FINLAND FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM FITZWILLIAM
FINLAY, GEORGE FIUME
FINN MAC COOL FIVES
FINNO-UGRIAN FIX, THEODORE
FINSBURY FIXTURES
FINSTERWALDE FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS
FIORENZO DI LORENZO FJORD
FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA FLACCUS
FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES
FIR FLACIUS, MATTHIAS
FIRDOUSI FLACOURT, ETIENNE DE
FIRE FLAG
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION FLAGELLANTS
FIREBACK FLAGELLATA
FIRE BRAT FLAGEOLET
FIREBRICK FLAGSHIP
FIREFLY FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, JOSEPH
FIRE-IRONS FLAIL
FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO FLAMBARD, RANULF
FIRESHIP FLAMBOROUGH HEAD
FIRE-WALKING FLAMBOYANT STYLE
FIREWORKS FLAME
FIRM FLAMEL, NICOLAS
FIRMAMENT FLAMEN
FIRMAN FLAMINGO
FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS FLAMINIA, VIA
FIRMINY FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS
FIRST-FOOT FLAMINIUS, GAIUS
FIRST OF JUNE FLAMSTEED, JOHN
FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING FLANDERS
FIRTH, MARK FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE
FIRUZABAD FLANNEL
FIRUZKUH FLANNELETTE
FISCHART, JOHANN FLASK
FISCHER, EMIL FLAT
FISCHER, ERNST BERTHOLD FLATBUSH
FISH, HAMILTON FLAT-FISH
FISH FLATHEADS
FISHER, ALVAN FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE
FISHER, GEORGE PARK FLAVEL, JOHN
FISHER, JOHN FLAVIAN I.
FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER FLAVIAN II.
FISHERIES FLAVIAN
FISHERY FLAVIGNY
FISHGUARD FLAVIN
FISHKILL LANDING FLAX
FISK, JAMES FLAXMAN, JOHN
FISK, WILBUR FLEA
FISKE, JOHN FLECHE
FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN FLECHIER, ESPRIT
FISTULA FLECKEISEN, CARL WILHELM ALFRED
FIT FLECKNOE, RICHARD
FITCH, JOHN FLEET
FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FLEET PRISON
FITCH, RALPH FLEETWOOD, CHARLES
FITCHBURG FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM
FITTIG, RUDOLF FLEETWOOD
FITTON, MARY FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT
FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT
FITZBALL, EDWARD FLEMING, PAUL
FITZGERALD FLEMING, RICHARD
FITZGERALD, EDWARD FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD
FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD FLEMING, SIR THOMAS
FITZGERALD, RAYMOND FLEMISH LITERATURE
FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS FLENSBURG
FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY FLERS
FITZHERBERT, THOMAS FLETA
FITZ NEAL, RICHARD FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM
FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER FLETCHER, ANDREW
FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English author)
FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English poet)
FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM
FITZROY, ROBERT FLETCHER, PHINEAS
FITZROY FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK
FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT FLEUR-DE-LIS
FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM FLEURUS
FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD FLEURY
FITZWALTER, ROBERT FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE
FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM
FINLAND (Finnish, _Suomi_ or _Suomenmaa_), a grand-duchy governed
subject to its own constitution by the emperor of Russia as grand-duke
of Finland. It is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and
includes, moreover, a large territory in Lapland. It touches at its
south-eastern extremity the government of St Petersburg, includes the
northern half of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian
governments of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing into the
Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is
separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken line which takes the course
of the valley of the Tornea river up to its sources, thus falling only
21 m. short of reaching the head of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs
south-east and north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not
reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Aland
archipelago--its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the Swedish
coast--as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytars,
&c. Its utmost limits are: 59 deg. 48'--70 deg. 6' N., and 19 deg.
2'--32 deg. 50' E. The area of Finland, in square miles, is as follows
(_Altas de Finlande, 1899_):--
+----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
| Government. |Continent.| Islands | Islands | Lakes.| Total. |
| | |in Lakes.| in Seas.| | |
+----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
| Nyland | 4,062 | 24 | 210 | 286 | 4,582 |
| Abo-Bjorneborg | 7,594 | 8 | 1331 | 400 | 9,333 |
| Tavastehus | 6,837 | 97 | .. | 1,400 | 8,334 |
| Viborg | 11,630 | 362 | 130 | 4,502 | 16,624 |
| St Michel | 5,652 | 1018 | .. | 2,149 | 8,819 |
| Kuopio | 13,160 | 643 | .. | 2,696 | 16,499 |
| Vasa | 14,527 | 62 | 203 | 1,313 | 16,105 |
| Uleaborg | 60,348 | 171 | 94 | 3,344 | 63,957 |
+----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
| Total | 123,810 | 2385 | 1968 |16,090 |144,253 |
+----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
_Orography._--A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the
eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts,
the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to
the Kjolen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, and to the
slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White
Sea. At the head-waters of the Tornea, Finland penetrates as a narrow
strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjolen (the Keel), where the
Haldefjall (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and
is surrounded by other _fjalls_, or flat-topped summits, of from 3300
to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into
which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are
deeply sunk, and which take the character of a mountain region in the
Saariselka (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the remainder of
Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach
on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to 1000 ft. Quite different
is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs
of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line
traced through the lakes Ulea and Piellis. The meridional ridges which
formerly used to be traced here along the main water-partings do not
exist in reality, and the country appears on the hypsometrical map in
the _Atlas de Finlande_ as a plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude,
covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300
ft. The three main lake-basins of Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are
separated by low and flat hills only; but one sees distinctly
appearing on the map a line of flat elevations running south-west to
north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from
Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A
regular gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia
(Osterbotten), forming vast prairie tracts in its lower parts.
A notable feature of Finland are the _asar_ or narrow ridges of
morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some of
them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the
rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in
the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs
from Hangoudd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued farther east under the
name of Salpausellia, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As a
rule these forest-clothed _asar_ rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to
the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways are
traced in preference along them.
_Lakes and Rivers._--A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the
aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
(_fjarden_), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great
facilities for internal navigation, while the connecting streams
supply an enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake
Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three
and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen,
flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the
lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the Gulf of
Finland; the basins of Pyha-selka, Ori-vesi and Piellis-jarvi; Pajane,
surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are
discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; Nasi-jarvi
and Pyha-jarvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing into the Gulf
of Bothnia; Ulea-trask, discharged by the Ulea into the same gulf; and
Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. Two large rivers,
Kemi and Tornea, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Ulea
is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel.
_Geology._--Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits
are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and
also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in
the Kjolen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age are met with in the Kola
peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder
of Finland is built up of the oldest known crystalline rocks belonging
to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem
to be the granites of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of
the granites gave rise to the _Ladoga schists_ and various deposits of
the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the
country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in
West Finland, formed the so-called _Bothnian series_. New masses of
granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits
underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at work
on a grand scale. A new series of _Jatulian deposits_ was formed and a
new system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this part
of the globe. The _Jotnian series_, which were formed next, remain
still undisturbed. It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi
granite of Aland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine deposits
younger than those just mentioned--all belonging to a pre-Cambrian
epoch--are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater
part of the country has probably been dry land since Palaeozoic times.
The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial
deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine of the
ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial clays (partly of
lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral
coast-region--or in separate areas in the interior depressions. Some
Finnish geologists--Sederholm for one--consider it probable that
during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (_Yoldia_ sea) covered all
southern Finland and also Scania (Skane) in Sweden, thus connecting
the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad
channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in
Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a
post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the
Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to
260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces of a large inner
post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North America, have been
discovered. The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal
rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken),
from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero in the Baltic
provinces.
_Climate._--Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds
the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
isotherms of 41 deg. and 28 deg. Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from 9
deg. Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30 deg. along the south coast; while in
July the difference between the monthly averages is only eight
degrees, being 53 deg. in the north and 61 deg. in the south-east.
Everywhere, and especially in the interior, the winter lasts very
long, and early frosts (June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops.
The amount of rain and snow is from 25-1/2 in. along the south coast
to 13.8 in. in the interior of southern Finland.
_Flora_, _Forests_, _Fauna_.--The flora of Finland has been most
minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province.
These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651
in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the total
for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants are not met with
in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the
Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch fir
(_Pinus sylvestris_, L.), the fir (_Picea excelsa_, Link.); two
species of birch (_B. verrucosa_, Ehrh., and _B. odorata_, Bechst.),
as well as the birch-bush (_B. nana_); two species of _Alnus_
(_glutinosa_ and _incana_); the oak (_Q. pedunculata_, Ehrh.), which
grows only on the south coast; the poplar (_Populus tremula_); and the
Siberian larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over
6,000,000 trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large
saw-mills, and about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The
total export of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is
estimated, however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for
fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used
for export in different shapes. The total area under forests is
estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the
state. The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
necessary bibliographical indications in _Travaux geographiques en
Finlande_, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.
_Population._--The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in 1751,
832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was
2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 men. Of
these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country
districts. The distribution of population in various provinces was as
follows:--
+-----------------+------------+--------------+
| 1904. | Population.| Density per |
| | |sq. kilometre.|
+-----------------+------------+--------------+
| Abo-Bjorneborg | 447,098 | 20.3 |
| Kuopio | 313,951 | 8.9 |
| Nyland | 297,813 | 29.3 |
| St Michel | 189,360 | 11.1 |
| Tavastehus | 301,272 | 17.7 |
| Uleaborg | 280,899 | 1.9 |
| Viborg | 421,610 | 14.6 |
| Vasa | 460,460 | 12.5 |
+-----------------+------------+--------------+
| Total | 2,712,562 | 8.6 |
+-----------------+------------+--------------+
The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing
an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was estimated at
about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased
then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish autonomy. In 1899 the
emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952
in 1904.
The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes
(349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces
of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran
faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek Orthodox Church
and 755 Roman Catholics.
The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the
grand-duchy and of the province (_lan_) of Nyland, principal seaport
(111,654 inhabitants); Abo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province and
ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading
manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of
province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleaborg, capital
of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa lan
(18,028); Bjorneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519);
and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545).
_Industries._--Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority of
the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has been
marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign exports
of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. Measures
have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the
state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose.
There are two high schools, one experimental station, twenty-two
middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides
ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies exist in each
province.
Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of fish,
&c., was L140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of
L61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy,
machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern development, but
the aggregate production approaches one and a half millions sterling
in value.
Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output,
which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951
grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and iron. The
last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes. In
1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile industries
are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high
duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of paper out of wood is
also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, there are upwards of 500
saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over
L3,000,000 annually.
_Communications._--The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500
m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway was
opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in
1870 (cost only L4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type began to
be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of railway,
mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the state
railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. Finland
has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced
canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one.
It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 m. inland, and
is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. Considerable works
have also been made to connect the different lakes and lake-basins
for inland navigation, a sum of L1,000,000 having been spent for that
purpose.
The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an enormous
extension both in the towns and between the different towns of
southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 40
to 60 marks,[1] and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.
_Commerce._--The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
reached in 1904 the following values:--
+---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
| | From or to | From or to | Totals. |
| | Russia. |other Countries.| |
+---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
| Imports | L4,036,000 | L6,488,000 | L10,524,000 |
| Exports | 2,332,000 | 6,292,000 | 8,624,000 |
+---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports are:
cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding L3,000,000), metals,
machinery, textile materials and textile products. The chief articles
of export are: timber and wood articles (L5,250,000), paper and paper
pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. The chief ports are
Helsingfors, Abo, Viborg, Hango and Vasa.
_Education._--Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new
education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
given in the maternal house, or in "maternal schools," or by
ambulatory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the
necessary examination in the houses of every parish. All education
above that level is in the hands of the educational department and
school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound
(since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts
and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these
expenses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each female
teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. Secondary
education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and
scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to
scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or
gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors
(formerly the Abo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328
women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the Helsingfors
polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical,
commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several scientific
societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific
Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several
medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian
Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical,
one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, as also
the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, &c., issue
publications well known to the scientific world. The numerous local
branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular
Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller
communes in establishing schools, and the latter in publishing popular
works, starting their own schools as well as free libraries (in nearly
every commune), and organizing lectures for the people. The university
students take a lively part in this work.
_Government and Administration._--From the time of its union with Russia
at the Diet of Borga in 1809 till the events of 1899 (see _History_)
Finland was practically a separate state, the emperor of Russia as
grand-duke governing by means of a nominated senate and a diet elected
on a very narrow franchise, and meeting at distant and irregular
intervals. This diet was on the old Swedish model, consisting of
representatives of the four estates--nobility, clergy, burghers and
peasants--sitting and voting in separate "Houses." The government of the
country was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the Russian
government. War and foreign affairs were entirely in the hands of
Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence in Helsingfors. The
senate also controlled the administration of the law. The constitutional
conflict of 1899-1905 brought about something like a revolution in
Finland. For some years the country was subject to a practically
arbitrary form of government, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese
War and the growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution. As a
Finnish writer puts it: "just as the calamities which had befallen
Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to come from Russia."
The _status quo ante_ was restored, the diet met in extraordinary
session, and proceeded to the entire recasting of the Finnish
government. Freedom of the press was voted, and the diet next proceeded
to reform its own constitution. Far-reaching changes were voted. The
new diet, instead of being composed of four estates sitting separately,
consists of a single chamber of 200 members elected directly by
universal suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not more
than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion to
population. A scheme of "proportional representation," the votes being
counted in accordance with the system invented by G.M. d'Hondt, a
Belgian, was also adopted. The executive was to consist of a
minister-secretary of state and of the members of the senate, who were
entitled to attend and address the diet and who might be the subject of
interpellations. The members of the senate were made responsible to the
diet as well as to the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has
power to consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government.
After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty of the
senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate is not obliged
to accept the decision of the majority of the diet, nor, apparently, is
the sovereign bound to accept the advice of the senate. The first
elections, April 1907, resulted in the election to the diet of about 40%
representatives of the Social Democratic party, and nineteen women
members. The budget of Finland in 1905 was L4,273,970 of "ordinary"
revenue. The "ordinary" expenditure was L3,595,300. The public debt
amounted at the end of 1905 to L5,611,170.
_History._--It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning of
the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what is now Finland,
though it was only when Christianity was introduced, about 1157, that
they were brought into contact with civilized Europe. They probably
found the Lapps in possession of the country. The early Finlanders do
not seem to have had any governmental organization, but to have lived in
separate communities and villages independent of each other. Their
mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, as
"Ukko," the god of the air, "Tapio," god of the forests, "Ahti," the god
of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to have been both brave and
troublesome to their neighbours, and their repeated attacks on the coast
of Sweden drew the attention of the kings of that country. King Eric IX.
(St Eric), accompanied by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it
is said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the country in
1157, when the people were conquered and baptized. King Eric left Bishop
Henry with his priests and some soldiers behind to confirm the conquest
and complete the conversion. After a time he was killed, canonized, and
as St Henry became the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend
to her own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence and
paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, Thomas (also an
Englishman), arrived and recommenced the work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas
nearly succeeded in detaching Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a
province subject only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a
crusade in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the
subdivisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and
building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who conquered and
connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and built the strong castle
of Viborg. Almost continuous wars between Russia and Sweden were the
result of the conquest of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled
that the river Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by the Swedes,
they spread among the Finlanders their civilization, gave them laws,
accorded them the same civil rights as belonged to themselves, and
introduced agriculture and other beneficial arts. The Reformed religion
was introduced into Finland by Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John
III. raised the country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to
suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by Sweden,
especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor having created an
order of nobility,--counts, barons and nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the
beginning of the 17th century established the diet of Finland, composed
of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants.
Gustavus and his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing
printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696) the country
suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the diocese of Abo
alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months. Finland has been
visited at different periods since by these scourges; so late as 1848
whole villages were starved during a dreadful famine. Peter the Great
cast an envious eye on Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in
1710 he managed to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and
Villmanstrand; and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime
the sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished in the
wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721 the province of
Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was finally ceded to Russia.
But the country had been laid very low by war, pestilence and famine,
though it recovered itself with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes
made an effort to recover the ceded province, but through wretched
management suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
1742, ceding by the peace of Abo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand
and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have occurred till 1788,
under Gustavus III., who began to reign in 1771, and who confirmed to
Finland those "fundamental laws" which they have succeeded in
maintaining against kings and tsars for over two centuries. The country
was divided into six governments, a second superior court of justice was
founded at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the academic
language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war again broke out between
Sweden and Russia, and was carried on for two years without much glory
or gain to either party, the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the
lost Finnish province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the cession in
1809 of the whole of Finland and the Aland Islands to Russia. Finland,
however, did not enter Russia as a conquered province, but, thanks to
the bravery of her people after they had been abandoned by an
incompetent monarch and treacherous generals, and not less to the wisdom
and generosity of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her
free constitution and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates were summoned to
a free diet at Borga and accepted Alexander as grand-duke of Finland, he
on his part solemnly recognizing the Finnish constitution and
undertaking to preserve the religion, laws and liberties of the country.
A senate was created and a governor-general named. The province of
Viborg was reunited to Finland in 1811, and Abo remained the capital of
the country till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were
removed to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had
not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors in
1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous and
progressive, and his statue in the great square in front of the
cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors testifies to the regard in
which his memory is cherished by his Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his
successor soon fell under the influence of the reactionary party which
had begun to assert itself in Russia even before the assassination of
Alexander II. One of Alexander III.'s first acts was to confirm "the
constitution which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious memory, and
developed with the consent of the estates of Finland by our dearly
beloved father of blessed memory the emperor Alexander Nicolaievich."
But the Slavophil movement, with its motto, "one law, one church, one
tongue," acquired great influence in official circles, and its aim was,
in defiance of the pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to
Orthodoxy and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the defenders of the
Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were complicated by the
rivalry between the Swedish party, which had hitherto been dominant in
Finland, and the Finnish "nationalist" party which, during the latter
half of the 19th century, had been determinedly asserting itself
linguistically and politically. With some exceptions, however, the whole
country united in defence of its constitution; "Fennoman" and
"Svecoman," recognizing that their common liberties were at stake,
suspended their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
(see RUSSIA) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the "February
manifesto" (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated the legislative
power of the Finnish diet. A new military law, practically amalgamating
the Finnish with the Russian forces, followed in July 1901; Russian
officials and the Russian language were forced on Finland wherever
possible, and in April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was
invested with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the expenses
being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian system was now in
full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests and banishments, and the
suppression of newspapers, were the order of the day. To all this the
people of Finland opposed a dogged and determined resistance, which
culminated in November 1905 in a "national strike." The strike was
universal, all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
steamship, telephone and postal services were practically suspended.
Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and electricity; no shops
except provision shops were open; public departments, schools and
restaurants were closed. After six days the unconstitutional
government--already much shaken by events in Russia and
Manchuria--capitulated. In an imperial manifesto dated the 7th of
November 1905 the demands of Finland were granted, and the _status quo
ante_ 1899 was restored.
But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution, although
precious to those whose only protection it was, was an antiquated and
not very efficient instrument of government. Popular feeling had been
excited by the political conflict, advanced tendencies had declared
themselves, and when the new diet met it proceeded as explained above to
remodel the constitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with
freedom of the press, speech, meeting and association.
In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The Imperial
government insisted that the decision in all Finnish questions affecting
the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed attempt was made to
curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.
_Ethnology._--The term Finn has a wider application than Finland, being,
with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) or Ugro-Finnic, the
collective name of the westernmost branch of the Ural-Altaic family,
dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, the Baltic provinces (Esthonia,
Livonia, Curland), parts of Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both
banks of middle Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural
Mountains and the Yenissei) and Hungary.
Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people except
the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence of
civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be
distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who retain their
Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race, of low stature, with
almost round head, low forehead, flat features, prominent cheek bones,
eyes mostly grey and oblique (inclining inwards), short and flat nose,
protruding mouth, thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the
occiput seems flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard
weak and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion also somewhat
brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, faithful and
submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom and independence, but
also somewhat stolid, revengeful and indolent. Many of these physical
and moral characteristics they have in common with the so-called
"Mongolian" race, to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also
linguistically, related.
Considerable researches have been accomplished since about 1850 in the
ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale which has no parallel
in any other country. The study of the prehistoric population of
Finland--Neolithic (no Palaeolithic finds have yet been made)--of the
Age of Bronze and the Iron Age has been carried on with great zeal. At
the same time the folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked
out with wonderful completeness (see _L'Oeuvre demi-seculaire de la
Societe de Litterature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois_, by Dr
E.G. Palmen, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn's report to the London
Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun by Porthan, Z.
Topelius, and especially E. Lonnrot (1802-1884), for collecting the
popular poetry of the Finns, was continued by Castren (1813-1852),
Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka (1854-1889), who extended their
researches to the Finns settled in other parts of the Russian empire,
and collected a considerable number of variants of the _Kalewala_ and
other popular poetry and songs. In order to study the different eastern
kinsfolk of the Finns, Sjogren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
North Russia, and Castren to West and East Siberia (_Nordische Reisen
und Forschungen_), and collected the materials which permitted himself
and Schiefner to publish grammatical works relative to the Finnish,
Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas,
Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx
of linguists, continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and
the Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (_Foundations of
Finno-Ugrian Archaeology_, in Finnish, and _Atlas of Antiquities_) led
the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their attention to the
basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga. A series of expeditions (of
Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were consequently directed to those
regions, especially since the discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable
Orkhon inscriptions (see TURKS, p. 473), which finally enabled the
Danish linguist, V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to
discover that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See _Inscriptions
de l'Ienissei recueillies et publiees par la Societe Finl.
d'Archeologie_, 1889, and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, 1892.)
AUTHORITIES.--The general history of Finland is fully treated by Yrjo
Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889). Both works have
been translated into German. The constitutional conflict gave rise to
a host of books and pamphlets in various languages. Mechelin,
Danielson and Hermanson were the leading writers on the Finnish side,
and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the political documents have been
published and translated. A finely illustrated book, _Finland in the
Nineteenth Century_, by various Finnish writers, gives an excellent
account of the country; also Reuter's _Finlandia_, a very complete
work with an exhaustive bibliography. The constitutional question was
fully discussed in English in _Finland and the Tsars_, by J.R. Fisher
(2nd ed., 1900). _The Atlas de Finlande_, published in 1899 by the
Geographical Society of Finland, is a remarkably well executed and
complete work. _The Statistical Annual for Finland--Statistisk Arsbok
for Finland_--published annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in
Helsingfors, gives the necessary figures.
(P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*)
_Finnish Literature._
The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael Agricola
(1506-1557), who published an _A B C Book_ in 1544, and, as bishop of
Abo, a number of religious and educational works. A version of the New
Testament in Finnish was printed by Agricola in 1548, and some books of
the Old Testament in 1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at
Stockholm in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable to
the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the poets of
Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a wider audience.
It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of Finland, the _Kalewala_
(q.v.), was introduced to readers by the exertions of Elias Lonnrot
(q.v.), that the Finnish language was used for literary composition.
Lonnrot also collected and edited the works of the peasant-poets P.
Korhonen (1775-1840) and Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing
the improvisations of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last
quarter of the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary
activity in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the
publication of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the political
troubles, books in almost every branch of research are found in the
language, mainly translations or adaptations. We meet with, during the
present century, a considerable number of names of poets and dramatists,
no doubt very minor, as also painters, sculptors and musical composers.
At the Paris International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish
painters and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied a
position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution to a history
of Finnish literature is Krohn's _Suomenkielinen runollisuns
ruotsinvallan aikana_ (1862). Finland is wonderfully rich in periodicals
of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish Societies of Literature
and of Sciences and other learned bodies being specially valuable. A
great work in the revival of an interest in the Finnish language was
done by the _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura_ (the Finnish Literary
Society), which from the year 1841 has published a valuable annual,
_Suomi_. The Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition
of the works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published at
Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjo Koskinen, and has been translated into
both Swedish and German. The author was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the
above form being a Finnish translation. Other works on Finnish history
and some important works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In
language we have Lonnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner's _Comparative
Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig) is in
German. In imaginative literature Finland has produced several important
writers of the vernacular. Alexis Stenwall ("Kiwi") (1834-1872), the son
of a village tailor, was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular
dramas and an historical romance, _The Seven Brothers_ (1870). Among
recent playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895), P. Cajander
(b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish, and Karl Bergbom (b.
1843). Among lyric poets are J.H. Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jannes (b. 1848)
and Yrjo Weijola (b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari
Paivarinta (b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a
grimly realistic story, _His Life_. Many of the popular Finnish authors
of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio Filander a
farmer; Heikki Mavilainen a smith; Juhana Kokko (Kyosti) a gamekeeper.
The most gifted of the writers of Finland, however, is certainly Juhani
Aho (b. 1861), the son of a country clergyman. His earliest writings
were studies of modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went
to reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods of the
leading French novelists of the newer school. About the year 1893 he
began to publish short stories, some of which, such as _Enris_, _The
Fortress of Matthias_, _The Old Man of Korpela_ and _Finland's Flag_,
are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a very interesting
degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary Finnish population.
It has been well said that in the writings of Juhani Aho can be traced
all the idiosyncrasies which have formed the curious and pathetic
history of Finland in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b.
1857), in tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country life.
Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Jarnefelt (b. 1861). Santeri
Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naively, but not without skill, has followed
in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to exaggerate either the force
or the originality of these early developments of a national Finnish
literature, which, moreover, are mostly brief and unambitious in
character. But they are eminently sincere, and they have the great merit
of illustrating the local aspects of landscape and temperament and
manners.
AUTHORITIES.--E.G. Palmen, _L'Oeuvre demi-seculaire de la Suomalaisen
Kirjallisuuden Seura_, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882); J. Krohn,
_Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet_ (Helsingfors, 1897); F.W.
Pipping, _Forteckning ofver bocker pa finska spraket_ (Helsingfors,
1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, _Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und
seiner Dichter_ (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, _Popular Poetry of the
Finns_ (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, _Ofversigt af Finlands
Litteraturhistoria for skolor_ (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using
the Swedish language, see SWEDEN: _Literature_. (E. G.)