

suburbs have no proper water service, and the water barrel is then very

handy for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the chemical

treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire, with the view of

increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals instead of water. In

certain localities fire appliances are still run out to fires by hand,

especially where there is a high pressure water system and hose carts

only are required. Generally the appliances are horsed. Motor traction

is, however, now rapidly superseding horse traction for reasons of

economy and the wider and more rapid range of efficiency.

As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely almost

entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend on scaling

ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence is placed in the

jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are much used; and there are a few

where wonderful work is done with life-lines. To indicate the diversity

with which any one appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the

fire service, it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different

ways in which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material of

the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape--whether

round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means of holding it, the

way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at what distance from the

endangered building the sheet is to be held. Last, but not least, come

the words of command.

_Working of Brigades._--In some forces all possible attention is given

to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others the speed at

which engines run to the fire is considered to be of primary importance.

Other brigades, again, give equal attention to both. There are brigades

which work entirely on military lines, each man having certain duties

marked out for him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are

others where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there are

combinations in the same way as regards command. Some chief officers

arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies, and control

the working of the brigade from a position of vantage at a distance.

Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire, perhaps at the branch

itself, or on some gallant life-saving exploit where they no doubt do

good work as a fireman, but in no way fulfil the office of commanders.

Officers must remember that they are officers, and not rank and file;

and this is generally very difficult to those who have advanced from the

ranks. Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to

their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must always be

in a good position where they can superintend everything pertaining to

the outbreak in question. Some brigades seem to make a point of working

quietly, and shouting is absolutely forbidden, all commands being given

by shrill whistles. In some brigades all commands are given by word of

mouth, and there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being

bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes trying. As a

rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.

Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others are

satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a distance. Some

attack the fire direct, others only try to protect what surrounds the

seat of the flames. Several brigades are ordered always to try to attack

by the natural routes of the front door and the staircases. In others,

the men always have to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the

aid of ladders--through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully

extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades boast of never

having damaged property unnecessarily. They have, for instance, had the

patience to suffocate a cellar fire, instead of putting the whole cellar

under water. In certain classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the

hand-pump have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction

than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which to

judge the training and handling of a fire brigade--to see what damage

they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and windows, when there

is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided, where every man in the

force feels that his first duty is to prevent damage and loss and his

second to extinguish the fire.

Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally stationed

at headquarters; where this division is split up into sections, there

would also be a distribution among the district centres; the salvage men

are simply part of the force, told off on special duty. Where there are

private salvage corps, their stations are generally near the

headquarters or district centres of the brigade, from which they receive

notice of the fire. In some cities the salvage corps work quite

independently; in others, they work under the chief of the brigade

directly they arrive at the fire.

As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with the fire

service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room to work in is

now fully recognized, and the police are at once called out and often

brought on to the scene in an incredibly short time. The value of these

measures should not be under-rated, especially in cities where rowdyism

exists. In many cities the ambulance service is also turned out to

fires. Where no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen

should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and gasmen are

also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many garrison towns the

military turn out to assist the fire brigade.

_National Fire Brigades' Union._--The National Fire Brigades' Union,

which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great Britain,

originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire brigades held

at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee on the 30th of

May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were present. Next

day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall, Oxford, and

it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades Union.

Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade, was

appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed first

president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through ill-health he

was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the union offered to

provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers for his regiment the

duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped corps were sent out to

the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein, South Africa, under

Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned the services rendered by the

firemen in his despatches.

The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own

council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the

central council. The districts are:--Eastern, Midlands, South Coast,

South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South

Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North Wales,

Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in 1902). There

are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents in America,

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,

Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, India and the

Federated Malay Straits. The total strength of the union is 667 fire

brigades and members with nearly 12,000 firemen. Every member of the

union gives his time and services for the benefit of the country; all

appointments are honorary, with the exception that a small allowance

is made for clerical assistance. A drill book is issued by the union,

and the fourth edition was published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these

books have been issued to brigades all over the world.

The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers. All

members have to come up for re-examination every three years, else

they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination is

more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association.

This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial fire

brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance work. A

very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the union

entitled _First Aid in the Fire Service_, by Chief Officer William

Ettles, M.D.

The union organized and took part in the International Fire

Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and 1896,

and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses at

Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It has also

held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal Palace, and

before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.

_Fire Brigade Organization._

Below are given examples of the organization of different fire brigades.

The brigades so described have been selected not so much on account of

their intrinsic importance, as because they represent classes or types

of brigades and fire brigade organization which it may be useful to

refer to. In respect of the London fire brigade, however, historical

data are also presented, as it is only with the aid of these that the

extraordinary development of that force can be properly realized.

With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire brigade, the

resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903 are reprinted below.

As they indicate, the general feeling amongst all interested in fire

protection from an economic point of view is that fire brigades should

not be merely fire extinguishing organizations but should utilize their

influence in a much wider sense.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" Volume 10, Slice 4 · 第 27 / 53 题