THE TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE OF COMMERCE
_General Considerations_
The wood of _Guaiacum_ is the true lignum-vitae of commerce. It enters
the market in the form of bolts or short logs from 2 to 10 feet in
length and 3 inches and upward in diameter. These logs usually retain
part or all of their bark and this provides one of the best features
for the ready separation of the different kinds recognized by the trade.
The sapwood is usually thin or, if the logs have lain for a long time
on the ground or in the water, it may be entirely absent. Logs without
sapwood are commonly known as “nigger heads” because they are all black
and the surface is etched and channeled in such a way as to expose
the criss-crossing grain and give the appearance of being braided
or interwoven. It was formerly the practice to hew off the sapwood
before shipment, at least for certain grades of wood, but hewn logs
are comparatively rare now and such hewing as is done is to remove
irregularities.
The logs are cut by natives and carried in some primitive way, often
on pack animals (see plate), to a dock to await shipment. They may lie
exposed to the weather for months or even years. Under the intense
tropical sun they are likely to check and become ring-shaken, at least
at the ends, though the various kinds are not equally susceptible to
this. Worms often get in and riddle the sapwood, and the writer has
seen a few logs with worm holes, the size of a lead pencil, in the
heart.
One of the most serious defects of lignum-vitae is heart-rot or “doze.”
Although the heart is very durable when exposed to decay after the tree
is felled, it is subject to rot in the living tree just as in the case
of many of our most durable native woods. Although dealers specify
strictly sound wood, a certain amount of “dozey” material is likely to
be included in every shipment when the demand for lignum-vitae is heavy.
The highest grade logs are smooth, cylindrical, free from knots,
checks, shakes, “doze,” and worm holes, with very thin sapwood or none
at all, with a finely interlocked grain, and heavily impregnated with
resin. The preferred lengths and diameters depend upon the uses to
which the wood is to be put. Thus the Navy Department specifies that
“sizes 3 inches average diameter and smaller shall be not less than 2
feet in length; sizes 4 inches and 5 inches average diameter shall be
not less than 3 feet in length; sizes 6 inches average diameter and
larger shall be not less than 4 feet in length” except in special cases.
The color of the heartwood exhibits a wide variation. The typical is
an oily olive-brown with concentric layers of alternately lighter and
darker shade. It is very common for the ends of the logs to show a
dark blue or green heart as a result of the oxidation of the coloring
matter. Upon oven-drying specimens of this color the blue or green was
found to disappear.
Several different kinds of lignum-vitae are recognized in the trade
and they are usually designated by the name of the country or of the
port of origin. The principal kinds now found on the New York market
are Cuban, San Domingan, Jamaican, Haitian, and Nicaraguan. Others less
common are Bahaman, Mexican, and South American. Buyers usually specify
exactly the kind of wood they want and their likes and dislikes are
often very pronounced. To what extent these opinions are based on facts
and to what extent they are mere prejudices could not be determined,
but they do exist and exert a very material influence on the market.
So far as the writer’s investigations have gone, specimens from the
same region and presumably of the same kind exhibit about as much
variation in structure as was found in material of the different kinds
recognized by the trade. In general, however, the Mexican, Nicaraguan,
and Haitian wood had smaller pores and finer rays than that from Cuba
and Florida.
_Present Sources of Supply_
The following notes are based largely upon data obtained from prominent
timber dealers in New York City.
_Cuba._--Most of the Cuban lignum-vitae is obtained from Oriente
Province in the eastern part of the island and is shipped from
Santiago. According to a Government report in 1917 (20, p. 52) not more
than 4,000 tons exist in accessible places, not more than one-third of
this would repay the cost of getting it out, and the total supply is in
danger of early exhaustion. A New York dealer questions this conclusion
and cites the fact that a single operator in this region got out 1,000
tons in 1918 and that others were also engaged in the business. During
the fiscal years of 1914 and 1915, 3,067 tons, valued at $127,000, were
exported from Santiago. More recent figures are not available. There is
some wood in Pinar del Rio, in the western part of the island, but it
is not now being exploited.
Cuban lignum-vitae is considered the standard, at least for the larger
sizes. The logs are mostly from 4 to 8 feet long, with a few of the
smaller sizes 10 feet. The diameters range from 6 to 24 inches, but
only a very small percentage are over 16.
The commercial species is _Guaiacum officinale_, although _G. sanctum_
is also present and may enter to a minor extent into the supply. The
latter species is locally known as “guayacancillo” to distinguish it
from the other which is called “guayacan,” “guayacan negro,” or “palo
santo.”
The bark of the Cuban wood is distinctive and is considered typical of
high-grade wood in general. It is thin, smooth, and flaky. These flakes
are of irregular size and shape and the scars, owing to the laminated
structure of the bark and to the variation in depth of different parts
of a scale, are marked like a contour map. (See plate.) The fresh
scars are glossy and vary in color from reddish-brown to olive-green,
the older patches becoming ashy-gray or nearly white. (A large Cuban
specimen of _Guaiacum_ in the collection of the Yale Forest School is
labeled “vera.” The color is lighter than that of the typical wood
and the bark is ashy-gray and granular, suggesting that of logs from
Nicaragua.)
A specimen of Cuban wood taken from a storage yard in New York was
found to contain a little over 20 per cent moisture. The specific
gravity, oven-dry, was 1.17.
_Jamaica._--The wood from Jamaica is small and is supposed to be of
_Guaiacum sanctum_. The logs are from 2 to 8 feet long and from 3 to
10, mostly 3 to 5, inches in diameter. (See plate.) Not over 5 per cent
exceed 8 inches. The sap is usually wide and the bark is smooth as in
Cuban logs. The wood is much in demand for mallets for which the small
size especially adapts it. It is reputed to be of as high quality as
the Cuban and is restricted in its uses only on account of the small
sizes now available. Flückiger (14, p. 102), referring to the wood of
this source on the market in the seventies, says that it is small and
of only ordinary quality.
_Bahama Islands._--This wood is also of _Guaiacum sanctum_, is
accordingly of small size, rarely 5 inches thick, and is also largely
used for mallets. Almost no stock was obtained from the islands during
the war, owing largely to the lack of shipping facilities. The supply
remaining is believed to be small. The exports in 1914 and 1915 were
valued at $3,017 and $5,161, respectively.
_Porto Rico._--The wood from this source is small but of good quality.
Both _Guaiacum officinale_ and _G. sanctum_ are native but the latter
is “now of only limited occurrence along the south coast” (6, p.
75). Although comparatively little Porto Rican wood has been on the
market during the past few years, due principally to lack of shipping
facilities, it is believed that the island will continue a source of
supply for small stock for many years. The logging conditions in the
mountains are very unfavorable. (See 23, pp. 44-45.)
_Haiti._--“Lignum-vitae is scattered over the whole of Haiti” (20, p.
136). Most of the wood, however, is considered by dealers and users
as non-genuine and is often called “bastard lignum-vitae” in the
trade, and “vera” or “bera” locally. It is unquestionably a species
of _Guaiacum_ and not of _Bulnesia_, as the name “vera” or “bera”
would indicate, since it has blue flowers and the typical fruits of
_Guaiacum_.[13]
[13] Specimens of the leaves and fruits of this tree recently collected
by Mr. C. D. Mell have been identified by Dr. Rydberg as an unnamed
variety of _G. sanctum_.
Prejudice against this material is not of recent origin. Flückiger,
following a reference to San Domingan lignum-vitae, which he terms
the best on the market in the seventies, says (14, p. 102): “The wood
obtained from the Haytian ports (of the western part of the same
island) is much less esteemed in the London market.”
The logs are from 3 to 5 feet long and from 4 to 14 inches in diameter.
The bark is rough, composed of fine scales partly slate-colored and
partly ashy-gray, somewhat resembling that of pignut hickory. (See
plate.) The sapwood is usually thick and the grain seems to be less
interwoven than in the Cuban wood. Several lots were examined by the
writer and a high percentage of the logs were found to be “dozey.” The
specific gravity, oven-dry, of a specimen of Haitian wood was 1.30.
It is believed that a large amount of genuine lignum-vitae exists in
Haiti but the transportation facilities in the interior are extremely
poor. In 1915, 6,172,853 pounds, and in 1916, 6,226,574 pounds of
lignum-vitae were exported from Haiti.
_Dominican Republic._--Wood from this region is called San Domingan.
It is recognized as genuine and has the characteristic bark and other
features of the Cuban. Only occasional logs of the “bastard” variety
are included, presumably more because of the small demand for it than
because it is not found. Wiesner (50, p. 950) states that the best wood
of _Guaiacum officinale_ comes from San Domingo.
The logs now on the market are from 2 to 3 feet long and mostly between
4 and 10 inches in diameter, rarely as large as 16 inches. Some
wood-users consider it the best lignum-vitae in the trade, especially
for the smaller sizes. It is said that much larger wood than is now
being obtained is available in considerable quantity in this country
but that the natives lack the necessary facilities for getting it out.
“Lignum-vitae is plentiful, especially from the bay of Samana southward
and westward to the Province of Barahona” (20, p. 181).
The value of this wood shipped from the Dominican Republic during the
five fiscal years 1912-1916 was $157,706.
_Nicaragua._--Nicaraguan lignum-vitae has been on the market for many
years but until recently there has been considerable objection to
its qualities on the part of certain users, particularly in France,
England, Holland, and Denmark, who claimed that it had too great a
tendency to check and split. On the other hand, it has been used
without discrimination in Japan, China, Germany, and to a greater or
less extent in the United States. The shipyards on the Pacific coast
use it exclusively. Makers of bowling balls and of sheaves insist that
it is unsuited for their purposes because of the tendency to split. The
writer is informed by dealers that the prejudice against this material
has been largely overcome through improved methods of handling and
manufacture.
The largest log of which record is available was 36 inches in diameter,
9 feet long, and weighed 4,260 pounds (27, p. 35). Usually the logs
are 4 to 8 feet long and from 9 to 24 inches in diameter, with a good
percentage over 12 inches. They are straight, smooth, and cylindrical,
and free from defects except end checks which give a bad appearance but
generally do not extend deeply. The specific gravity, oven-dry, of a
specimen of Nicaraguan wood was found to be 1.32.
The species supplying the Nicaraguan wood is not known. The bark is
thin, dull gray in color, irregularly flaky, but not smooth or shiny;
sometimes pitted and coarsely granular. (See plate.)
The principal port of shipment is Corinto and, according to a consular
report, 55 tons, valued at $1,849, were exported in 1916 and 265 tons,
worth $8,839, in 1917.
_Mexico._--The amount of lignum-vitae coming out of Mexico is at
present very small. The writer had occasion to inspect a carload of
logs from the northwestern part of the country. The sticks were of
various lengths up to 6 feet and ranged in diameter from 8 to 11
inches. They were all more or less faulty, being crooked, gnarly, and
knotty. Many were double-hearted at one end due to cutting above the
fork of the trunk, an undesirable practice. The sapwood was very thick
and white, the heart small, oily, and of good color but often affected
by spots of dry rot or “doze” of varying size. The bark was very thin,
smoothish, granular, and varying in color from light to dark gray. The
writer was unable to determine the extent to which this shipment was
typical of the region.
A specimen of lignum-vitae from the west-central coast of Mexico was
found to have a specific gravity, oven-dry, of 1.30. The wood was very
dense, highly resinous, and free from defects. The pores were minute.
_Future Sources of Supply_
_West Indies._--The West Indies will probably continue to supply the
bulk of the high-grade lignum-vitae for many years if prices remain at
a sufficiently high level to warrant the increased expense attending
the more and more difficult logging. Improvement of the transportation
facilities and logging methods in certain regions will permit the
getting out of material now too large and heavy to be handled in the
primitive native manner over rough trails.
_Central America._--There is believed to be a large supply of
accessible lignum-vitae in Nicaragua but the former prejudice against
the material from this source has retarded its exploitation. It is
reported that the Government of Honduras is taking steps to introduce
its wood into the market.
_Mexico._--Jordan (27, p. 805) says that lignum-vitae is very plentiful
on the west coast of Mexico from the state of Sonora to Oaxaca, but
grows to a greater size and degree of hardness in southern Sinaloa
and Nayarit. In the “Catalogo forestal” (9, pp. 16-17) both _Guaiacum
sanctum_ and _G. officinale_ are listed as of quite general occurrence
throughout Mexico. Thus the range of the former, known locally as “palo
santo,” is given as Vera Cruz, Chipas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacán,
Jalisco, Tepic, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Mexico, Pueblo, Tiaxcala, and
Morelos. The range of the other called “guayacan,” is given as Yucatan,
Tabasco, Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacán, Colima, Jalisco,
Tepic, Sonora, Hidalgo, Pueblo, and Morelos. Although the specific
names given are presumably incorrect, the report is of interest in
indicating the distribution and possible future sources of lignum-vitae
in Mexico.
_Northern South America._--There is a very considerable quantity of
true lignum-vitae in the coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela. Very
little of it is now on the market, partly because the trade fears the
substitution of “vera” for the genuine. In 1917, a shipment of a few
tons was received by a New York dealer from the Port of Colombia. The
logs were 5 or 6 feet long, 4 to 15 inches in diameter, straight and
well-shaped and with all of the sapwood trimmed off. It proved to be
excellent wood, approximately Cuban quality, according to report.
It is likely that some of the Venezuelan lignum-vitae will enter the
market in the near future. A specimen of the wood which some timberland
owners are offering was examined by the writer. It was found to be
genuine and apparently of high quality.
Curaçao figures in the commerce reports as a large exporter of various
woods, including lignum-vitae and vera, but little if any timber is of
local origin, although both _Guaiacum officinale_ and _G. sanctum_ are
native of the islands (19, p. 331). Vice-consul Gorsica says (18, p.
15):
“Before the war considerable business in woods was done at Curaçao.
Woods from the Venezuelan ports, Maracaibo and Carupano, and from
Dominican ports were carried to this place for transshipment to the
United States and to Europe. Maracaibo relies almost entirely on
Curaçao for the exportation of woods, owing to a sand bank at the
entrance of the Gulf of Maracaibo, which makes it impossible for
vessels with a draft of over 12 feet to go into or out of the gulf.
Dealers in Maracaibo woods, as a rule, own light-draft sailing vessels
built to trade with Curaçao.... Restrictive rules, lack of shipping
space, the irregular calls of steamers, and the suspension of service
of different lines have very nearly killed the wood business.”
Mr. H. M. Curran supplies the following information regarding true
lignum-vitae in Northern Venezuela:
“The dry coastal hills of northern Venezuela have a certain amount
of lignum-vitae scattered through them. It has been little exploited
probably due to its rather local occurrence, small size and the fact
that the region is but little known to anything but small coasting
vessels. Only one or two trees per acre are found in the best stands.
It seldom reaches a height of over 30 feet, is often much less, and has
a broad bushy crown of very dark green foliage. The bole is usually
less than 8 or 10 feet in length, and the common diameter of the
mature tree is between 8 and 20 inches; rarely 24 inches. It is a very
ornamental tree when in blossom and is often completely covered with
a mass of violet-blue flowers. These are succeeded by great masses of
orange-yellow pods which are likewise very ornamental. The tree is much
used as a shade tree or ornamental shrub in town and about country
houses. It has peculiar close dark green mottled bark, and is of very
unsymmetrical form. Another variety or species is found with a rather
rough bark, though the wood and general appearance of the tree from
the forester’s point of view is practically the same. The wood is not
exploited to any extent and only now and then is seen on the market.”
_Value of lignum-vitae imports entered for consumption in the United
States_
(U. S. Commerce Reports)
_Fiscal year_ _Value_
1900 $123,021
1901 146,834
1902 87,399
1903 127,262
1904 88,234
1905 103,830
1906 179,280
1907 175,296
1908 99,796
1909 90,576
1910 95,695
1911 143,682
1912 96,675
1913 101,547
1914 72,632
1915 132,411
1916 73,412
1917 222,731
1918 171,844
1919 308,512
----------
Total value for 20 years $2,640,669
_Uses of Lignum-vitae_
_Bushing blocks._--The most important use for lignum-vitae is in
bearings or bushings, particularly for lining the stern tubes of
propeller shafts of steamships. In this extremely important and trying
position it will last about three times as long as steel or bronze.
The great density and tenacity of the wood enable it to withstand the
enormous strains upon it, while the resin content serves as a natural
lubricant which minimizes the friction and wear of the parts. Although
other woods, including beech, and more recently yellow guayacan, have
been used, none has proved a satisfactory substitute for the genuine
lignum-vitae.
In reference to this use of the wood, Galletley says (15, p. 384): “It
has one remarkable application, namely, its use for the particular
bush, or bearing, of the screw shaft of steamships, next to the screw
itself, where only a substance able to bear much friction could
possibly last for any length of time. Its highly resinous character
renders it self-lubricating in a position where no other lubricant is
practicable except water.”
The stimulation of the shipbuilding industry due to the war occasioned
a very large increase in the demand for lignum-vitae. The Navy
Department at one time advertised for bids to supply 427,000 pounds of
logs of this wood, a large proportion of which were to be from 18 to 24
inches in diameter at the small end.
The Emergency Fleet Corporation was also a large purchaser. A specimen
inquiry from this source called for quotations on logs which would
cut approximately 10,000 board feet edge-grain. These were to be
“high-grade lignum-vitae hewed square or rectangular, to be well
seasoned, generally sound and straight, free from injurious shakes,
worm holes, excessive sap, large or unsound knots, and other injurious
defects. Ordinary season checks will not be considered a defect and
slight heart and ring-shakes are not considered a defect in pieces
13 inches in the shorter diameter and over.” Quotations were also
solicited on supplying as an alternate, 6,000 square feet of edge-grain
slabs of random lengths (minimum 12 inches) not less than 1⅛ nor
more than 1¼ inches in thickness.
The stern tube, in which the propeller shaft revolves, extends from the
peak bulkhead in the after part of the hull to the stern post and, in a
large steamship, is from 3 to 7 feet long and from 12 to 22 or even 30
inches in diameter. The forward end, and in some recent instances the
after end as well, is made water-tight by means of a stuffing box and
flange.
The stern tube is composed of three parts, namely, (1) an outer steel
tube with (2) a brass or bronze bushing or sleeve with longitudinal
cleats or retaining strips which hold in place (3) the lining of
end-grain wooden bearing blocks. The number of retaining strips varies
in different forms of construction. There may be only one in which
case it is located at the upper part of the tube; or two, one at each
side; or three, one at each side and one at the top; or as many as
there are rows of blocks, in some instances 24. In the first methods
the lining between the retaining strip is of much the same structure as
a wooden-stave pipe, each stave in this case being a row of end-grain
blocks placed end to end, beveled along the side and machined on the
faces to fit the bore of the tube. (See drawing, p. 30.)
The retaining strips serve not only to hold the blocks in place but
also provide grooves into which water enters. The water serves the
dual purpose of cooling and lubricating. Where the rows of blocks are
arranged in a solid layer it is considered a good practice to cut
V-shaped grooves at the joining lines to act as waterways. When ships
operate in muddy water, sand is likely to wash into these grooves and
cut the bearings. In some of the recent battleships, the _Texas_ for
example, sea water is excluded by making the after end of the tube
water-tight at the stern post.
There are two principal methods of preparing the blocks for stern
bearings. In one the logs are cross-cut into short blocks or
“pancakes,” the thickness (in direction of the fiber) varying from 1
to 2 inches according to the size of the stern tube. These “pancakes”
are then sawed into rectangular blocks from 2 to 4 inches wide, not
less than 4 inches long, the maximum lengths being determined by the
diameter of the heartwood portion of the log. As soon as the blocks
are sawed out they are dipped in shellac to prevent checking and
warping prior to use.
[Illustration: Cross sections of stern tubes of different types
At left a large stern tube with waterways between the strips of
lignum-vitae blocks. Below a strip of blocks in position showing
lengthwise cut to permit wedging into place.
At right: above, section of tube of a steam trawler showing solid
lining with 3 retaining strips and waterways; below, section of a small
tube, with single retaining strip at top and grooves for waterways cut
between the blocks.]
There is a large amount of waste in cutting out these blocks, being
about 33 per cent in logs 16 inches and over in diameter, about 50 per
cent in those between 12 and 16 inches, and reaching as high as 75 per
cent in the smaller sizes. On this account a minimum diameter of 12
inches is usually specified. It is also claimed that logs of the larger
diameters yield better and particularly more resinous wood. The wood
close to the pith is avoided because of the danger of checking there,
while the sapwood is not used because it lacks the necessary resin.
In the second method the logs are cut into cants or planks of the
required thickness and as wide as the diameter of the heart portion
of the log will allow. These cants are then placed edgewise on an
adjustable frame, rotating about a fixed center on the table of the
band saw. In this way the blocks are cut with the proper degree of
curvature to fit exactly into the sleeve. The blocks are then beveled
and cut in two lengthwise, with a slight taper to permit wedging into
place. (For more detailed description of this method of sawing blocks
see _Woodworker_, Apr. 20, 1920, p. 40.)
After the blocks are fitted, wooden strips are temporarily placed in
the grooves, and the tube is fixed in a lathe and bored out to the
exact diameter required to fit the propeller shaft. To prevent the
blocks drying out and checking or getting loose the tube is kept filled
with wet sawdust and shavings until permanently installed in the ship.
The life of a lignum-vitae bearing is said to be about ten years. If
the propeller shaft is out of alignment it may wear out the bearing
in two years or less. The greatest wear is sustained by blocks in the
lower part of the bearing since these support the most of the weight,
not only of the shaft but also of the propeller which may be as great
as nine tons. When to this dead load is added the impact of the waves
it is obvious that only the densest and most tenacious woods would be
able to withstand the enormous strains produced. Various woods have
these properties but none other than lignum-vitae combine with them the
natural lubricant indispensable to the prevention of heating and rapid
attrition.
Small bushings are sometimes bored from solid wood instead of being
built up. The process of manufacture of the so-called “patent
feathering wheel bushings” which are used on certain side-wheel
steamers is as follows: The logs are cut into bolts 16 to 18 inches
long, slabbed to an octagonal form to remove the sapwood, and then
turned in a lathe to a diameter of 5-1/16 or 5-7/8 inches. These
cylinders are then cut into 7-inch and 8-inch blocks and the centers
bored to the required size.
_Bearings for water turbines._--“In America the bearings that are by
virtue of their position permanently under water are usually made of
lignum-vitae. This form of construction is most satisfactory, because
the bearings cannot be lubricated and the lignum-vitae contains a
quantity of oil which together with the water supplies sufficient
lubrication. These bearing discs are made in two parts; the lower one,
or so-called step, consists usually of a cylindrical section cut from a
sound lignum-vitae log. The shaft bears immediately upon the perfectly
smooth end-grain of the disc, which withstands the wear and tear of
the revolving shaft for many years without lubrication. However, when
the water is muddy or contains sand it often wears the disc in a
relatively short time, but even then it lasts considerably longer than
steel under similar conditions. Steel or other metal could not be used
unless lubrication was properly applied to the bearing parts.
“In addition to the step a collar is fitted around the shaft and on top
of the step. This serves the dual purpose of holding the shaft from
vibrating, and also prevents the wheel from slipping down in event the
step bearing wears too much due to excessive friction and the enormous
pressure.
“The collar is cut lengthwise so as to facilitate removing it for
repairs. This method of constructing the step bearing is a simple and
practical device which supports the lower end of the vertical turbine
shaft. Its arrangement is efficient, accessible, interchangeable,
and as firm as any of the other bearings in common use. It is of the
greatest importance, however, that the bearing surfaces of the discs be
finished by expert workmen and installed with the greatest care.” (32.)
_Bowling balls._--Lignum-vitae of prime grade is the only wood
which can be used satisfactorily in bowling balls. It was at one
time extensively employed for this purpose but now only about one
ball in ten is made of wood. Quebracho of Argentina, mancono of the
Philippines, and various other woods have been tried but with poor
success, owing to their tendency to check and split.
For the 8-3/4 inch regulation ball, choice round logs from 9 to 12
inches in diameter and with the pith in the exact center are required.
From such logs are cut 14-inch bolts and the ends immediately coated
with shellac. Such a block is placed in a lathe, a ball rough-turned
out of the middle portion, and dipped in hot shellac. The ball is then
passed to a skilled workman at another lathe for final turning to size.
It is next placed in a socket chuck and worked down with sand-paper
of increasing fineness, followed by polishing with a woolen cloth.
The thumb-and-finger holes are then bored, the ball set on pins and
shellacked by means of a wide camel’s-hair brush. In order to attain an
exact weight the ball is tested from time to time during the finishing
process and slight over-weight of the finished ball is overcome by
increasing the depth of the holes a trifle.
The finishing of the balls requires a high degree of skill, and one man
can do about three in a day. If, for any reason, the work is stopped,
the wood is immediately coated with shellac to prevent checking.
_“Cutting-up” wood._--This term is applied to logs of poorer grade
which are cut up into small pieces for miscellaneous uses, one of the
most important being caster wheels. Large quantities of culls, the
crooked, eccentric, and variously defective logs, are disposed of for
this purpose at a price of from $25 to $30 per ton. The advantage of
lignum-vitae for casters is that it does not split or splinter and is
less likely to mar the floor than metal is.
_Mallets._--The largest market for mallet wood is in England. Small
round sticks with a rather thick sapwood are preferred for this
purpose. Much of this class of material is supplied by _Guaiacum
sanctum_. Lignum-vitae is considered superior to other woods for this
purpose because of its hardness and weight together with its freedom
from splitting and from brooming at the ends.
_Pulleys, dead-eyes, etc._--Lignum-vitae finds a very important
application in the manufacture of pulleys where it is used for the
sheaves or wheels. Manufacturers prefer cylindrical logs of good
quality and 8 inches and up in diameter. The properties which make the
wood particularly applicable for this purpose are freedom from checking
and splitting and great resistance to wear. According to Galletley (15,
p. 384), “sheaves of pulley blocks made of it have been known to last
in constant use for seventy years.” Wooden sheaves are never used with
steel cables or wire rope.
Another use in the shipbuilding industry is for dead-eyes and
bull’s-eyes. A dead-eye is a round flattish block, a few inches in
diameter, with a grooved rim to fit in the bight of a rope or encircled
by an iron band, and pierced with three holes to receive a lanyard. It
is used to extend the shrouds and stays. A bull’s-eye differs from the
preceding in having a single hole instead of three. In making these
articles the direction of the grain of the wood is not important,
though slabs are easier to shape.
A minor use of lignum-vitae in shipbuilding is for the collars of
rope guides. The collars noted by the writer in the construction of
emergency tillers were about 2 inches thick with rounded corners about
a 2-inch opening and bolted in pairs in a frame.
_Fuel._--Between 150 and 200 tons of lignum-vitae are used annually in
New York for firewood to burn in open grates. It makes a very hot and
lasting fire and is said to excel all other woods for this purpose. The
selling price per ton, delivered to residence, is about $25 per ton.
Only cull logs are used for this purpose. In some factories the sawdust
and refuse are used as fuel under the boilers.
_Railroad cross-ties._--The only data available regarding the use of
lignum-vitae for cross-ties are contained in a report of the chief
engineer of the Panama Railroad on the use and life of hardwood ties
laid in the roadbed of the line from 1878 to 1895 (34, p. 85). During
this interval more than 100,000 ties were laid. They were procured from
the north coast of Colombia and were shipped to Colon from the port
of Barranquilla. “They were of a variety of wood commonly known as
lignum-vitae (_Guayacum recina_), and now spoken of as black guayacum
to distinguish it from yellow guayacum, a wood of the same family,[14]
but with less power of resistance to mechanical wear or decay.”
[14] The yellow wood referred to is a species of _Tecoma_ or _Tabebuia_
of an entirely different family--the Bignoniaceae or catalpa family.
In 1891 this note was made: “The exceptional durability of these ties
(about 30 years, when of good quality) reduces the number of yearly
requirements to small proportions.” The report further states that in
1913 many of the early-laid ties were still in use in the roadbed and
that others had been removed only because they were too small for the
increased traffic. The condition of the ties removed is described as
follows:
“The hardwood ties laid in the old track were, generally speaking, in
very good condition. There were little, if any, signs of decay, but in
many cases, especially with the smaller ties, they were badly worn at
the rail seat by the mechanical action of the base of the rail, no tie
plates being used on the ties. They were also ‘spike killed,’ caused by
replacing spikes and changing rail. It will be interesting to note that
many of the ties removed from the main track at that time, and later,
are now being relaid on the tracks connecting with the new terminal
docks at Cristobal. The timber in the ties is practically as good as
ever. As their smaller size is not objectionable in the yard tracks, it
is expected that they will still have a long life in other services.
Tie plates are not necessary with these ties, which results in some
saving.
“The mechanical wear on the old hardwood ties in contradistinction
to the decay of the wood is demonstrated by the fact that while the
base of the rail and the driven spikes have cut into the hardwood and
weathered it, the material in the balance is as good as ever. The same
experience has, of course, long been encountered and commented upon
in the tie records of the United States. The difference between the
experience there and here, however, lies in the fact that the ties
referred to in the former records have probably not been used for a
period longer than 8 to 10 years, while local hardwood ties are from
20 to 25 years old, and have been used in a tropical climate where all
other wood decays in from 3 to 5 years.
“The black guayacum cross-tie is probably a thing of the past. Such
material is now so valuable for other purposes in connection with
machinery and manufacturing arts, that it is not to be expected that
it can be procured at reasonable prices for cross-ties. The Panama
Railroad Company has procured only 4,000 or 5,000 guayacum cross-ties
in the past six years, and most of these have been of the inferior
variety known as yellow guayacum.”
_Miscellaneous._--Among the miscellaneous uses for lignum-vitae may be
mentioned stencil and chisel blocks, watch-makers’ blocks, mortars and
pestles, brush backs, dowels, golf-club heads, wooden cogs, and block
guides for band saws. The sawdust or flour obtained in cutting up the
wood is in demand by the drug trade at a price varying from $20 to $40
a ton.
_Medicine._--“_Guaiacum_, owing to its reported medicinal virtues, was
one of the first plants of the New World to attract the attention of
Europeans.... One Gonsalvo Ferrand has the reputation of having carried
it to Europe about 1508; and three works describing its virtues were
published in Germany previous to 1520” (40, p. 60).
The name lignum-vitae (wood of life) originated from the supposition
that the wood was possessed of extraordinary remedial power. “It was
used in Europe so early as 1508, and attained great celebrity as a
remedy for _lues venerea_; but the general professional verdict is
that it has no distinct influence in syphilis, nor yet in chronic
rheumatism and gout, scrofula, or cutaneous eruptions against which
it was formerly much used. It is usually exhibited in decoctions, and
in combination with other medicines, as in the compound decoction of
sarsaparilla” (10, p. 674).
“The ancient treatment of syphilis by guaiacum, which gained for the
drug such immense reputation, consisted in the administration of vast
quantities of the decoction, the patient being shut up in a warm room
and kept in bed” (14, p. 103). On account of this use the wood is still
known in Germany as “Pockholz,” and “Franzosenholz”; also “Guaiacholz.”
At first only the wood was employed medicinally, there being no known
use for the resin. It is now recognized that the medicinal properties
are confined to the resin or “concrete juice” which, because of
its greater convenience in handling and preparation, is almost the
only form of the drug now in the trade. It is a reputed diaphoretic
and alterative and is occasionally prescribed in cases of gout and
rheumatism.
_Resin of Guaiacum: Its Properties and Uses_
The following description of the resin, known as “guaiac” or “guaiaci
resin,” is taken from the latest edition of the American Pharmacopoeia
(35, p. 211):
“In irregular fragments or in large, nearly homogeneous masses,
occasionally in more or less rounded or ovoid tears, enclosing
fragments of vegetable tissues; externally brown, becoming
greenish-gray-brown on exposure, the fractured surface having a glossy
luster, the thin pieces being translucent and varying in color from
reddish to yellowish-brown; odor balsamic; taste slightly acrid.
“Guaiac melts between 80° and 90°C. It is readily soluble in alcohol,
ether, chloroform, creosote, and in the solutions of the alkalies or
in hydrated chloral T.S. It is sparingly soluble in carbon disulphide
or benzene and is not more than 15 per cent insoluble in alcohol; the
alcoholic solution, on the addition of an excess of chlorine water or
tincture of ferric chloride, becomes blue, changing quickly to green,
the color being best seen when the solutions are diluted with an equal
volume of water.... The powder is grayish, becoming green on exposure
to the air.”
The resin completely infiltrates the heartwood and makes up about
one-fourth its weight. A specimen of the wood tested by Galletley (15,
p. 384) has a specific gravity of 1.332 and yielded 30 per cent resin
as follows: With naptha, 9.4 per cent; with ether, 18.37 per cent; with
alcohol, 2.22 per cent. The resin for the market is collected in the
form of natural exudations (“tears”), by heating sticks of the wood and
collecting the melted resin as it runs out, or by boiling the chips and
sawdust with a solution of common salt and skimming off the substances
which rise to the surface. (14, p. 103; 10, p. 674; 37, p. 694.)
Owing to the difficulty of securing the native resin during the war,
New York dealers began its extraction from the sawdust and other waste
supplied by factories using lignum-vitae. About 300 pounds of resin can
be obtained from a ton of sawdust. The value of the resin varied from
about 50 cents a pound before the war to about $1.50 during that period.
The sawdust is very fine, of the nature of wood flour, and is decidedly
yellow or orange-yellow in color. The writer boiled some of it in water
to which a small amount of table salt had been added. A sticky and
frothy scum formed on the surface and, after being removed and dried,
the substance crumbled to a fine grayish lusterless powder, turning
dull green on exposure to the air and light. The water in which the
sawdust was boiled was filtered and allowed to stand in the open for
two weeks. It was of a rather opaque orange-yellow color, remaining
unchanged with exposure, and had the characteristic scent of the heated
wood. The coloring principles of the resin is known as “guaiac yellow”
and, so far as known to the writer, it is not employed in dyes or
stains.
In oven-drying some specimens of the wood at a temperature of 100° C.,
a few blocks of fresh wood “bled” rather freely. The exuding resin was
a deep reddish-brown in mass, translucent and garnet-colored in thin
pieces; very brittle and crumbling readily between thumb and finger.
It was very sticky while hot and drew out in long threads when touched
with the finger. Left exposed to the air it gradually assumed a very
dark green color. The specific gravity of this resin was found to be
1.23. The resin extracted with alcohol assumed a waxy consistency upon
volatilization of the solvent but did not harden even after several
weeks’ exposure.
The composition of guaiacum resin was obtained by Hadelich (1862) to be
as follows (see 14, p. 104):
_Per cent_
Guaiaconic acid (C₃₈H₄₀O₁₀) 70.3
Guaiaretic acid (C₂₀H₂₆O₄) 10.5
Guaiac beta-resin 9.8
Gum 3.7
Ash constituents 0.8
Guaiacic acid, coloring matter (guaiac yellow)
and impurities 4.9
The decomposition products of dry distillation are: At 118°C.,
Guaiacene (C₅H₈O); at 205-210°C., Guaiacol (C₆H₈.OCH.OH), and Kreosol
(C₆H₃.OH (CH₃)²).
“After the removal by distillation of the liquids just described,
there sublime upon further application of heat pearly crystals of
pyro-guaiacin (C₃₈H₄₄O₆), an inodorous substance melting at 180°C. It
is colored green by ferric chloride and blue by warm sulphuric acid.
The similar reactions of the crude resin are probably due to this
substance (Hlasiwetz).”
According to Lücker (29, p. 290), the formula for guaiac resin acid is
C₂₀H₂₄O₄ and for guaiaconic acid is C₂₀H₂₄O₅. (For additional data on
the chemical composition of the resin see Tschirch “Die Harze und die
Harzbehälter,” pp. 805-811).
Guaiacum resin is used in the preparation of the tincture of guaiac
(tinctura guaiaca) and the ammoniated tincture of guaiac (tinctura
guaiaca ammoniata).
“The tincture is of a deep-brown color, is decomposed by water, and
affords blue, green, and brown precipitates with the mineral acids. It
is colored blue by nitric acid, by chlorine, and by tincture of ferric
chloride, and usually by spirit of nitrous ether, and is similarly
changed when heated successively by diluted hydrocyanic acid and
solution of copper sulphate. Either in substance or tincture, guaiac
gives a blue color to gluten and substances containing it, to mucilage
of gum arabic, to milk, and to various freshly cut roots, as to the
potato, carrot, and horseradish. This is on account of the fact that
oxidizing enzymes or oxidases are present in all of these substances
and guaiac resin is one of the most delicate reagents for detecting
this class of enzymes.” (11, p. 539.)
The tincture of guaiac has also been used in the detection of blood
stains. It produces a blue color when, in connection with hydrogen
peroxide or other ozonized substance, it is brought in contact with the
red coloring matter of the blood. It is also recognized as a valuable
aid in distinguishing nucleated red blood disks, such as characterize
birds, fishes, and reptiles, from the non-nucleated in man and other
mammals. Its use in this connection for demonstration purposes in jury
trials is recommended by Bertolet (4, pp. 127-130).
SUBSTITUTES FOR TRUE LIGNUM-VITAE
_Woods of the Lignum-vitae Family_
_“Maracaibo lignum-vitae,” or vera._--The properties which especially
adapt lignum-vitae to its most exacting uses are extreme density,
durability and toughness, combined with self-lubrication. All of the
woods of the family possess these properties to a degree but, as
already shown, that of _Guaiacum_ alone, and apparently only certain
kinds of it, meet the full requirements of the trade. The wood of
_Porlieria_ is not upon the market because the trees are too small.
_Bulnesia_, however, is of comparatively good timber form and can be
had in considerable quantity. It is sometimes used as a substitute for
the genuine lignum-vitae, but its principal use is said to be for steps
and collars for water turbines. (See page 31.)
This “Maracaibo lignum-vitae” or vera-wood is not considered suitable
for propeller shaft bushings and certain other purposes. The objections
that have been made to it are that it does not wear well and that the
grain is less interwoven than in the best of the genuine wood and
accordingly there is more liability to cup-shakes, radial cracks, and
similar defects. One New York dealer states that 75 per cent of the
vera logs he has seen showed bad ring-shakes. The lower resistance to
wear may be due, in part at least, to the large number of crystals
present in the wood of this genus since they would act in the nature of
a very fine, sharp and hard sand or grit.
The writer has been unable to determine the extent to which these
objections are justifiable. The fact remains that the wood is less
used now than it was a few years ago and is in little demand at a
price from one-third to one-half that of the Cuban. The only figures
available on the amount of vera exported are for transshipments from
Curaçao during the fiscal years 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, the values
being $4,822, $3,431, $4,361, and $1,941 respectively. These values
include an unknown amount of Haitian wood of the same name.
“_Paraguay lignum-vitae._”--This is the wood of _Bulnesia Sarmienti_
locally known as “palo santo” on account of its use for incense in
churches. As previously stated, this wood has a place on the market in
the manufacture of the “oil of guaiac wood” used by perfumers. It is
also used to a small extent in Argentina for chucks and bearings and
for various purposes such as small articles of furniture, utensils, and
ornaments (31, p. 122).
In Paraguay it occurs scattered among the quebracho trees, and owners
of timberlands there are seeking a market for their wood under the name
of “Paraguay lignum-vitae.” Unless the wood should prove of much better
quality than the vera (described above), which is unlikely, the much
higher cost of transportation will probably prevent its exploitation.
_Woods of Other Families_
“_Philippine lignum-vitae._”--There is no wood on the market which is
recognized by the trade as a satisfactory substitute for lignum-vitae.
A few have been proposed and advertised. Among these may be mentioned
the “mancono,” sometimes called “Philippine lignum-vitae” (41, p. 19).
The botanical name of this tree is _Xanthostemon verdugianus_ Naves,
and it belongs to the Myrtaceae or eucalypt family.
The heartwood of mancono is brownish, turning purple when exposed to
the air; the sapwood is very narrow and of a pale reddish color. The
wood is very heavy and hard, the specific gravity of the oven-dry
material being about 1.24. The grain is fine and twisted. The wood
checks badly upon exposure to the air, though most of the cracks
are said to be superficial (26, pp. 3-4). The writer is informed
that the experimental use of this wood for bowling balls proved its
unsuitability for that purpose. There are no records of it having been
tested for bushing blocks for steamships.
“_Red lignum-vitae._”--The term “red lignum-vitae” is sometimes
used in the trade to designate quebracho when used for articles of
turnery. This is an extremely hard reddish wood, becoming claret-red
upon exposure, chiefly used as a source of tannin extract. There are
two species, _Schinopsis Lorentzii_ Engl. (= _Quebrachia Lorentzii_
Griseb.) and _Schinopsis Balansae_ Engl. The principal sources of
supply at present are Argentina and Paraguay.
The wood is used for some of the purposes for which true lignum-vitae
is employed, for example bowling balls and other turned articles, but
is unsuited for bearings. The wood has no resemblance to _Guaiacum_
except in density, which is given by Mell and Brush (33, p. 6) as 1.2
to 1.4. It lacks odor, is not oily, has a reddish color, is without
ripple marks, and some of the rays contain intercellular canals.
“_Indian lignum-vitae._”--The true lignum-vitae does not grow naturally
in the Old World but _Guaiacum officinale_ is occasionally cultivated
in the tropical regions, as in Calcutta and Madras (15, p. 132). An
Indian wood sometimes known as “lignum-vitae of Pegu” (29, p. 35),
the “varnish tree” of Burma, is _Melanorrhoea usitata_ Wall. of the
Anacardiaceae or sumac family. The description of this wood as given
by Gamble (16, p. 217) suggests lignum-vitae in that it is highly
resinous, fine-textured, very hard and heavy, though the latter
statement is hardly consistent with the given weight per cubic foot,
namely, 54 pounds. Some authorities give the weight as 59 pounds. A
writer in _Hardwood Record_ (29, p. 35) says that this wood’s “extreme
closeness of grain and density of structure suggests a relationship
with the true lignum-vitae” but there is no evidence that it is
suitable for, or has ever been used as, a substitute for the latter.
“_African lignum-vitae._”--A New York dealer informs the writer that he
has been offered 100 tons of “African lignum-vitae,” but the nature of
this wood and the species producing it were not known. According to one
writer (29, p. 35), “the ‘African lignum-vitae’ (_Combretum truncatum_)
is a large tree which is abundant in lower Guinea and the Mosambique
districts. The wood is very hard, heavy, close-grained, and with a
deep reddish-brown heartwood and light-colored sapwood.” This wood
belongs to the family Combretaceae, is not closely related to the true
lignum-vitae and, so far as known to the writer, has not been used in
bearings.
“_Australian lignum-vitae._”--Boulger (5) describes six Australian
woods which are sometimes called “lignum-vitae,” namely, (1) _Acacia
falcata_ Willd. (Leguminosae), (2) _Myrtus semenoides_ F.v.M.
(Myrtaceae), (3) _Eucalyptus polyanthena_ Schau. (Myrtaceae), (4)
_Phyllanthus Ferdinandi_ Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), (5) _Vitex
lignum-vitae_ A. Cunn. (Verbenaceae), (6) _Dodonoea viscosa_ L.
(Sapindaceae). He says that the last mentioned, which is found
throughout the Tropics, is “suited for all the uses of the true
lignum-vitae.” In India, according to Gamble (16, p. 132), this species
is only a shrub, the wood of which is used for engraving, turning,
tool-handles, and walking sticks.
Baker (2, pp. 49, 57, 232, 375) mentions four Australian woods as
possible substitutes for lignum-vitae, namely, _Elaeocarpus Bancroftii_
F. M. & B. (Tiliaceae), _Geijera parviflora_ Lindl. (Rutaceae),
_Eucalyptus Thozetiana_ F. Muell. (Myrtaceae), and _Casuarina Cambagei_
Baker (Casuarineae). Of the third he says (p. 232): “The timber of
this tree is probably harder than that of any Eucalyptus tree. It is
very heavy, close-grained and interlocked, has a chocolate color,
and much resembles in texture, color, and hardness, lignum-vitae,
_Guaiacum officinale_, Linn., of Central America. In fact it is more
deserving the title of Australian ‘lignum-vitae’ than other trees of
the continent passing under that name, and it is so named in the museum
specimens.” As to the wood of _Casuarina Cambagei_ (p. 375): “It is
very dark chocolate in color, hard, close-grained, without a figure,
... dresses to hard, firm, even surface, takes a good polish, and ...
is the most suitable of all Australian timbers for shaft bearings,
being the nearest substitute for lignum-vitae so extensively used
for this purpose.” There is no evidence that any Australian wood has
actually been used for such a substitute.
_Other woods called lignum-vitae._--Boulger (5) also reports that
the name lignum-vitae is applied to the following additional woods:
_Metrosideros scandens_ B. & S. (Myrtaceae), a tall creeper in New
Zealand; _Ixora ferrea_ Benth. or _Siderodendron triflorum_ Vahl.
(Rubiaceae) of British Guiana, also known as “hackia,” “West Indian
ironwood” and “Martinique ironwood”;[15] also to an unknown species
shipped from Guayaquil and called “Guayaquil lignum-vitae,” though
“having nothing in common with the true lignum-vitae, to which it is
inferior.” Further this author (5, p. 289) states that “among the
ancients and in France the name (lignum-vitae) has been applied to
_Tetraclinis articulata_ Vahl.”
[15] These names are applied to _Tabebuia_ sp. (Bignoniaceae) according
to Stone and Freeman (44, p. 31).
“_Guayacan._”--The generic name _Guaiacum_ (also spelled _Guayacum_)
is derived from the vernacular name “guayacan.” The latter, or some
variant of it, is applied by Spanish-speaking people not only to all
the woods of the lignum-vitae family (Zygophyllaceae) but to many
others as well. It seems to be the equivalent of the English term
“ironwood” and is likely to be used to designate any hard and heavy
timber, particularly one which is not well known by some other name.
In Argentina, the names “guayacan” or “guayakan,” and “guayacan negro”
are applied to _Caesalpinia melanocarpa_ Griseb. of the Leguminosae or
pea family. This tree reaches a height of 65 feet and a diameter of
20 inches (44, p. 354). The wood varies in color from chocolate-brown
to nearly black, is very hard, heavy,[16] durable, and more or less
cross-grained. It is in local demand for turnery but apparently is not
exported.
[16] Castro (8, p. 47) gives the specific gravity of this wood as
ranging from 1.113 to 1.811. Another leguminous wood, “guaycuruzú,”
is reported by Castro to have a density of 1.655. Since the specific
gravity of dry wood substance is between 1.50 and 1.56, it seems
impossible for any wood to have so great a density as these larger
values, even allowing for infiltrated substances.
“_Yellow guayacan._”--The fallaceous contention that because true
lignum-vitae is called “guayacan,” any wood called “guayacan” is true
lignum-vitae, has resulted in much confusion and in the substitution of
inferior material for the genuine.
A most conspicuous instance of this is described in _Hardwood Record_
(28, p. 22). It appears that in 1918 the Navy Department accepted the
bid of the officials of the Panama Railroad, Canal Zone, for over
300,000 pounds of lignum-vitae logs. A specimen of the wood supplied
was examined by the writer and found to be (as reported) a species
of _Tecoma_ (or _Tabebuia_) of the Bignoniaceae or catalpa family,
though locally known as “yellow guayacan” or “yellow guayacum.” (See
“Uses of lignum-vitae; Railroad cross-ties.”) It is also reported
that considerable of this wood was purchased by the Emergency Fleet
Corporation, and used for stern bearings but with what success the
writer is unable to determine. In order to prevent checking the logs
were stored under water, shipped in wet sawdust kept wet while cutting
and fitting into the tubes, a practice which might be followed with the
more refractory kinds of genuine material with success. The wood in
question seems to be lacking in the essential properties of the genuine
and it will be very surprising if it proves to be a satisfactory
substitute.
“Yellow guayacan has never been used anywhere for bearings,” says
a writer in _Hardwood Record_ (28, p. 22), “and only the slightest
knowledge of the structure of the wood is required to convince anyone
that it is not suitable for any part of a vessel coming in contact with
water and subjected at the same time to great wear and tear, as in the
case of bushing blocks.”
The Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy Department advises
the writer in a letter dated March 29, 1919, that it “made one
purchase of _Tabebuia_ with the expectation that this material would
be suitable for the same uses for which the genuine lignum-vitae is
required. Tests have proven that this material has sufficient strength
and hardness but is lacking in oil content which prohibits its use for
stern tube bearings which require wood of self-lubricating properties.”
The writer found some of this material in the New York Navy Yard and
was informed that it has been used to a small extent for stern bearings
either alone or in connection with genuine lignum-vitae. In the latter
case the lower half of the tube would be lined with the genuine wood,
the upper, where wear is less, with the substitute. The workmen had no
difficulty whatever in recognizing this substitute and were outspoken
against its employment where the genuine could be had.
The “yellow guayacan” grows also in Mexico and is sometimes called
“Mexican lignum-vitae.” The writer saw about 200 tons of it in New York
where it had been stored for several months owing to the inability of
the owners to dispose of it profitably. A wood of the same or, more
likely, a closely related species grows in Colombia and is called
“guayacan polvillo.” One in British Guiana is, as stated elsewhere in
this paper, called “hackia” or “lignum-vitae.” These woods are hard and
heavy and more or less cross-grained, sometimes decidedly so. They are
of a yellow color due to the deposits of a crystalline substance called
“lapachol.” They bear so little resemblance to the true lignum-vitae
that there is no occasion for confusing them with it.
The writer was recently informed by a person familiar with the timbers
of Central America that at least 40 different kinds were locally
called “guayacan.” While this may be an exaggeration it serves to
emphasize the need for discrimination on the part of the buyers and
users of lignum-vitae if they would avoid being imposed upon, whether
intentionally or otherwise.
“_Palo santo_” or “_páo santo_.”--The woods of the Zygophyllaceae
are often called “palo santo” in Spanish America. The equivalent
Portuguese term is “páo santo.” The wood of _Zollernia paraënsis_
Huber (Leguminosae) of Brazil is known by this name and, presumably
on this account, it has been exported as a substitute for the wood of
_Guaiacum officinale_ which, according to Huber (24, pp. 179-181), it
resembles in its physical properties. He describes the tree as tall
with a cylindrical trunk and light gray and scaly bark. The heartwood,
which is relatively large and distinctly differentiated from the light
yellow sapwood, varies in color from light gray or greenish to almost
black. Sometimes it is spotted like “snakewood” (_Brosimum Aublettii_
P. & E.) and is then called “muirapinima preta.” A specimen, said
to have been a part of the Huber collection, was examined by the
writer and found to be hard, heavy, and fine-textured, but perfectly
straight-grained, fissile, and non-resinous.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
(1) The true lignum-vitae of commerce belongs to the family
Zygophyllaceae, of which only three genera, namely, _Guaiacum_,
_Porlieria_, and _Bulnesia_, have representatives of tree size, and
these are confined to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the
Western Hemisphere. _Porlieria_ is of no commercial importance.
(2) The genus _Bulnesia_, with its several species, is confined to
South America. _Bulnesia arborea_ Engl., the only species of present
commercial importance, grows in Colombia and Venezuela, and supplies
the wood known as “vera” or “Maracaibo lignum-vitae.” It is sometimes
used as a substitute for the genuine but is considered inferior.
(3) The true lignum-vitae is produced only by species of _Guaiacum_,
of which six have been described by botanists. The commercial range of
this genus includes the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and the
coastal region of northern South America. It is not definitely known
which species supply the Mexican and Central American wood of commerce.
(4) Lignum-vitae is one of the heaviest woods in the world. The weight
(oven-dry) per cubic foot of the heartwood is usually between 75 and
80 pounds. The wood has been an article of trade for more than four
centuries. It was formerly supposed to possess remarkable curative
powers but is now little employed in medicine. Its principal uses are
for bearings (especially for lining the stern tubes of steamships),
sheaves, caster-wheels, bowling balls, and miscellaneous articles of
turnery. During the war there was an unusual demand for this wood in
the shipbuilding industry.
(5) The properties which make lignum-vitae valuable are great density
and hardness, extreme toughness, and resistance to wear. The large
resin content of the wood acts as a preservative and a natural
lubricant, thus making it especially adapted for service under water,
as in the case of propeller bushings and water-wheel work.
No wood has been found which is a satisfactory substitute for the more
exacting uses to which true lignum-vitae is so eminently suited.
(6) The woods of the Zygophyllaceae can be readily distinguished
from all others by the fineness of the “ripple marks” (about 250 per
inch), the density and grain of the wood, and the peculiar fragrant
resin content. The woods of _Guaiacum_ and _Bulnesia_ can be readily
separated by noting the arrangement of the pores as they appear under
a hand lens. The different kinds of true lignum-vitae logs can best be
separated by their size and by the appearance of the bark.
(7) Dealers have no difficulty in getting an abundant supply of genuine
lignum-vitae logs. Although the more conveniently located timber has
in many places been cut out, increased prices have made it possible to
secure timber previously considered inaccessible. The supply appears
adequate to meet the demands for a great many years.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The writer is indebted to various dealers and wood-users for valuable
assistance in the preparation of this paper. Particular acknowledgment
is made of the invaluable services rendered by Mr. C. D. Mell of New
York City.
LITERATURE CITED
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[Illustration: BULNESIA ARBOREA NEAR PORTO CABELLO, VENEZUELA]
Photo by Pittier
[Illustration: GUAIACUM OFFICINALE]
[Illustration: GUAIACUM SANCTUM]
[Illustration: YOUNG TREE]
[Illustration: MATURE TREE]
GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR. OF HAITI
Photos by Mell
[Illustration: TYPICAL BARK OF CUBAN LIGNUM-VITAE (GUAIACUM OFFICINALE)
× 1/2]
[Illustration: BARK OF NICARAGUAN LIGNUM-VITAE (GUAIACUM SP.) × 1/2]
[Illustration: BARK OF HAITIAN VERA (GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR.) × 1/2]
[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SP. FROM NICARAGUA]
[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SANCTUM FROM JAMAICA]
[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM SANCTUM VAR. FROM HAITI]
[Illustration: LOGS OF GUAIACUM OFFICINALE FROM CUBA]
[Illustration: METHOD OF TRANSPORTING LIGNUM-VITAE LOGS IN HAITI
(In the background is a large pile of logwood.)]
[Illustration: A WOOD YARD IN HAITI SHOWING METHODS OF TRANSPORTING,
WEIGHING, AND STORING LIGNUM-VITAE LOGS]
Photos by Mell
Printed by the Yale University Press
at the Earl Trumbull Williams Memorial
Transcriber note:
Inconsistent spelling has been standardised.
Punctuation errors have been corrected.
Italics are enclosed by underscores.
Smallcap text has been capitalised.