THE FALL OF FORT FISHER. -- THE NAVY ENDS ITS WORK.
In noticing the work of the blockading-fleet, we have spoken of the
fine harbor of Wilmington, and the powerful works that defended its
entrance. This Confederate stronghold was known as Fort Fisher, and
had been for a long time a cause of anxiety and worry to the Northern
authorities. The war had gone past Fort Fisher. To the north and to
the south of it, the country was under the sway of the Federal
authorities; but there in North Carolina stood the formidable bastions
over which floated, in defiance of the laws of the Union, the stars
and bars of the rapidly dying Confederacy. With its connected
batteries, Fort Fisher mounted seventy-five guns, and was stronger
than the celebrated Malakoff at Sebastopol.
To reduce this stronghold, a joint naval and military expedition was
fitted out; and Gen. Butler was placed in command of the land forces,
while Admiral Porter, torn from his beloved Western rivers, was given
command of the fleet. Butler introduced a novel feature at the very
opening of the siege. He procured an old steamer, and had her packed
full of gunpowder. On a dark night this craft was towed close to the
walls of the fort and set afire, in the hopes that she might, in
blowing up, tear the works to pieces. But in this the projectors were
disappointed; for the explosion, though a terrific one, did absolutely
no harm to the Confederate works. When Porter finally did get into the
fort, he asked a soldier what he thought of the attempt to blow them
up. "It was a mighty mean trick," responded the Southerner
satirically. "You woke us all up."
After this fiasco had set all the world laughing, Butler retired
voluntarily, and was succeeded by Gen. Terry; and on Christmas Eve of
the year 1864 the fleet began the bombardment, although the land
forces were not yet prepared for the assault. It was the grandest
armada that was ever arrayed against any fortress. The thunder of
nearly five hundred guns rent the air on that Christmas Eve, when
carols were being sung in Christian churches throughout the world.
Tremendous as was the cannonade, the earthworks were almost a match
for it. The fort was not a mass of masonry that these enormous guns
might batter down and crumble into rubbish, but a huge bank of earth
in which the shells might harmlessly bury themselves. But five hundred
cannon are more than a match for any fort, and so they soon proved to
be in this instance. Earthworks, guns, and men alike went down before
them. The iron-clads were stationed about three-quarters of a mile
from the fort, a little farther out were the frigates and heavy
sloops, and still beyond were the smaller vessels,--all firing to
cover themselves; and all along the whole extended line there blazed
one almost continuous sheet of flame, while the rolling thunder of the
broadsides, and the defiant answering roar from the guns of the forts,
shook earth and sea. Clouds of dust went up from the bastions of the
fort, and mingled with the floating smoke above. Within the forts,
there was a scene of the most terrible confusion: guns were
overturned, piles of cannon-balls were knocked to pieces and scattered
about, and two magazines were blown up and scattered fragments all
over the parade. In one hour and a quarter all the gunners were driven
to the bomb-proofs, and the forts were silenced, not returning a
single shot.
[Illustration: Charge of Sailors at Fort Fisher.]
On Christmas morning Gen. Terry arrived with all his transports, and
the attack was recommenced. Early in the morning the ships fell into
position and began a slow fire, merely to cover the landing of the
troops. Again the garrison was driven to the bomb-proofs; and, indeed,
so entirely were they chased from their posts, that a Federal soldier
went into the fort and brought off a Confederate flag without ever
having been seen by the garrison. All the troops were landed; but
for some reason the attack was deferred, much to the disgust of the
officers of the fleet, who felt sure that the fort could be taken then
by a dash. But the troops returned to their transports or went into
camp, and it was not until weeks after that the assault was fairly
made. In the mean time, the ships rode out the winter gales at their
anchors, doing a little desultory firing to keep the garrison in a
state of unrest.
On the 14th of January the heavy bombardment began again, and again
the troops were landed. By night it was seen that every gun on the
face of the fort was disabled, and it was decided to storm the works
the next day. Sixteen hundred sailors and four hundred marines were
told off as the storming-party.
Early in the morning the ships began a fierce cannonade, under cover
of which the sailors and marines landed, and threw up light
breastworks to cover them until the time should be ripe for the
charge. The arrangements contemplated a fierce charge by the
blue-jackets, armed with their cutlasses and revolvers; while the
marines, remaining in the rifle-pits, should cover the advancing party
with a hot fire of musketry. The soldiers from the army-camp were to
charge the fort on the other side.
At three o'clock came the signal that all was ready. The whistles of
the ships rent the air; and the blue-jackets, with ringing cheers,
dashed in a compact body up the beach. But in an instant the
Confederate ramparts were black with men, and a furious fire of
musketry rained down upon the sailors, who were helpless. The marines
in the rifle-pits failed to do what was expected of them, and the
sailors halted for a moment in surprise.
As they stood, a most destructive fire rained down upon them; and the
poor fellows, grasping their useless cutlasses, turned and fled down
the beach, leaving great heaps of dead and wounded behind. Then the
Confederates, thinking the day was theirs, sprang on the ramparts, and
began a vigorous cheer just as the Union soldiers came pouring over
the landward face of the fort. Then ensued a fierce hand-to-hand fight
that lasted for hours. The blue-jackets, encouraged, rushed back to
the fight, and now at close quarters swung their cutlasses with deadly
effect, until step by step the Confederates were driven out of the
fort. Then the fleet opened upon them, and they fled for dear life
while a sailor sprang to the flagstaff and pulled down the Confederate
flag. Fort Fisher had fallen. It was a noble victory, and formed a
fitting climax to the work of the navy throughout that great war.
With the fall of Fort Fisher, the navy ceased to be a prominent factor
in the war. Its work was done. Along the seacoast, and inland as far
as navigable rivers extended, the ships of the North had carried the
starry banner; and the sailor-boys of the North had defended it. And
their opponents, whether on sea or shore, had shown themselves
courageous and dashing, and worthy to be numbered as men of the same
nation as those who proved the victors. And who can doubt, that,
should the need arise, the sons of these men will show that they have
in their veins the blood that animated the Blue-Jackets of '61?
PART IV
BLUE JACKETS IN TIMES OF PEACE
CHAPTER I.
POLICE SERVICE ON THE HIGH SEAS. -- WAR SERVICE IN ASIATIC PORTS.
-- LOSSES BY THE PERILS OF THE DEEP. -- A BRUSH WITH THE PIRATES.
-- ADMIRAL RODGERS AT COREA. -- SERVICES IN ARCTIC WATERS. -- THE
DISASTER AT SAMOA. -- THE ATTACK ON THE "BALTIMORE'S" MEN AT
VALPARAISO. -- LOSS OF THE "KEARSARGE." -- THE NAVAL REVIEW.
The years immediately following the civil war were particularly quiet
and uneventful for the navy. The department was chiefly engaged in the
work of reducing the forces and adapting the navy to the changed
conditions. At the termination of the war an immense naval armament
had been developed, and the navy had assumed a magnitude which made
the United States foremost among the naval powers. This force was
gradually reduced to a peace standard. The volunteers were discharged
and retired from service. The large number of captured and purchased
vessels were disposed of. The home squadrons were withdrawn, and
squadrons established abroad. The ships in foreign stations displayed
an unprecedented energy and activity, visiting, in 1866, nearly every
large port in the world, including several in China which had never
before been entered by an American man-of-war. The reception of
Rear-Admiral Bell in his flagship, the "Hartford," by the Japanese,
was manifestly more hospitable than that given to any other nation.
Admiral Farragut was made commander of the European squadron in 1867,
and he was received with distinguished attention by the sovereigns and
dignitaries of Europe. The "Swatara," of the European squadron, was
ordered, in November, 1866, to Civita Vecchia, a port in Italy, to
bring to the United States John H. Surratt, who was charged with being
implicated in the assassination of Lincoln. The fugitive was
apprehended, but he escaped, and fled into the papal dominions. He was
recaptured at Alexandria, and in February was delivered to the marshal
of the District of Columbia.
The Japanese made further advances of a friendly character toward the
United States in 1867, when the "Shenandoah," of the Asiatic squadron,
with the American minister aboard, arrived at the port of Hakodadi,
and the first salute ever given in honor of a foreign minister was
fired. Just previous to this, the Japanese government had expressed
its willingness to open an additional port on the western coast to
foreign trade, and Commodore Goldsborough, in command of the
"Shenandoah," visited and made surveys of several harbors in which no
foreign ship had ever before anchored.
News was received by Rear-Admiral Bell, in the autumn of 1866, that
the schooner "General Sherman" had been wrecked in the Ping Yang
River, one of the streams of Corea, and that her officers, crew, and
passengers had been murdered by the natives. The Rear-Admiral
despatched one of the vessels of his squadron, the "Wachusett," to
investigate the matter, and demand from the authorities that the
survivors, if any, be delivered on board the "Wachusett." The King of
Corea was communicated with, but without satisfactory results. It was
found that there were no survivors of the schooner. A few months
afterward information reached Rear-Admiral Bell that a similar outrage
had been perpetrated on the southeast end of the island of Formosa. It
was reported that the American bark "Rover" had been wrecked, and all
on board murdered. Commander Febiger, with the "Ashuelot," found that
the crime had been committed by a horde of savages, who, the
authorities of the island said, were not obedient to their laws.
Rear-Admiral Bell left Shanghai in June, with the "Wyoming" and
"Hartford," with the intention of destroying, if possible, the
lurking-places of the savages. On the 18th of June the vessels
anchored half a mile from shore, and 181 officers, sailors, and
marines were landed, under the command of Commander Belknap, of the
"Hartford," and Lieutenant-Commander Alexander S. Mackenzie. As the
company approached the hills the natives, dressed in clouts, with
their bodies painted, and muskets glistening in the sun, descended to
meet them, fighting from the long grass. After delivering their fire,
they would retreat, and form ambuscades, into which the men from the
ships frequently fell in charging after them. In one of these
Lieutenant-Commander Mackenzie was mortally wounded. After fighting
under the intensely hot sun for six hours, during which period several
of the attacking party suffered sunstroke, they returned to their
ships, the expedition having proved a failure.
The navy performed a valuable maritime service in 1867, by locating and
surveying a shoal which was reported to exist twenty miles west of
Georges Shoal, and directly in the track of vessels bound to and from
Europe. The shoal was found by Commander Chandler with the United States
steamer "Don," and mariners were made cognizant of a danger which
probably had been fatal to many vessels. In the same year the "Sacramento,"
Captain Napoleon Collins, while on an important cruise, was wrecked on
the reefs off the mouth of the Kothapalem River in the Bay of Bengal.
The vessel proved a total wreck, but without loss of life. Those aboard
effected thrilling escapes by means of rafts. The navy suffered another
misfortune in 1868, in the drowning of Rear-Admiral Bell, commander of
the Asiatic squadron, Lieutenant-Commander J. H. Reed, and ten of the
crew of the Admiral's barge, which was upset in crossing the bar near
Osaka, few days after the opening by the Japanese of that port and Hioto
to foreigners. Another disaster occurred in 1869. Twenty-seven officers
and men of the "Fredonia" were drowned at Arica, on the western coast of
South America The "Fredonia" and "Wateree" were resting at anchor when a
shock of earthquake was felt. The sea receded and left the former vessel
on the bottom; a moment afterward the wave rolled back, breaking the
ship into fragments. The "Wateree" was thrown upon the shore; its
position was such that the expense of launching would have been greater
than the worth of the vessel, and it was consequently sold. A year
previous to its catastrophe, the "Monongahela," in the harbor of St.
Croix, was swept from her moorings by the force of an earthquake, and
carried by a wave over the warehouses into one of the streets of the
town. Five of her crew were lost. The vessel, after an interval of some
months, was relaunched.
The Cuban rebellion, which began in 1868, occasioned activity on the
part of some of the cruisers to prevent violations of the neutrality
law and to protect the interests of American citizens. A company of
Cuban filibusters, encamped on Gardiner's Island, near the eastern end
of Long Island, were captured by Lieutenant Breese, in command of the
revenue cutter "Mahoning," and fifty marines. The prisoners, to the
number of one hundred and twenty-five, were taken to New York. On the
island of Cuba some outrages were perpetrated upon American citizens
by the Spanish authorities. Rear-Admiral Hoff, in command of the North
Atlantic squadron, was ordered to Santiago de Cuba for the better
protection of American interests, and no further aggressions occurred.
Two disasters in the navy ushered in the year 1870. In the Bay of
Yeddo, on January 24th, the steam-sloop "Oneida," just after leaving
Yokohama for Hong Kong, was run into and sunk by the English steamer
"Bombay," with the loss of twenty officers and ninety-six men. The tug
"Marie" was sunk in the same month, with a loss of four men, in Long
Island Sound. In October of the same year, Commander Sicard of the
"Saginaw" determined to run to Ocean Island, a small island about a
hundred miles west of the Midways, to rescue any sailors who might
have been shipwrecked there. The "Saginaw" was herself wrecked on a
reef off the perilous coast, but her men, after extreme exertions,
landed safely on the shores of the uninhabited island. Here they lived
for some months. They were rescued by a steamer from the Sandwich
Islands, sent to their aid by the authorities of the islands, who had
been informed of the accident by William Halford, one of the crew,
who, with Lieutenant Talbot and three others, had volunteered to make
the trip from Ocean Island to Honolulu, a distance of 1,500 miles, in
an open boat. After thirty-one days of great danger and hardship, they
arrived off one of the Hawaiian group of islands. In attempting to
land, the boat was upset in the surf, and all but Halford were
drowned.
At various times during the years 1871 and 1872, the marines of the
Brooklyn Navy Yard rendered very efficient aid to the revenue officers
in quelling riots in Brooklyn which grew out of the raiding of illicit
distilleries. In July, 1871, Captain Gilbert was killed and several
men wounded by the rioters.
[Illustration: Attack on a Corean Fort.]
The steamer "Forward," bearing the San Salvador flag, landed 200
desperadoes at Guaymas, Mexico, in June, 1870, and these outlaws took
possession of the custom-house. They forced the foreign merchants
to furnish them with funds and goods, and compelled the United States'
consul to supply coal for their vessel, their purpose being to become
pirates on a large scale. Commander Low, of the "Mohican," upon
learning these facts, sailed from Mazatlan, and overtook the "Forward"
while still in the Gulf of California. She was attacked in the harbor
of Boca Teacapan by six boatloads of sailors and marines from the
"Mohican," and was captured and burned.
It seemed desirable, in 1871, that some arrangement should be made
with the people of Corea whereby sailors wrecked upon these shores
should have protection. With this end in view our Minister to China,
accompanied by Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, with the "Colorado," the
"Alaska," the "Benicia," the "Monocacy," and the "Palos," vessels of
the Asiatic squadron, sailed to Corea, anchoring in the Sale River.
The local authorities were assured that the visit was a perfectly
peaceful one, and they in turn gave evidences of a peaceful spirit.
But when a party engaged in making surveys and soundings for the
safety of commerce had got beyond a point where they could be
protected by the cruisers' guns, they were fired upon by the Coreans,
and were forced to re-pass the Corean forts under a fierce cannonade.
Admiral Rodgers and the minister determined that an explanation should
be at once demanded. No answer having been received from the Coreans
after an interval of ten days, it was decided that an attack should be
made upon the forts from which the shots had been fired. A party of
about 700 of the sailors and marines were landed, and after a march
through mud which rose to their knees, the first fort was captured
without serious resistance. The next day, other forts were easily
taken, and preparations were made to attack the horseshoe-shaped
citadel, which was defended by a garrison of a thousand Corean
soldiers. A few shells from the vessels, judiciously planted among the
Coreans, frightened and disconcerted them; but they made a stubborn
fight until their ammunition gave out. The attacking party swarmed
over the walls. Then ensued a desperate hand-to-hand fight The Coreans
expected no quarter, and fought till all who had not fled had been
killed or wounded. Lieutenant Hugh McKee, who was the first man to
climb over the ramparts, fell with a mortal wound. Two hundred and
forty-seven dead Coreans were counted within the works. Five forts and
a large number of flags and cannon had been captured. The gallant
conduct of the men of the navy made a deep impression on the people of
the China coast and led to the increased consideration and safety of
American citizens in those localities.
On Saturday morning, November 26, 1877, occurred one of the most
disastrous wrecks in the history of the navy. The steam sloop-of-war
"Huron" struck the rocks near Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, in a heavy
gale and was wrecked, with the loss of nearly a hundred officers and
men. The boats were washed from the davits and the thirty-four persons
who were saved reached the shore by swimming. Ensign Lucien Young
landed on the beach after desperate efforts, and spread the alarm. His
sturdy activity resulted in the saving of several lives.
The members of a naval exploring expedition, which had sailed in the
"Polaris" for the Arctic regions in 1871, were rescued from boats and
the floating ice in Baffin's Bay in 1873, the "Polaris" having been
abandoned as a wreck.
The United States steamer "Rodgers," commanded by Lieutenant Robert M.
Berry, was detailed in 1881 to search for the exploring party
organized by James Gordon Bennett and headed by Lieutenant-Commander
DeLong, which had embarked in the "Jeannette" for the far north and
had been last heard of in August, 1879. The "Rodgers" was burned and
abandoned in St. Laurence Bay, Siberia, in November, 1881; but
Lieutenant Berry continued his search on the coast. In the early
spring he learned that one party from the "Jeannette," that of
Chief-Engineer Melville, had been saved and was searching for the
other two parties which had become separated from the first in a storm
while attempting to escape from the Arctic seas in open boats after
the "Jeannette" had been crushed and sunk by the ice. Lieutenant Berry
soon afterward met Chief-Engineer Melville's party and learned that
the bodies of Lieutenant DeLong and his companions had been found.
Search for the other party which had been led by Lieutenant Chipp was
continued, and the Navy Department fitted out another vessel, the
"Alliance," to aid in the possible rescue. But Lieutenant Chipp and
his men were never found.
[Illustration: Wreck of United States War-Ships off Samoa.]
During the massacres by Egyptian troops under Arabi Pasha in
Alexandria, in 1882, when more than two hundred European residents
were killed or wounded, the flagship "Lancaster," under Captain
Gherardi, was in the harbor and afforded a place of refuge for large
numbers of men, women, and children. A large body of marines with a
detachment of naval artillery landed in the city and were of much
service in restoring order.
Another Arctic expedition was fitted out in the spring of 1883. Three
vessels, the "Thetis," "Alert," and "Bear," left New York by order of
the Navy Department to search for Lieutenant Greely and his party,
comprising what is known as the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition. After a
long voyage, in which the vessels were several times in imminent
peril, they passed around Cape Sabine and found Lieutenant Greely and
the seven survivors of his party. Their condition was so enfeebled
that they could have lived only a little longer. On August 8th the
relief squadron and the rescued party arrived in New York.
An insurrection broke out in the United States of Colombia in the
spring of 1885, during which the city of Aspinwall was in great part
destroyed. The affair assumed such a serious aspect that the vessels
of the North Atlantic squadron, under Rear Admiral Jouett, were
ordered to Aspinwall, and in addition to the fleet, the Navy
Department sent a force consisting of about seven hundred and fifty
from New York, for the special purpose of operating on shore. Upon his
arrival at Aspinwall, on April 10th, Rear-Admiral Jouett issued orders
for the landing of a force to open the transit across the isthmus, and
on the 12th, trains were run as usual. On April 28th, the insurgents
capitulated, and shortly afterward the United States naval force was
withdrawn.
One of the most severe disasters that ever befell the United States
Navy in time of peace occurred on the 16th of March, 1889, when,
during a hurricane in the harbor of Apia, Samoa, the "Trenton" and
"Vandalia" were totally wrecked, and the "Nipsic" was run on shore to
save her from destruction. Five officers and forty-six men lost their
lives in this catastrophe. Nothing that skill and experience could
suggest was left undone to avert the disaster, but the vessels were
equipped with old-fashioned engines, whose steam-power was not strong
enough to withstand the fury of the gale. The value of high-pressure
engines in war vessels was illustrated by the British ship "Calliope,"
which was able to steam out to sea, and thus escaped destruction on
the reefs. The "Trenton" and the "Vandalia," which had been two of the
best of the old wooden fleet, were abandoned. The "Nipsic" sailed for
the Sandwich Islands, where she was refitted for active service. The
natives of Samoa displayed great heroism in their efforts to save the
shipwrecked sailors, and were afterward rewarded by the United States
government. Fifteen merchant vessels which were in the harbor were
either sunk or run upon the shore, and the German naval vessels
"Elber," "Adler," and "Olga" were wrecked, with the loss of many men.
When the United States cruiser "Baltimore" was at anchor in the harbor
off Valparaiso in October, 1891, shortly after the end of a Chilian
rebellion, a number of the seamen were given liberty to go on shore.
They were attacked by a mob in the streets of Valparaiso, and Petty
Officer Charles Riggin was stabbed, and left to die. Another petty
officer, Johnson, went to his assistance, and was attempting to carry
him to an apothecary, when a squad of Chilian police, with fixed
bayonets, came down the street. When at close quarters, they fired at
Johnson. A shot passed through his clothes, and another entered
Riggin's neck, inflicting a death-wound. Petty Officer Hamilton was
dragged to jail dangerously wounded. As a result of the attack, two
men, Riggin and Turnbull, died, and eighteen others were disabled by
wounds. Thirty-six of the "Baltimore's" men were arrested, and treated
by the Chilian police with extreme brutality. Investigation proved
that all had been perfectly sober and well-behaved. The attack grew
out of the bitter hostility of the Chilians toward the United
States--a feeling largely due to false accusations in reference to the
action of the navy during the Chilian revolution. The affair caused
excitement and indignation in the United States, but was amicably
settled.
[Illustration: Wreck Of The "Kearsarge."]
The most important assemblage of naval vessels ever seen in the waters
of America took place in April, 1893, in celebration of the Columbian
quadricentennial. Invitations had been sent to all the important
maritime powers, and at the rendezvous in Hampton Roads, on April
24th, the combined fleet, under the direction of Rear-Admiral
Gherardi, of the United States Navy, comprised twelve men-of-war of
the United States, four of England, three of France, two of Italy, two
of Germany, two of Russia, three of Brazil, and one of Holland. At New
York, the squadron was joined by one more Russian, three Spanish, one
Argentine vessel, and the "Miantonomoh," of the United States Navy,
making a combined fleet of thirty-five ships-of-war. The President, on
board the "Dolphin," reviewed the fleet on April 27th, and the next
day the armed battalions of the various nations, to the number of
3,815 men, marched through the streets of New York, and were reviewed
by the Governor of the State.
The navy suffered a severe loss in 1894, in the wreck of the famous
old man-of-war "Kearsarge," the conqueror of the "Alabama," which was
wrecked February 2d on Roncador Reef, while on her way from Port au
Prince to Bluefields, Nicaragua. Eight days later her men were rescued
by the "City of Para."
One of the conspicuous features of the pageants which attended the
opening of the Kiel Canal, between the North and the Baltic seas, on
June 19th, 1895, was the fleet of war-vessels which assembled in the
harbor at Kiel. It was the most remarkable ever seen in any waters,
numbering over a hundred of the finest vessels in existence. A number
of these, headed by the flagship "New York," belonged to the new navy
of the United States. These ships provoked the admiration of all the
naval authorities present, and their effective strength was noted and
commented upon all over Europe.
CHAPTER II.
THE NAVAL MILITIA. -- A VOLUNTEER SERVICE WHICH IN TIME OF WAR
WILL BE EFFECTIVE. -- HOW BOYS ARE TRAINED FOR THE LIFE OF A
SAILOR. -- CONDITIONS OF ENLISTMENT IN THE VOLUNTEER BRANCH OF
THE SERVICE. -- THE WORK OF THE SEAGOING MILITIA IN SUMMER.
The _personnel_ of a navy is quite as important as its vessels. It has
been said that a ship is worth what her captain and crew are worth. It
is certainly true that a man-of-war, of whatever power, would be
useless or worse than useless if her officers and men did not
understand her wonderfully complicated construction nor know how to
handle her. The officers of the United States navy are given this
important instruction at the Naval Academy at Annapolis, and the rank
and file of the men of the navy, those who fill the positions of
seamen and petty officers, are trained at the station in Coaster's
Island Harbor, near Newport, R.I., and in the training-ships when
cruising.
The training-station is designed to ensure the thorough efficiency of
the corps of men enlisted in the service, and to provide for the
manning of the vessels by American citizens instead of by foreigners.
There was a time, and not a great while ago, when the gunners and
crews of United States men-of-war were, with very few exceptions,
aliens, who spoke the English language with difficulty, and who did
not have, and could not be expected to have, any of the patriotic
spirit which makes effective fighters in naval engagements. While this
condition still exists to some extent, the growth of the apprentice
system is bringing about a gradual change.
As early as 1837 an attempt was made to establish a naval apprentice
system. In that year Congress passed an act making it "lawful to
enlist boys for the navy, not under thirteen nor over eighteen years
of age, to serve until twenty-one." Within a few months several boys
were received as apprentices aboard naval vessels. Six years later,
however, the system was abandoned as a failure, owing to a false
impression which had gained wide currency that the apprentices would
receive commissions in the navy.
Capt. S. B. Luce and the officers of the practice-ship "Macedonian"
investigated the apprentice systems at Portsmouth and Plymouth,
England, twenty years afterward, and made such favorable reports that
Secretary Welles was induced to revive it in the United States navy.
This was done, and during the civil war the system was in successful
operation, but soon after the close of the war it was again abandoned.
In the following years the want of intelligent seamen of American
birth in the navy was greatly felt, and in 1875 Secretary of the Navy
Robeson deemed it advisable to resume the enlistment of boys under the
naval apprentice law, which was still in existence. As an experiment
two hundred and fifty boys were enlisted and placed on the frigates
"Minnesota" and "Constitution" and the sloops of war "Portsmouth" and
"Saratoga," which were commissioned as training-ships. Since 1875 the
training-station and vessels have been very important features of the
naval establishment.
The regulations governing the enlistment of boys are simple and few in
number. The boys must be between the ages of fourteen and sixteen
years, of robust form, intelligent, of perfectly sound and healthy
constitution, free from all physical defect or malformation, and of
good moral character. They must be able to read and write, although in
special cases, when a boy shows general intelligence and is otherwise
qualified, he may be enlisted notwithstanding the fact that his
reading and writing are imperfect. Each boy presenting himself for
enlistment must be accompanied by his father, mother, or, in case
neither is living, by his legally appointed guardian, and must
voluntarily sign an agreement to serve in the navy till twenty-one
years of age. Upon enlistment the boys are rated as third-class
apprentices, and are paid $9 a month. Deserving boys are rated
second-class apprentices, and receive pay of $15 a month after they
have completed their term of service on a cruising training-ship. If
they have served a year on a cruising ship of war they are considered
properly qualified apprentices, and receive $21 a month. As the
apprentices become proficient and their services are required, they
are transferred to the seagoing vessels. Upon the expiration of the
enlistment of an apprentice he will, if recommended, receive an
honorable discharge, and if he enlists again within three months, will
be given pay for this period. The apprentices are under the immediate
supervision of the Bureau of Navigation of the Navy Department, and
applications for enlistment are made to the chief of that bureau at
Washington, or to the officer commanding either the "Vermont," at the
Brooklyn navy yard, or the "Richmond," stationed at the League Island
yard, Philadelphia. These were the recruiting-ships, from which the
boys were being sent to the training-station at Coaster's Island as
soon as a squad of twenty were enlisted, at the period of this
writing. Sometimes there have been more ships in this duty.
There are usually about one hundred boys at the station at one time.
They are taught to march, handle muskets, revolvers, broadswords, and
cannon; they go aloft so as to get practice with the sails, and are
also made familiar with the management of boats and oars and
boathooks. Two hours a day are devoted to lessons, consisting of
arithmetic, reading, writing, spelling, geography and grammar. Ample
time is given for recreation, and innocent social pleasures are
encouraged.
There are two training-ships, besides the famous old ship
"Constellation," which figured in the War of 1812, at the station
devoted to the use of the boys, and every six months one of these
appears at Coaster's Island, and receives the apprentices who have
been at the station for half a year. The vessel then starts on a
cruise to Europe if it is summer, and to the West Indies in the
winter. Each boy remains aboard a year, only half of the crew being
changed at a time. Practice aloft and the life in general aboard a
sailing vessel give him a broad general foundation of knowledge of the
sea and ships, upon which he can build the special training and
instruction he afterward gets upon a regular man-of-war. When he is
transferred, upon the expiration of his year on the training-ship, he
begins the task of mastering the intricacies of a modern ship-of-war.
Here he remains until his first term of service has expired. If he
re-enlists and has shown aptitude for the service, he is sent to
Washington navy yard for a course of six months' instruction in
gunnery and special branches, such as electricity and torpedoes. He
becomes a seaman gunner, with the billet and pay of a petty officer.
A serious defect in the apprentice system, however, and one which
makes it impossible to man the vessels altogether with well-trained
American citizens, is the fact that the majority of the apprentices do
not re-enlist after receiving their honorable discharge at the age of
twenty-one, for the reason that the special training they have
received enables them to secure better-paid places in civil life than
are possible to them in the navy. In the government service, too, they
cannot attain the rank of officers, as there is no such provision for
the promotion of enlisted men in the navy as there is in the army.
Secretary Tracy, in his report of 1889, forcibly called the attention
of Congress to this condition. As a remedy he recommended that there
be a statutory extension of the term of enlistment to twenty-four
years of age. It was further recommended that the number of
apprentices be increased from seven hundred and fifty to fifteen
hundred, and that the course in the training-ships be extended by the
formation of a special class for training in gunnery on board a ship
devoted exclusively to this purpose. Congress has as yet taken no
action upon these and numerous other recommendations which have been
made for the improvement of the apprentice system, and they remain
pertinent.
The navy, however, in case of war, would not have to depend entirely
upon apprentices and graduates of the training-station for its skilled
seamen. The Naval Militia has become an organization that would render
very efficient service if called upon by the government. It is
composed of about three thousand highly intelligent and well-drilled
young men, and has been organized in sixteen States. It bears the same
relation to the navy that the National Guard does to the regular army,
and is therefore wholly under State control; but it is subject to
call, of course, by the federal government.
The organization of the Naval Militia has been a growth of the last
eight years, and is due in large measure to the reconstruction of the
navy and the revival of activity and interest in naval affairs in the
United States.
It was seen that the new vessels of modern and intricate construction
and appliances should, in case of war, be manned by men skilled in
the use of these appliances. The apprentice system brought to the navy
a supply of apprentices, but the number would be totally inadequate in
a naval war. A naval reserve force was an urgent necessity.
The first step toward meeting this necessity was made in 1887 by
Senator Whitthorne, of Tennessee, who in that year introduced a bill
"to create a naval reserve of auxiliary cruisers, officers, and men,
from the mercantile marine of the United States." The measure did not
pass, and the next year another was introduced by Senator Whitthorne,
providing for the enrolment of a Naval Militia and the organization of
naval reserve forces. According to this bill, it was to be lawful for
States and Territories bordering on sea and lake coasts and navigable
rivers to enroll and designate as the Naval Militia all seafaring men
of whatever calling or occupation, and all men engaged in the
navigation of the rivers, lakes, and other waters, or in the
construction or management of ships and craft, together with
ship-owners and their employees, yacht-owners, members of yacht clubs
and other associations for aquatic sports, and all ex-officers and
former enlisted men of the navy.
The bill contemplated a naval reserve artillery and a naval reserve
torpedo corps. It did not become a law, but formed a basis for
legislation in several of the States shortly afterward, although the
original plan, as shown in the proposed measure, was modified to the
extent of making the Naval Militia a State organization and forming it
of volunteers irrespective of occupation.
Massachusetts was the pioneer among the States in the organization of
the Naval Militia. In May, 1888, the legislature passed a bill
authorizing the formation of "a naval battalion to be attached to the
volunteer militia." This measure was prepared, with the assistance of
others, by Lieutenant John C. Soley, a retired officer of the United
States navy, and he was afterward energetic in putting it into
successful operation.
The next State to provide for a Naval Militia was Pennsylvania, whose
legislature made the necessary law in 1889. On the same day the
legislature of Rhode Island "established a naval battalion to be
attached to the Rhode Island militia." In New York, in 1889, a State
Naval Militia of three battalions of naval reserve artillery and a
naval reserve torpedo corps, to consist of not less than four
companies to a battalion, was established.
[Illustration: Cruiser "Columbia" (Commerce Destroyer).]
The practical work of the Naval Militia began in 1890, when the
Massachusetts battalion drilled on the receiving-ship "Wabash," and
the New York battalion on the receiving-ship "Minnesota."
A very decided impetus was given to the movement in 1891 by the
appropriation by Congress of $25,000 for arms and equipments for the
Naval Militia, leaving the disbursement of the money to the discretion
of the Secretary of the Navy. Within the year California, North
Carolina, Texas, and Maryland joined the States having battalions of
Naval Militia, and at its close the force numbered 1,149 men. Progress
was made also in 1891 in the method of drilling and instructing the
members of some of the battalions. Those of New York, Massachusetts,
and Rhode Island spent several days aboard the vessels of the Squadron
of Evolution, under the command of Rear-Admiral J. C. Walker, and were
given practice with the guns and boats, and participated in the ship's
routine duties.
Further appropriations of $25,000 each for the Naval Militia were made
in 1892 and 1893. The legislatures of Vermont and South Carolina
provided for battalions of the Naval Militia in 1892, and those which
had been authorized, but not yet organized, in Maryland and
Pennsylvania, were formed. During the summer of 1892 the members of
the North Carolina Naval Militia were drilled on board the "Newark."
The "Wabash," the "Chicago," and the "Atlanta" were used for drills by
the Massachusetts battalions, and those of New York received their
instruction on the "New Hampshire," the "Chicago," and the "Atlanta."
The California Naval Militia drilled on board the "Charleston."
The Naval Militia was increased in 1893 by battalions formed in North
Carolina, Michigan, Illinois, Georgia, and Connecticut, under laws of
these various legislatures of that year, and the force numbered 2,376
officers and men. New Jersey and Virginia, in 1894, organized
battalions of the Naval Militia, and in that year Congress passed an
important act, empowering the Secretary of the Navy to lend
temporarily to any State vessels "not suitable or required for the
general service, together with such of her apparel, charts, books, and
instruments of navigation as he may deem proper, said vessel to be
used only by the regularly organized Naval Militia of the State for
the purposes of drill and instruction." Even interior States, with no
bodies of water other than rivers, have organized naval battalions. At
Pittsburg the organization owns a small armored gunboat, of the sort
that was so useful on inland waters in the civil war. This vessel was
presented to the militia by a wealthy manufacturer. Few commands,
however, are so fortunate. Most take advantage of the law authorizing
the loan of government ships. Under this law the following vessels
were lent: the "Minnesota" to Massachusetts, the "Wyandotte" to
Connecticut, the "New Hampshire" to New York, the "Portsmouth" and the
"Ajax" to New Jersey, the "St. Louis" to Pennsylvania, the "Dale" to
Maryland, and the "Nantucket" to North Carolina. The other States have
been compelled to get along without vessels, for the reason that there
have been no others available.
[Illustration: Torpedo Boat "Cushing."]
During the summer of 1894 the Massachusetts brigade of the militia
encamped for drill on Lovell's Island, Boston Harbor, and the monitor
"Passaic" was lent to the State. There were also drills and
target-practice on the "Miantonomoh" and the "Atlanta." The forces of
Connecticut and Rhode Island received instruction on the "Miantonomoh"
and the "Atlanta" respectively, and New York's battalion spent a week
on board the "New York" and the "San Francisco" in Gardiner's Bay,
Long Island. A part of the Pennsylvania force had target-practice at
sea on board the "New York," and the North Carolina battalion received
instruction on the "Montgomery."
[Illustration: Armored Cruiser "New York."]
The California division helped to man the "Olympia" for a week in
1895, taking the places of the crew; the Maryland contingent had a
week's cruise on the "Dale," and the First Naval Battalion of New York
carried out a scheme of reconnoissance and distant boat work along the
northern shore of Long Island, encamping on Shelter Island. The party
was accompanied by the torpedo boat "Cushing." Most of the other
battalions had their quota of drill and instruction.
These details of the summer operations of the Naval Militia will
convey an idea of the manner in which its members are being prepared
for the emergencies of war. In addition to the summer work, there is
drill in armories in the winter. This course of training, in
conjunction with the intelligence and enthusiasm of the young men of
the Naval Militia, who are of the best classes in this country, has
made an organization which would doubtless be of very great value in
time of war.
The uniform of the Naval Militia consists of a blue cap, blouse, and
trousers of blue trimmed with white braid. The working suit is of
white duck with white canvas hat.
CHAPTER III.
HOW THE NAVY HAS GROWN. -- THE COST AND CHARACTER OF OUR NEW
WHITE SHIPS OF WAR. -- OUR PERIOD OF NAVAL WEAKNESS AND OUR
ADVANCE TO A PLACE AMONG THE GREAT NAVAL POWERS. -- THE NEW
DEVICES OF NAVAL WARFARE. -- THE TORPEDO, THE DYNAMITE GUN, AND
THE MODERN RIFLE. -- ARMOR AND ITS POSSIBILITIES.
At the close of the civil war the United States had one of the most
formidable navies afloat. The necessities of the war had forced the
Navy Department to the utmost exertion in increasing the number and
power of the vessels of the fleets. This work of naval upbuilding and
strengthening had been carried on, moreover, till Fort Fisher fell and
hostile operations ceased. The result was that at the close of the war
the United States had upon its hands a large number of ships-of-war
for which it had no use. The Secretary of the Navy at once began to
reduce the number, and secretaries succeeding him followed the same
policy. Old vessels which had outlived their usefulness as cruisers
were one by one taken out of commission and were not replaced. Thus
the navy moved steadily on a downward plane. Through the seventies and
into the eighties this retrogression continued. The lowest ebb was
reached in 1882, when the entire naval force numbered only thirty-one
vessels in commission, all but four of which were built entirely of
wood. They were old-fashioned ships, which had been efficient in a
past day, but were totally unfit to cope with the modern warships of
foreign naval powers. Both their guns and engines were inferior. Their
sole usefulness, in short, lay in displaying the national flag upon
the seas and in the harbors of the commercial world in times of peace.
This condition of the navy was referred to by Secretary Chandler, in
his report of 1882, as follows:
"It is not the policy of the United States to maintain a large navy,
but its reputation, honor, and prosperity require that such naval
vessels as it possesses shall be the best which human ingenuity can
devise and modern artificers construct. Our present vessels are not
such and cannot be made such. They should be gradually replaced by
iron or steel cruisers, and allowed to go out of commission."
It may be of interest to add that in 1882 there was only one
high-power cannon in the navy, while there were nearly nineteen
hundred naval officers, making the proportion of fifty-nine officers
for each ship, and one for every five seamen.
As the result of Secretary Chandler's recommendations in his report of
1882, three steel warships and an armed despatch-steamer were
authorized by the next Congress. The building of these vessels, named
the "Chicago," the "Boston," the "Atlanta," and the "Dolphin," may be
regarded as the first movement toward the making of the new navy of
the United States.
While progress in naval construction has been so rapid that these
ships are a long distance behind the war-vessels of to-day in power,
they were then considered to be equal to any afloat in their
respective classes. All are unarmored. The "Chicago," of forty-five
hundred tons displacement and a speed of fourteen knots an hour, was
an example of the largest and best unarmored fighting and cruising
vessel then built, and, according to Secretary Chandler, had no
superior in speed, endurance, and armament. In the "Boston" and
"Atlanta," each of three thousand tons displacement and a speed of
thirteen knots an hour, speed and endurance were supposed to have been
given their greatest development, and their fighting power was
increased by placing the battery on a central superstructure on the
spar-deck and adopting a brig rig, so that the extremities would be
clear for a fore and aft fire. The "Dolphin," of fifteen hundred tons
displacement and a speed of fifteen knots, was designed as an
auxiliary in naval operations, and it was expected that she would
furnish a model for high-speed commerce-destroyers to be subsequently
built. These vessels were constructed at an aggregate cost of over
$2,400,000, in the shipyard of John Roach, of Chester, Pa. The
"Dolphin" was launched in 1884.
The Congress which authorized the building of the cruisers also
directed that the double-turreted monitors, "Puritan," "Amphitrite,"
"Terror," and "Monadnock," whose keels had been laid several years
before, be completed. In accordance with this order they were launched
in 1883.
In order that the work of the reconstruction of the navy should be
carried on as rapidly as possible, the secretary recommended, in 1883
and 1884, that seven unarmored cruisers, in addition to the four then
in the process of construction, be built. Congress adopted his
suggestion to the extent of authorizing, in 1884, the construction of
two unarmored cruisers, two gunboats, and two armored cruisers.
The vessels with which the reconstruction of the navy began--namely
the "Chicago," the "Boston," the "Atlanta," and the "Dolphin"--were
completed about this time, and were in some measure disappointments.
It was found that the "Dolphin" was better adapted for pleasure trips
than for war service, because of the lack of protection against
hostile fire. The engines had been so placed as to be exposed above
water-line, which was condemned as a serious mistake in a war-vessel
without armor-protection. It was realized, too, that the essential
characteristic in an unarmored cruiser is great speed. The function
she is expected to perform is to destroy commerce; and if she is
slower than the merchant-vessels it is useless for her to go to sea;
and if she is slower than the iron-clads, and consequently cannot
escape from them, she could not long continue her service. The chief
objection to the vessels was the lack of a speed equal to that of
merchantmen and the cruisers of other countries. The type of protected
cruiser with a maximum speed, in some cases as high as twenty knots,
developed at this time as a result of the earlier experiments. The
torpedo, too, was receiving constant attention, and money was freely
spent for its improvement. It was found that vessels at anchor or
under slow headway could be protected from torpedoes by being
surrounded by a large net. This defence was generally adopted for
armored vessels.
A stride forward in naval construction in the United States marked the
year 1887. Before that time a serious obstacle in the way of building
up the navy was the lack in the country of manufactories necessary to
the construction and armament of a modern war-vessel, namely, that of
steel forgings for the heavier guns, of armor for iron-clad vessels,
and of secondary batteries, which are an essential portion of the
armament. It was important that the country should not be dependent
upon foreigners for these necessary implements of warfare, because
they are contraband in time of war, and consequently could not then be
obtained abroad. Secretary of the Navy Whitney, who succeeded
Secretary Chandler, stipulated, in his advertisements for bids for the
contracts of making the armor for the ships under construction, that
this armor should be of domestic manufacture. Correspondence was also
opened with the leading steel manufacturers of the country, offering
them inducements to take the matter up. Interest was awakened, and it
was found upon investigation that armor could be made in the United
States as advantageously as abroad. A contract was drawn up with the
Bethlehem Iron Company, under which a plant for the production of
armor and gun steel was erected at Bethlehem, Pa., which was designed
to be second to none in the world. In the matter of the second
batteries, the policy of insisting upon home manufacture was also
pursued, with the desired result.
Congress had authorized, in 1885, the construction of two additional
cruisers and two gunboats. In 1886 there was further authorization of
two armor-clad vessels, each of about six thousand tons, and each to
cost, exclusive of armament, not more than $2,500,000. In 1887 the sum
of $2,000,000 was appropriated for harbor and coast defence vessels.
As a result of this reawakening on the part of Congress to the
necessity of a respectable navy, and the manifestations of
enlightenment in the form of substantial appropriations, Secretary
Whitney was able to state in his report of 1888 that upon the
completion of the ships under construction, the United States would
rank second among the nations in the possession of unarmored cruisers
or commerce-destroyers possessing the highest characteristics--namely,
size of three thousand tons and upward and a speed of nineteen knots,
and more. The vessels, inclusive of the monitors, completed and
uncompleted, then composing the navy, were as follows: The "Dolphin,"
"Boston," "Atlanta," "Chicago," whose keels were laid in 1883; the
"Charleston" "Baltimore," "Newark," "Philadelphia," "San Francisco,"
protected cruisers, whose keels were laid in 1887 and 1888; and the
gunboats "Yorktown," "Petrel," "Concord," "Bennington," whose keels
were laid in 1887 and 1888. In addition to these, there were under
construction the dynamite cruiser "Vesuvius," with a guaranteed speed
of twenty knots an hour, and a first-class torpedo-boat with a speed
of twenty-three knots an hour. Besides these, five protected cruisers
had been authorized, but were not yet in process of construction.
[Illustration: Dynamite Cruiser "Vesuvius."]
The "Baltimore," "Charlestown," "Yorktown," and "Petrel" were given
their trial trips in 1889, and were accepted by the Navy Department.
The trip of the "Baltimore," in particular, was a brilliant success.
The horse-power proved to be in excess of the contract requirement,
and her highest speed for one hour was 20.39 knots--this result being
then unparalleled by any warship in the world of the "Baltimore's"
displacement.
When Benjamin F. Tracy became Secretary of the Navy, in 1889 he called
attention to the fact that, while the United States had secured a
number of excellent vessels of the cruiser type, it did not as yet
possess an efficient navy. He pointed out that the country had two
widely separated ocean frontiers to protect, and that there was only
one way to protect them, namely, by two separate fleets of armored
battle-ships. He said further that in addition to the battle-ships,
the condition of the country required at least twenty vessels for
coast and harbor defence, and, moreover, that the employment of these
ships as floating fortresses demanded that they be equipped with the
most powerful batteries and the heaviest of armor. It may be said
parenthetically that eight vessels of this type, five of which were
reconstructed monitors, were under construction or had been authorized
at that time. Secretary Tracy recommended the authorization by the
following Congress of eight armored battle-ships. He also said that
the United States could not afford to neglect torpedo-boats, with
which the foreign naval powers were well supplied, and he recommended
that appropriations be made for the construction of at least five of
these boats of the first and second class. The year before, the keel
of the first of the battle-ships, the "Texas," had been laid in the
navy-yard at Norfolk, Va., and in 1889 work was begun at the Brooklyn
navy yard upon another vessel of the same class, the "Maine." These
vessels are respectively of 6,314 and 6,648 tons displacement. The
construction of a third battle-ship, which had been provided for, had
not yet been begun.
Secretary Tracy's recommendations reveal clearly the naval condition
in 1889. Previous to that year the additions to the navy had consisted
chiefly of cruisers of from three to four thousand tons, and of
gunboats under two thousand tons; but, acting upon the secretary's
report, Congress, on June 10, 1890, authorized, in addition to another
armored cruiser, three seagoing coast-line battle-ships. These were an
entirely new class of vessels in the United States navy, and their
authorization marks another distinct step in its reconstruction.
An appropriation was made in 1891 for an additional armored cruiser,
designed to be a sister ship to the one provided for in 1890. It was
the purpose to make these vessels more powerful than any of their type
in the navy. Their tonnage was fixed at 7,500, and their maximum speed
at twenty-two knots. They were to be given coal capacity that would
enable them to cruise for great distances without recoaling. This, it
will be seen, is an important advantage to a navy so destitute of
coaling-stations abroad as that of the United States.
The vessels under construction in 1891 were the monitors "Puritan,"
"Amphitrite," "Monadnock," and "Terror," which had been begun in 1874,
but had been neglected in subsequent years; the "Maine," the "Texas,"
the coast-defence vessel "Monterey," which was launched in 1891; the
"New York," "Cincinnati," "Raleigh," "Detroit," and a practice-ship,
which had been authorized by the act of 1887; the harbor-defence ram
"Katahdin;" and gunboats "5" and "6," authorized in 1889; the three
battle-ships, "Indiana," "Massachusetts," and "Oregon," and the
protected cruiser "No. 12," authorized by the act of 1890; and
protected cruiser "No. 13," provided for in 1891.
Three vessels, the "Newark," the "Concord," and the "Bennington," were
given their trial trips in 1890. The behavior of the "Newark" proved
her to be a valuable addition to the list of cruisers. The "Concord"
and the "Bennington," vessels of the gunboat class, similar to the
"Yorktown," also gave evidences of power and usefulness. They carry a
comparatively heavy battery, while their light draught enables them to
run into shallow rivers and bays, and thus perform services for which
larger vessels are incapacitated.
The subject of the organization of a naval militia or reserve had been
discussed for some time before Secretary Tracy assumed his office. He
forcibly urged the necessity of such an organization in his first and
in following annual reports, until, in 1891, Congress appropriated
$25,000 for arms for the militia. This was a decided impetus toward
its development, and at the close of the year it existed in six
States, an effective, well-drilled, and organized force of eleven
hundred men.
The year 1892 saw considerable progress in the development of the
navy. Two important vessels, the "Iowa," a first-class, seagoing
battle-ship of 11,296 tons displacement, and the "Brooklyn," an
armored cruiser of 9,150 tons displacement, were provided for by
Congress. The cruisers "Texas," "Columbia," "Olympia," "Raleigh," and
"Cincinnati," and the gunboats "Machias" and "Castine" were launched.
Secretary Tracy's administration of the affairs of the navy, which
closed in 1892, was one of marked progress and development; and this
development was not confined to ships alone. Experiments extending
over a period of three years had resulted in the adopting of an armor
of new composition, namely, nickel-steel, which had been found to be
far superior to any before known. The manufacture of torpedoes had
been domesticated. Since 1889 the heavy, rapid-firing guns had been
developed and proved successful. The manufacture of armor-piercing
shells, of which two firms in Europe had had the monopoly, was begun
in this period under the care and encouragement of the Navy
Department; and the shells turned out soon surpassed the foreign
product. Through investigation and experiment conducted by its own
agencies, the Navy Department succeeded in developing a smokeless
powder, which gave better results than that made abroad. Careful and
protracted experiments with high explosives were also carried on, with
the result of developing an explosive that can be safely used in
shells fired from high-power guns.
In 1893, the first year of the administration of Secretary Herbert,
the following vessels were launched: the armored battle-ships
"Indiana" and "Massachusetts;" the protected cruiser "Minneapolis;"
the unarmored and very rapid cruiser "Marblehead;" and the armed
coast-defence ram "Katahdin." During the same year Congress authorized
the construction of three new vessels, to be of the class known as
light-draft protected gunboats. These are of about twelve hundred tons
displacement, and are designed for river service in China and
elsewhere. Several vessels, namely, the "Monterey," "Bancroft,"
"Detroit," "New York," armored cruiser of 8,480 tons displacement, and
the gunboat "Machias," were given their trial trips in 1893. The
results were in each case satisfactory, and the vessels were added to
the effective fleet of the navy.
Before 1893 the United States had been behind the other important
nations in the matter of small-arms equipment. The navy was still
using the old-fashioned, large-calibre rifle, employing a charge of
black powder, and effectively carrying only twelve hundred yards.
Under Secretary Herbert's direction, a board of naval officers
investigated the improved small arms in use in foreign navies, and
made recommendations which resulted in the adoption of a small-calibre
magazine rifle, in which is used smokeless powder, and which has an
effective range of a mile and a half. A further advantage of the new
rifle is that it employs cartridges of such a weight that no less than
two hundred rounds can be carried by one man. The cartridges used in
the old rifle were so heavy that one man could not carry more than
fifty rounds.
Secretary Herbert recommended in his report of 1893 that Congress
authorize the construction of at least one new battle-ship and six
torpedo-boats. He said that for the defence of ports the latter are
more effective according to cost than any class of vessels. The
knowledge of their existence alone will make an enemy chary about
approaching within bombarding distance. The value of this boat is
recognized by all naval powers, and they are being built abroad in
great numbers. The next naval appropriation contained a provision
authorizing the construction of three additional torpedo-boats of the
general type of the "Ericsson," which was then ready for trial. The
design for the new boat called for a speed of not less than
twenty-four and one-half knots an hour. The battle-ships "Indiana,"
"Texas," and "Oregon" underwent preliminary trial trips in 1894, and
were accepted by the government in 1895. It is of interest to note
that until these vessels were put in commission, the navy was still in
the condition that existed when President Cleveland, in his first
message to Congress in 1885, made the following statement: "We have
not a single vessel that could keep the seas against a first-class
vessel of any important power." It is true that vessels of size and
power enough to hold their own against the battle-ships of other
nations had been under construction for several years, but the United
States was still without an available man-of-war of the first class
until the "Indiana" and the "Oregon" joined the fleet.
Considerable progress in naval affairs marked the year 1895. One of
the important events was the adding to the commissioned fleet of the
coast-defence monitor "Amphitrite," whose keel was laid in 1874. The
work of remodelling her was begun in 1889, under the appropriation
made by Congress in 1887. The "Amphitrite" is in some respects an
old-fashioned type of vessel, but is nevertheless capable of important
service. Her displacement is 3,990 tons. Her armor and armament are
heavy, although not so powerful as that of the battle-ships. Her main
advantage, as with all of the monitors, is that she presents a
comparatively small target for the enemy's fire.
[Illustration: United States Battle-Ship "Indiana."]
Adopting the spirit of Secretary Herbert's recommendations in his
report of 1894, Congress, in 1895, authorized the construction of two
coast-line battle-ships of most formidable equipment and power,
their cost not to exceed $4,000,000 each. Further provision was made
for the building of twelve torpedo-boats. An interesting feature of
the bill was the stipulation that one of the battle-ships shall bear
the historic name "Kearsarge," after the famous old man-of-war that
was wrecked in 1894 on Roncador Reef. According to the plans of the
new ships, they resemble in a general way the "Indiana," although they
are longer and broader and have a greater displacement, and their
batteries are more powerful. A new feature in the arrangement of the
guns was decided upon. The vessels will carry two turrets of two
stories each. Many objections to this plan were advanced, but it was
said that all are outweighed by the opportunity which the turrets give
of concentrating an enormous quantity of shot on a given point. An
estimate has been made that the "Kearsarge" will carry enough
ammunition to kill or disable a million persons, and that she will be
able to discharge it all within a period of five hours. Accommodations
will be provided for five hundred and twenty officers and men. The
"Kearsarge" and her sister ship, which will be called the "Kentucky,"
will carry heavier armor and guns and a greater quantity of the latter
than any foreign battle-ship in existence or in course of
construction.
The ram "Katahdin" was rejected by the government in 1895, because,
upon her official trials, she did not fulfil the speed requirements.
She made 16.011 knots, while the contract called for 17 knots.
Congress was asked to purchase the vessel, and finally did so.
The armored cruiser "Brooklyn," designed to be one of the fastest and
most powerful vessels of her class afloat, was launched from Cramp's
shipyard in Philadelphia in 1895. She is the sister ship to the "New
York," which was put in commission in 1893. A matter of significance,
as showing the rapid progress in the art of naval construction within
a few years, was the taking out of commission in 1895 of the
"Chicago," to be refitted with engines and boilers that will give her
powers approaching those of the newer vessels. Two years will be
required for this work, and when she is complete she will travel three
knots an hour faster than heretofore, and in many respects will be
substantially a new ship.
The official trial trip of the battle-ship "Massachusetts," which
occurred in 1896, was a source of gratification to the Navy Department
and to all others who are anxious to see the United States take
respectable rank among the naval powers. The primary business of a
battle-ship is to fight; hence her guns and not her speed are of the
first importance. Naval experts have agreed that the "Massachusetts"
and her sister ships, the "Indiana" and the "Oregon," have larger and
more effective batteries than any man-of-war afloat or in progress of
construction. The "Massachusetts" has now proved, by steaming at the
rate of 16.15 knots for four hours, with a maximum speed of 17.03
knots, that she is superior to all other battle-ships in speed as well
as in armament. Her performance is unparalleled in naval history, and
makes her the foremost war-vessel of the world. The "Indiana" is a
trifle slower. She steamed 15.61 knots for four hours, but under the
disadvantage of a bottom that had never been cleaned. She would
probably go half a knot faster with a clean bottom. As a
representative specimen of the battle-ships which belong to the navy,
a few details of the "Massachusetts'" armament may be of interest. She
has thirty guns in all. The chief of these are four of thirteen-inch
calibre, which are the largest in use in modern navies; a pair of them
can be fired every three minutes. The eight-inch guns are next in
size. There are four of them, and they can be fired every minute. In
addition to these, there are two six-inch rifles, twenty six-pounders,
and four one-pounders. The six-inch guns can be fired twice a minute,
and the six-pounders twenty times in the same period. In a fight
lasting thirty minutes, these guns would throw forty-one and a half
tons of metal, of which forty-four thousand pounds would be the share
of the thirteen-inch guns, thirty thousand pounds the share of the
eight-inch, six thousand pounds of the six-inch, and thirty-six
hundred pounds of the others. The total weight of the "Massachusetts'"
broadside is 5,724 pounds, and of her head or astern fire 3,434
pounds.
Another of the monitors, the "Monadnock," was added to the navy in
1896. She was launched in 1883, and was then practically left alone
until the acts of 1885, 1886, and 1887 provided for her completion.
She is now a formidable vessel, with heavy guns which can be made to
bear on a point a small boat's length from the ship's side, or can
bombard at a distance of six miles.
While the successive Secretaries of the Navy, during the last fourteen
years, have been chiefly active in increasing the number of
ships-of-war, they have not altogether neglected defences on the
coast. Some of the larger seacoast cities have succeeded in obtaining
a part of the heavy gun and mortar batteries that would be necessary
in repelling attacks without the aid of battle-ships. The cities of
New York and San Francisco have now mounted and ready for action
powerful pneumatic dynamite gun batteries, the most destructive
engines of war in existence. Each of these guns is capable of hurling
a projectile carrying five hundred pounds of the most powerful
explosive known to man, and is able to destroy the strongest
iron-clad. In the naval battle of Sinope in the Crimean War, a shell
designed to explode on striking the object was used for the first
time. When the high explosives, such as dynamite and gun-cotton,
appeared, the idea suggested itself that they might be used in the
shells with vastly greater effect than gunpowder, which had been
employed. The objection, however was that these explosives are so
sensitive that there was great danger of their exploding at the outset
of the journey from the sudden shock of being hurled from the ordinary
high-power guns and mortars. Captain Zalinski, of the United States
Artillery, suggested a method of gun construction by which the shells
could be projected by a steady pressure of compressed air instead of
by the sudden force of powder gases. This system has been steadily
improved until the pneumatic dynamite gun now works perfectly and is a
marvel of destructiveness. The United States possesses six and Great
Britain one of the seven dynamite guns that have thus far been
manufactured for coast defence.
The "Iowa," a battle-ship of the first class whose keel was laid in
1893, was launched in March, 1895. She is the largest vessel of the
navy now afloat, her displacement being 11,410 tons, which is over a
thousand tons greater than that of the "Massachusetts," "Indiana," or
"Oregon."
It will be seen that progress toward the building of the new navy of
the United States has been steady since the first move was made in
1882. As a result of this development, the navy now consists, counting
the vessels built and authorized by Congress, prior to 1896, the naval
appropriations bill for that year still pending at this writing, of
about seventy modern ships-of-war. These include eight battle-ships,
six coast-defence steel-clads, two armored cruisers, one armored ram,
thirteen protected cruisers, eighteen gunboats and unprotected
cruisers, and about two dozen torpedo-boats. This fleet gives the
United States sixth place in the list of naval powers, being outranked
in number of vessels by England, France, Russia, Germany, or Italy, in
the order named. A true idea of the comparative fighting strength of
the United States navy is not conveyed, however, by its rank in the
numerical strength of the fleet. The _personnel_ of the navy and the
power of the individual ships must be considered. It is generally
conceded that the United States has the finest fighting men and
vessels in the world. These advantages would, in all probability,
enable us to whip Germany or Italy in a series of naval contests;
therefore, it is thought by naval critics that we really hold fourth
position among the naval powers. England is still a long way ahead of
us, the English navy now numbering nearly five hundred vessels, of
which one hundred and twenty are armored cruisers. But, comparing the
navies ship to ship, the United States fleet, so far as it goes, is
superior even to that of Great Britain. The battle-ships, while
somewhat smaller, are more effective fighters. The English navy has no
armored cruisers as fast or as powerful as the "New York" and
"Brooklyn;" and the commerce-destroyers, "Columbia" and "Minneapolis,"
are the fastest vessels, either of war or peace, that have gone to
sea.
That this new navy of ours will ever have to meet so stern an ordeal
as that through which the sailors of '61 went is wholly improbable. In
multiplying the number and the effectiveness of fighting machines the
nations of the world have seemingly lessened the likelihood of war.
International disputes which once would have put the territory of all
Europe ablaze are now settled by the peaceful devices of diplomacy.
But behind the diplomat must be the gun, and it will be a sorry day
for the United States when, if ever, the sense of security bred of an
avowed national policy of non-intervention in foreign affairs shall
lead this people to neglect the naval arm of the republic.
PART V.
THE NAVAL WAR WITH SPAIN.
CHAPTER I.
THE STATE OF CUBA. -- PERTINACITY OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS. --
SPAIN'S SACRIFICES AND FAILURE. -- SPANISH BARBARITIES. -- THE
POLICY OF RECONCENTRATION. -- AMERICAN SYMPATHY AROUSED. -- THE
STRUGGLE IN CONGRESS. -- THE ASSASSINATION OF THE "MAINE." --
REPORT OF THE COMMISSION. -- THE ONWARD MARCH TO BATTLE.