Of the various diseases the stomach of the Horse is liable to, perhaps

the most peculiar is that caused by an insect known as the Gad-fly.

With regard to this creature and its mode of attack, Youatt gives the

following information:--“In the spring and early part of the summer,

Horses are much troubled by a gnat or caterpillar, which causes a great

deal of itching and uneasiness. Grooms are sometimes alarmed at the

appearance of these insects. Their history is peculiar, and will dispel

every fear with regard to them. We are indebted to Mr. Bracy Clark for

almost all we know about them. A species of Gad-fly (_Œstrus equi_) is,

in the latter part of the summer, exceedingly busy about the Horse. It

is observed to be darting with great rapidity towards the knees and

sides of the animal. The females are depositing their eggs on the hair,

which adhere to it by means of a glutinous fluid with which they are

surrounded. In a few days the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the

slightest application of warmth and moisture will liberate the little

animals which they contain. The Horse, in licking himself, touches the

egg; it bursts, and a small worm escapes, which adheres to the tongue,

and is conveyed with the food into the stomach. There it clings to the

cuticular portion of the stomach by means of a hook on either side of

its mouth; and its hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must be

broken before it can be detached. It remains there feeding on the mucus

of the stomach during the whole of the winter, and until the end of the

ensuing spring; when, having attained a considerable size, and being

destined to undergo a certain transformation, it disengages itself from

the cuticular coat, is carried into the villous portion of the stomach

with the food, passes out of it with the chyme, and is evacuated with

the excrement. The larva, or maggot, seeks shelter in the ground, and

buries itself there; it contracts in size, and becomes a chrysalis

or grub, in which state it lies inactive for a few weeks, and then,

bursting from its confinement, assumes the form of a fly. The female,

becoming impregnated, quickly deposits her eggs on those parts of the

Horse which he is most accustomed to lick, and thus the species is

perpetuated.”

[Illustration: BRAIN OF HORSE.]

“There are several plain conclusions to be drawn from this history.

The bots cannot, while they inhabit the stomach of the Horse, give the

animal any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible

coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach and increase its digestive

power, for they are not on the digestive portion of the stomach. They

cannot, by their roughness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of

the food, for no such office is performed in that part of the stomach:

the food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the

Horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part

of his stomach is filled with them; and their presence is not even

suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by

medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach to which

medicine is usually conveyed: and if they were, their mouths are

too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can safely be

administered, to affect them; and last of all, in due course of time

they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore the wise man will

leave them to themselves.”

THE RACE-HORSE.--The breed of Horses for which England is

chiefly remarkable is the Race-Horse, resulting from a cross of the

English stock with the Arabian; and this was chiefly brought about by

the care of Mr. Darley. The offspring of the Arabian thus introduced

was the Devonshire, or Flying Childers, the fleetest Horse of his time,

which ran four miles, one furlong, and a hundred and thirty-eight

yards in seven minutes and a half. Descended from the same Arabian

was Eclipse, who never met an opponent sufficiently fleet to test his

powers. He became the sire of three hundred and thirty-four winners;

while King Herod, a descendant of the same stock, was the sire of no

less than four hundred and ninety-seven winners. The former of these

Horses died in 1789, at the age of seventy-five years, after realising

for his owner a princely fortune: his skeleton is now preserved

in the museum at Oxford. The English Race-Horse, in swiftness and

energy, elegance and grace, surpasses his Arabian progenitor; and is

so superior to other European breeds, that it is usual on the English

course to allow foreign Horses an advantage in the weight that they

carry. All English Race-Horses are descended either from Arabian or

Barb sires.

[Illustration: ENGLISH RACE-HORSE.]

THE TROTTING HORSE OF AMERICA.--Two nations have the credit

of introducing a race of Horses known as the Trotting Horse. One of

these is Russia, the other the United States; and the latter has so

far excelled her rival, that the Trotting Horse is now generally known

as the “Trotting Horse of America.” The Russian breed is Arabian on

a Flemish stock, and is known as the Orloff Trotter; but from the

bending of the knee when the Horse is striding, and the trotting

action not being carefully looked after, the animal is considered by

good judges to be only “half-developed.” The breed of the American

Trotter seems to have been both Barb and Arabian on an English stock,

the well-known Bashaw Trotters being descended from an imported Barb

ancestor, the Grand Bashaw; and Top Gallant was produced by a union of

Arab or Eastern breed, with some Horse either English or of English

origin. One of the greatest American trainers of the Trotting Horse,

Hiram Woodruff, says in his work on this subject that the English

had the stock all along, as much as the Americans, but that the

method of training and perseverance of the latter have produced the

best and fastest trotters. He entirely disputes the idea of the trot

being an artificial action of a Horse, and the common notion that the

only two natural paces of that animal are the walk and the gallop;

and in vindication of his theory he asks, “Whether a colt can now be

found anywhere that does not trot sometimes, and that when he is by

the side of his dam, before ever the hand of a man has been laid upon

him? If it is said that this results from the long domestication of

his ancestors, my reply will be that it happens among the produce of

Horses whose ancestors for more than two centuries have never been used

for trotting, and were never taught to trot at all, if it is true that

the Arabs of the desert only use their Horses at the two so-called

natural paces, the walk and the gallop.” He further remarks that other

animals trot when wild, such as the wild Asses, Zebras, and Quaggas,

as well as the Deer and the Elk. He therefore considers that the most

careful attention should be given to the training of a young colt for

trotting purposes; and that, for a Horse to become a trotter, he should

at the early age of two years be broken in with a view to that purpose

especially, while his gallop or walk should, so to speak, be kept in

the background. His education altogether extends over several years, as

both speed and durability have to be considered in his capabilities;

sometimes he reaches the age of seven years before his finest powers

can be developed. Some of the fastest English trotters go at the rate

of a mile in three minutes; while the quickest in America, according

to Mr. Woodruff, take only two minutes and twenty-five seconds, or

thereabouts, to do the same distance. The Trotting Horse has now become

a product of great commercial value to the Americans.

[Illustration: SHETLAND PONIES.]

THE DRAY HORSE.--The huge Dray Horse, in its massive form and

ponderous strength, and slowness of gait, forms a striking contrast to

the Racer and the Trotting Horse. It is as admirably fitted for the

slow carriage of heavy weights as the two last are for their elegant

swiftness. It is as good an example of the results of judicious

selection on the part of man, for a definite purpose, as can be offered

by the study of any of the domestic animals.

THE SHETLAND PONY.--The smallest variety of Horses in the

British Islands is the Shetland Pony, which averages seven or eight

hands in height, but yet is wonderfully strong, and capable of

enduring an immense amount of fatigue. Its wild, shaggy mane gives

it somewhat the appearance, as has been remarked, of a Skye Terrier.

It is mischievous and skittish, and generally harder to ride than a

full-sized Horse.

THE ARAB AND THE BARB.--The two principal varieties of

foreign Horses which are important for us to consider are the Arab

and the Barb. The Arab would not be acknowledged by every one to be

perfect in form. The head, however, is inimitable. “The broadness and

squareness of the forehead,” writes Youatt, “the smallness of the ears,

the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the shortness and fineness

of the muzzle, the width of the nostril, the thinness of the lower

jaw, and the beautifully-developed course of the veins, will always

characterise the head of the Arabian Horse. The body of the Arab may,

perhaps, be considered as too light, and his chest too narrow; but

behind the arms the barrel generally swells out, and leaves sufficient

room for the play of the lungs. The neck of the Arabian is long and

arched, and beautifully joined to the chest. In the formation of the

shoulder, next to that of the head, the Arab is superior to any other

breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder-blade has its proper

inclination backwards. It is also thickly clothed with muscle, but

without the slightest appearance of heaviness. The fineness of his

legs, and the oblique position of the pasterns, might be supposed by

the uninitiated to lessen his apparent strength; but the leg, although

small, is deep, and composed of bone of the densest character. The

tendons are sufficiently distinct from the bone, and the starting

muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is fully capable

of accomplishing many of the feats that are recorded of him. It is

an error,” continues Youatt, “into which almost every writer on the

history of the Horse has fallen, that the Arabian is bred in the arid

deserts, and owes the power of endurance which he possesses in his

adult state to the hardships which he endured while he was a colt. The

real fact is, that the Arabs select for their breeding-places some of

those delightful spots, known only in countries like these, where,

though all may be dry and barren around, there is pasture unrivalled

for its succulence, and its nutritious or aromatic properties. The

powers of the young animal are afterwards developed, as they alone

could be, by the mingled influence of plentiful and healthy food, and

sufficient, but not, except in one day of trial, cruel exercise.”

The attachment an Arab feels for his Horse is proverbial, cases having

been recorded of a devotion so deep that the owner prefers almost to

starve rather than part with his Horse. The following anecdote is an

instance:--“The whole stock of an Arab of the desert consisted of a

mare. The French Consul offered to purchase her, in order to send her

to his Sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the proposal,

but he was miserably poor; he had scarcely a rag to cover him, and

his wife and children were starving. The sum offered was great; it

would provide him and his family with food for life. At length, and

reluctantly, he yielded. He brought the mare to the dwelling of the

consul, dismounted, and stood leaning upon her; he looked now at the

gold, and then at his favourite. ‘To whom is it,’ said he, ‘I am going

to yield thee up? To Europeans, who will tie thee close; who will beat

thee; who will render thee miserable. Return with me, my beauty, my

jewel, and rejoice the hearts of my children!’ As he pronounced the

last words, he sprang upon her back, and was presently out of sight.”

[Illustration: ENGLISH DRAY HORSE FROM THE STUD OF MESSRS. BARCLAY,

PERKINS & CO.]

[Illustration: ARAB HORSE.]

The Barb is found throughout the North of Africa, from the

Mediterranean to the Sahara desert, and has obviously been introduced

by the Moors. It is to the Barb that the principal excellence of the

Spanish Horse is due; and to this Horse, as well as to the Arab, may be

assigned a large share in producing the English Hunter and Racer. All

English thoroughbreds are descended from one or other of these.

The Persian Horse is closely allied to the Arab, and possesses great

powers of endurance. The distance marked for a race, which Sir R. K.

Porter saw, was no less than four-and-twenty miles. In some points,

according to Youatt, the Persian Horse excels the Arabian.

WILD HORSES IN AMERICA.--At the time of the discovery of

America there were no Horses in any part of that continent, although

the boundless prairies were admirably fitted for the support of

countless herds. Soon, however, those imported by the settlers strayed

away, and as a consequence horses are now met with in vast numbers, in

some cases amounting, it is said, to ten thousand in one troop. They

appear to be under the command of a leader, the strongest and boldest

of the herd, whom they implicitly obey. When threatened with danger,

at some signal, understood by them all, they either close into a dense

mass and trample their enemy to death, or, placing the mares and foals

in the centre, they form themselves into a circle and welcome him with

their heels. The leader first faces the danger, and when prudence

requires a retreat all follow his rapid flight. In the thinly inhabited

parts of South America, according to Youatt, it is dangerous to fall

in with any of these troops. The Wild Horses approach as near as they

dare; they call to the loaded Horse with the greatest eagerness, and if

the rider is not on the alert, and has not considerable strength of arm

and sharpness of spur, his animal will divest himself of his burden,

take to his heels, and be gone for ever. Byron well describes the Wild

Horse in his “Mazeppa”:--

“A trampling troop; I see them come!

In one vast squadron they advance!

I strove to cry--my lips were dumb.

The steeds rush on in plunging pride;

But where are they the reins to guide?

A thousand horse--and none to ride!

With flowing tail, and flying mane,

Wide nostrils--never stretch’d by pain,

Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein,

And feet that iron never shod,

And flanks unscarr’d by spur or rod,

A thousand horse, the wild, the free,

Like waves that follow o’er the sea.

On came the troop ...

They stop--they start--they snuff the air,

Gallop a moment here and there,

Approach, retire, wheel round and round,

Then plunging back with sudden bound,

They snort--they foam--neigh--swerve aside,

And backward to the forest fly.”

Of the meeting a troop of Wild Horses in a more thickly inhabited

part of the country, Sir F. Head gives some interesting details. He

describes some unfortunate captured animals as being forced along by

their riders at their very utmost speed: “As they are thus galloping

along, urged by the spur, it is interesting to see the groups of Wild

Horses one passes. The mares, which are never ridden in South America,

seem not to understand what makes the poor Horse carry his head so low

and look so weary. The little innocent colts come running to meet him,

and then start away frightened; while the old Horses, whose white marks

on the flanks and backs betray their acquaintance with the spur and

saddle, walk slowly away for some distance, then breaking into a trot

as they seek their safety, snort and look behind them, first with one

eye and then with the other, turning their noses from right to left,

and carrying their long tails high in the air.”

The capture and breaking in of Wild Horses in America are described by

Miers as follows:--

“The lasso is a missile weapon, used by every native of the United

Provinces and Chili. It is a very strong plaited thong of equal

thickness, half an inch in diameter, and forty feet long, made of

many strips of green hide, plaited like a whip-thong, and rendered

supple by grease. It has at one end an iron ring, above an inch and a

half in diameter, through which the thong is passed, and this forms

a running noose. The Gaucho, or native peon, is generally mounted on

horseback when he uses the lasso. One end of the thong is affixed to

his saddle-girth; the remainder he coils carefully in his left hand,

leaving about twelve feet belonging to the noose end in a coil, and

a half of which he holds in his right hand. He then swings this long

noose horizontally round his head, the weight of the iron ring at the

end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a continued circular

motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of the line.”

The Gauchos drive the Wild Horses into a corral, which is a circular

space surrounded by rough posts firmly driven into the ground. The

corral, relates Miers, “was quite full of Horses, most of which were

young ones about two or three years old. The _Capitan_ (chief Gaucho),

mounted on a strong, steady Horse, rode into the corral, and threw his

lasso over the neck of a young Horse and dragged him to the gate. For

some time he was very unwilling to lose his comrades; but the moment

he was forced out of the corral his first idea was to gallop away;

however, a timely jerk of the lasso checked him in the most effectual

way. The peons now ran after him on foot and threw a lasso over his

fore legs, just above the fetlock, and twitching it, they pulled his

legs from under him so suddenly that I really thought the fall he got

had killed him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated on his head, and with

his long knife, in a few seconds, cut off the whole of the Horse’s

mane, while another cut the hair from the end of his tail: this, they

told me, was a mark that the Horse had been once mounted. They then

put a piece of hide in his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide

halter on his head. The Gaucho who was to mount arranged his spurs,

which were unusually long and sharp, and while two men held the Horse

by his ears, he put on the saddle, which he girthed extremely tight.

He then caught hold of the Horse’s ear, and in an instant vaulted

into the saddle; upon which the man who held the Horse by the halter

threw the end to the rider, and from that moment no one seemed to

take any further notice of him. The Horse instantly began to jump in

a manner which made it very difficult for the rider to keep his seat,

and quite different from the kick or plunge of an English Horse;

however, the Gaucho’s spurs soon set him going, and off he galloped,

doing everything in his power to throw his rider. Another Horse was

immediately brought from the corral; and so quick was the operation

that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which, I think, hardly

exceeded an hour. It was wonderful to see the different manner in which

different Horses behaved. Some would actually scream while the Gauchos

were girding the saddle upon their backs; some would instantly lie down

and roll upon it; while some would stand without being held, their legs

stiff and in unnatural positions, their necks half bent towards their

tails, and looking vicious and obstinate; and I could not help thinking

that I would not have mounted one of those for any reward that could

be offered me, for they were invariably the most difficult to subdue.

It was now curious to look around and see the Gauchos on the horizon

in different directions, trying to bring their Horses back to the

corral, which is the most difficult part of their work, for the poor

creatures had been so scared there that they were unwilling to return

to the place. It was amusing to see the antics of the Horses; they

were jumping and dancing in different ways, while the right arm of the

Gauchos was seen flogging them. At last they brought the Horses back,

apparently subdued and broken in. The saddles and bridles were taken

off, and the young Horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing to

one another. When the Gaucho wishes to take a Wild Horse, he mounts one

that has been used to the sport and gallops over the plain. As soon

as he comes near his victim, the lasso is thrown round the two hind

legs, and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls

the entangled Horse’s feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side

without endangering his knees or his face. Before the Horse can recover

the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his _poncho_, or cloak,

from his shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate animal’s head. He

then forces into his mouth one of the powerful bridles of the country,

straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him, removes the poncho;

upon which the astonished Horse springs on his legs, and endeavours by

a thousand vain efforts to disencumber himself of his new master, who

sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a discipline which never

fails, reduces the Horse to such complete obedience that he is soon

trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the capture of his

companions.”

WILD HORSES IN AUSTRALIA.--In Australia, as well as in

America, the Horses imported by the colonists have escaped into the

wilds, and reverted to their feral condition. They are known as

“Brumbies,” and are a serious inconvenience to the stock farmer,

because they entice away his Horses and spoil his carefully selected

breeds. The animal develops wonderful sagacity in avoiding the

sportsman, and his keenness of scent and vigilance are certainly as

great as in any other animal which seeks in flight safety from man.

These Brumbies were described by Anthony Trollope, himself an ardent

Fox-hunter, as being perfect marvels of ugliness. These animals are

found in enormous numbers in some districts. In 1875, for example, no

less than seven thousand are stated to have been shot in one station in

New South Wales, still leaving plenty behind to perpetuate the race.

THE ASS.--Four species of Asses and three of Zebras are

described by naturalists, but our domestic animal is probably descended

from one alone; the _Asinus teniopus_ of Abyssinia. In Great Britain,

and generally in Central Europe, the Ass has not given rise to distinct

breeds like those of the Horse, a fact which may be accounted for, as

Mr. Darwin remarks, by the animal being kept by poor persons who do

not carefully match and select the young. Its small size in England

and Northern Europe is probably due far more to want of care in

breeding than to cold, for in Western India it is not much larger than

a Newfoundland Dog, being usually not more than from twenty to thirty

inches high.

[Illustration: DOMESTIC ASS.]

The Ass varies greatly in colour, and its legs, especially the fore

legs, are sometimes transversely barred; a fact which may be explained

on the hypothesis of the reappearance of the attributes of the parental

form. “The stripes,” Mr. Darwin says, “are believed to occur most

frequently and to be plainest on the legs of the Domestic Ass during

early youth, as is apparently likewise the case with the Horse. The

shoulder-stripe, which is so eminently characteristic of the species,

is nevertheless variable in breadth, length, and manner of termination.

I have measured a shoulder-stripe four times as broad as another, and

some more than twice as long as others. In one light-grey Ass the

shoulder-stripe was only six inches in length and as thin as a piece of

string; and in another animal of the same colour there was only a dusky

shade representing a stripe. I have heard of three white Asses--not

albinoes--with no trace of shoulder or spinal stripes, and I have seen

nine other Asses with no shoulder-stripe, and some of them had no

spinal-stripe. Three of the nine were light greys, one a dark grey,

another grey passing into reddish roan, and the others were brown, two

being tinted on parts of their bodies with a reddish or bay shade.

Hence we may conclude that if grey and reddish-brown Asses had been

steadily selected and bred from, the shoulder-stripe would have been

almost as generally and as completely lost as in the case of the Horse.”

[Illustration: ONAGER.]

“The shoulder-stripe on the Ass is sometimes double, and Mr. Blyth has

seen even three or four parallel stripes. I have observed in ten cases

shoulder-stripes abruptly truncated at the lower end, with the anterior

angle produced into a tapering point, precisely as has been figured

in the Dun Devonshire Pony. I have seen three cases of a terminal

portion abruptly and angularly bent, and two cases of a distinct,

though slight, forking. In Syria, Dr. Hooker and his party observed for

me no less than five instances of the shoulder-stripe being plainly

forked over the fore leg. In the common Mule it is likewise sometimes

forked. When Spist noticed the forking and angular bending of the

shoulder-stripe, I had seen enough of the stripes in the various equine

species to feel convinced that even a character so unimportant as this

had a distinct meaning, and was thus led to attend to the subject. I

now find that in the _Asinus Burchellii_ and _Quagga_, the stripe which

corresponds with the shoulder-stripe of the Ass, as well as some of

the stripes on the neck, bifurcate, and that some of those near the

shoulder have their extremities angularly bent backwards. The forking

and angular bending of the stripes on the shoulders apparently stand

in relation with the changed direction of the nearly upright stripes

on the sides of the body and neck to the transverse bars on the legs.

Finally, we see that the presence of shoulder-, leg- and spinal-stripes

in the Horse, their occasional absence in the Ass, the occurrence of

double and triple shoulder-stripes in both animals, and the similar

manner in which these stripes terminate at their lower extremities,

are all cases of analogous variation in the Horse and Ass. These

cases are probably not due to similar conditions acting on similar

constitutions, but to a partial reversion in colour to the common

progenitor of these two species, as well as of the other species of the

genus.”

The Asses, beside the characters above mentioned, have the upper part

of the tail covered with short hairs, while the lower part terminates

in a long hairy tuft; horny excrescences, or warts, exist on the fore

legs alone. In England, as we have before remarked, Asses are small and

without much variation, because their points have not been selected.

When, however, care is taken in breeding, the result is as remarkable

as in the case of the Horse. Near Cordova, according to Mr. Darwin,

they are carefully bred, as much as two hundred pounds having been

paid for a stallion Ass. Asses from Spain, Malta, and France have

been introduced into Kentucky for the breeding of Mules, which have

been raised by the care of the Kentuckians from their original size

of fourteen hands to sixteen hands in height. Great prices are put on

these splendid animals, one of great celebrity having been sold for

over one thousand pounds. At their cattle shows, one day is given up to

the exhibition of Asses.

[Illustration: WILD ASS OF ABYSSINIA.]

Asses have always been in repute in the East, and much pains have been

taken in their breeding. They are frequently mentioned in the Bible,

from which it appears that white Asses were used by people of high

rank, as may be seen from the following verse (Judges v. 10): “Speak,

ye that ride on white Asses, ye that sit in judgment, and walk by the

way.”

THE MULE AND HINNY.--The hybrid offspring of the Ass and the

Mare is the Mule; while the Hinny is that of the Horse and female

Ass. Of these the Mule is by far the larger, taking more the form and

appearance, as well as the dimensions, of the mare; while the latter

assumes so much of the nature and general appearance of the Ass as to

render the breeding of it undeserving of attention.

[Illustration: ZEBRA.

(_From the Living Specimen in the Zoological Gardens, London._)]

THE WILD ASS OF TIBET.--We are indebted to Dr. Sclater, the

accomplished Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, for an

interesting account of the various species of Wild Asses. The Kiang, or

Wild Ass of Tibet, inhabits the high plateaux, at no less an altitude

than from fifteen to sixteen thousand feet above the sea. It is a large

animal, measuring fourteen hands in height, and is exceedingly swift

and wary. The back is marked by a broad black line, but there is no

transverse bar across the shoulders; it is probably the true _Equus

hemionus_ of Pallas. (See figure, p. 295.)

THE ONAGER, or Wild Ass of the Asiatic deserts, presents

several varieties. That variety which inhabits Cutch and Scinde

is remarkable for its swiftness and difficulty of approach. It is

closely allied to the Wild Ass of Assyria, named by St. Hilaire _Equus

hemippus_. (See figure, p. 311.)

[Illustration: BURCHELL’S ZEBRA.]

THE WILD ASS OF ABYSSINIA, the parent form from which the

domestic animals were derived, is readily distinguishable from the

above species by the stripes on its hind legs. (See figure, p. 312.)

THE ZEBRAS.--Dr. Sclater describes three species of Zebra:

the black and white, or true Zebra, which inhabits the mountains;

Burchell’s Zebra, or the black and yellow Zebra, which inhabits the

plains; and the Quagga. The true Zebra inhabits the hilly districts of

Southern Africa, and is remarkable for its beauty and its fierce and

untamable nature. It is by far the most conspicuous and most beautiful

of the Ass tribe. The stripes which define it from the ordinary Asses

are remarkably like those of the Tiger in their arrangement. Those on

its legs are horizontal, while those of its body are for the most part

vertical.

BURCHELL’S ZEBRA is found in great numbers north of the Orange

River; and, according to Sir Cornwallis Harris, “seldom congregating

in herds of fewer than eighty or a hundred, it abounds to a great

extent in all the districts included between that noble stream and the

southern tropic. Occupying the same regions and delighting in the same

pastures as the Brindled Gnu, rarely is it to be seen unless in the

companionship of that fantastic animal, whose presence would seem to

be almost indispensable to its happiness. It is singular enough that

the members of two families so perfectly foreign to each other should

display so great a predilection for each other’s society, uniformly

intermixing as they do, and herding in bonds of the closest friendship.

Fierce, strong, fleet, and surpassingly beautiful, there is, perhaps,

no quadruped in the creation, not even excepting the Mountain Zebra,

more splendidly attired, or presenting a picture of more singularly

attractive beauty, than this free-born child of the desert.”

[Illustration: QUAGGA.]

The QUAGGA, which is less attractively coloured, and inhabits

a different tract of country, is also described by Sir Cornwallis

Harris, as follows:--“The geographical range of the Quagga does not

appear to extend to the northward of the river Vaal. The animal was

formerly extremely common within the colony; but, vanishing before

the strides of civilisation, is now to be found in very limited

numbers, and on the borders only. Beyond, on those sultry plains

which are completely taken possession of by wild beasts, and may with

strict propriety be termed the domains of savage nature, it occurs

in interminable herds; and, although never intermixing with its more

elegant congeners, it is almost invariably to be found ranging with

the White-tailed Gnu and with the Ostrich, for the society of which

bird especially it evinces the most singular predilection. Moving

slowly across the profile of the ocean-like horizon, uttering a shrill,

barking neigh, of which its name forms a correct imitation, long files

of Quaggas continually remind the early traveller of a rival caravan on

its march.... Bands of many hundreds are thus frequently seen during

their migration from the dreary and desolate plains of some portion of

the interior, which has formed their secluded abode, seeking for those

more luxuriant pastures where, during the summer months, various herbs

thrust forth their leaves and flowers to form a green carpet, spangled

with hues the most brilliant and diversified.”

THE FOSSIL EQUIDÆ.

The living members of the family of Horses are, as we have seen,

restricted to the region of the Old World, and were unknown in the

Americas and in Australia, when those countries were first discovered.

From an examination, however, of their fossil remains, it is evident

that in the Pliocene and Pleistocene times Horses were widely

distributed in both North and South America. The bones and teeth in

caves and river deposits of Europe also show that Wild Horses were

very numerous in Europe in the latter age. We are even able to form

an accurate idea of the European Wild Horse from the engravings which

the ancient hunters of Reindeer have left behind in caves of Auvergne,

Switzerland, and Derbyshire. The outline engraved on a bit of bone or

a fragment of antler shows us an animal with a large head, thick neck,

and big mane, coarse and clumsy in its points, as might be expected

from an aboriginal wild breed not subject to the care and selection of

man. The Horse, like the Bison and the Reindeer, formed a large part of

the food of these ancient men of the caves, and was not domesticated.

The true Horses begin to appear in Europe in the later Pliocene strata.

In the early Pliocene and late Miocene ages the family of Horses is

represented by the HIPPARION, a small, slender, graceful

animal, possessed of three well-defined toes, bearing hoofs, on each

limb: one strong and large in the middle, while the two lateral toes

are so small that they do not extend beyond the fetlock. They may

be compared to dew-claws. The teeth are like those of the Horse,

but shorter, and the pattern of the enamel on the grinding surface

is more complicated. In the early Miocene and late Eocene the

ANCHITHERIUM appears. Its orbit is not so completely encircled

with bone as in the Horses and Hipparion.

“The shaft of the ulna,” writes Professor Huxley, “is stouter than

in Hipparion, and is less closely united with the radius. The fibula

appears--at any rate, in some cases--to have been a complete though

slender bone, the distal end of which is still closely united with the

tibia, though much more distinct than in the Hipparions and Horses. In

some specimens, however, the middle of the shaft seems to have been

incompletely ossified. Not only are there three toes in each foot,

as in Hipparion, but the inner and the outer toes are so large that

they must have rested upon the ground. Thus, so far as the limbs are

concerned, the Anchitherium is just such a step beyond the Hipparion

as the Hipparion is beyond the Horse, in the direction of a less

specialised quadruped. The teeth are still more divergent from the

Equine type. The incisors are smaller in proportion, and their crowns

lack the peculiar pit which characterises those of Equus and Hipparion.

The first grinder is proportionally much larger, especially in the

upper jaw, and, like the other six, has a short crown and no thick coat

of cement. The pattern of their crowns is wonderfully simplified. The

fore and hind-ridges run with but a short obliquity across the crown,

and the pillars are little more than enlargements of the ridges, while

in the lower jaw these pillars have almost entirely disappeared. But

the foremost of the six principal grinders is still somewhat larger

than the rest, and the posterior lobe of the last lower molar is small,

as in the other Equidæ.”

In all those respects in which Anchitherium departs from the modern

Equine type it approaches that of the extinct _Palæotheria_; and

this is so much the case that Cuvier considered the remains of the

Anchitherium, with which he was acquainted, to be those of a species of

Palæotherium. From these considerations it may be concluded that the

highly specialised Horse has obtained its characteristics by descent

from the Hipparion, and that again from the Anchitherium. In some cases

on record there is a reversion towards the ancestral type, Horses

having been born with tridactyle feet, similar in every respect to

those of the Hipparion.

The lineage of the Horse is traceable yet further back by the

discoveries of Marsh and Cope in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Utah, in

North America, up to the Eohippus of the Lower Eocene, a small animal

not larger than a Fox, and with three toes on the hind foot and four

and a rudiment of a fifth on the fore foot. It must further be noted

that the fossil Horses increased in size as they lost their toes, and

that the living Horse is the biggest of the family.

CHAPTER II.

PERISSODACTYLA--THE TAPIR AND RHINOCEROS FAMILIES.

Introductory Remarks on the Tapirs--Foot--Anatomical

Features--Skull--Compared with that of Hog--Skull of Asiatic

Tapir--Proboscis--Dentition--Species of Tapir--THE AMERICAN

TAPIR--Habits--Colour--Modes of Hunting--Docility--THE HAIRY

TAPIR--THE MALAYAN TAPIR--FOSSIL TAPIRS--THE RHINOCEROSES--General

Characteristics--Is it the Reèm of the Bible?--Ludicrous

Ideas respecting it--At Rome--First Rhinoceroses in

Europe--Skeleton--Skull--Horns--Curious Dental Law--Fore and Hind

Limbs--Dentition--AFRICAN RHINOCEROSES--“WHITE” RHINOCEROS--OSWELL’S

RHINOCEROS--BLACK RHINOCEROS--KEITLOA--RHINOCEROS BICORNIS

MINOR--Hunting--Sir Samuel Baker’s Extraordinary Chase--Gordon

Cumming’s Account of the Characteristics and Habits of the Black

and White South African Rhinoceroses--Rhinoceros Birds--THE

ASIATIC RHINOCEROSES--Connection between Dentition and Horns--THE

INDIAN RHINOCEROS--An Inveterate Enemy of the Elephant--THE JAVAN

RHINOCEROS--THE SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS--THE HAIRY-EARED RHINOCEROS--How

a Specimen, “Begum,” was Captured--THE FOSSIL RHINOCEROSES--The

Extinct Families Palæotheridæ and Macraucheniadæ.

II.--THE TAPIRIDÆ (FAMILY OF TAPIRS).

The Hog-like creatures which constitute the family of Tapirs form the

second division of the quadrupeds which are possessed of three toes on

their hind feet, and are therefore termed, as has already been said,

the Perissodactyla. It must not, however, be forgotten that these

creatures possess a fourth toe on the fore foot, which is small and

does not reach to the ground. The family is represented by one genus

only--_Tapirus_--which is distributed over wide regions in the warmer

parts of the Old and the New Worlds. All the animals comprised under it

possess short and movable trunks, by which they convey their food into

their mouths, and at the extremity of which are placed the nostrils.

They are of a brownish-black colour; the skin is hairy and extremely

thick, and the tail is very short.

[Illustration: FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF

TAPIR. (_After Murie._)]

The Tapir inhabits principally the inmost recesses of dense forests,

is nocturnal in its habits, and is phytophagous, that is, feeds on

vegetables. However, it is said that it is also an indiscriminate

swallower of everything, filthy or clean, nutritious or otherwise,

pieces of wood, clay, pebbles, and bones being not uncommonly found in

its stomach; and it is even stated of one that was kept in confinement

that it gnawed a silver snuff-box to pieces and swallowed the contents.

[Illustration: SKULL OF AMERICAN TAPIR.

_n_, Nasal Bone; _m_, Maxillary Bone; _pm_, Pre-maxillary Bone.]

The skull of the Tapir, seen in profile, reminds us strongly of that of

the Hog, the same pyramidal elevation being brought to view. Examined

closely, however, we find that this pyramid differs immediately from

that of the latter animal by the possession of only three faces, while

in the Pig there are four. In addition, it is also to be noticed that

the anterior line is formed by the joining of the lateral faces,

dilating into a triangle only towards the front: this being due to the

frontal bones, which are early united and directed somewhat backwards.

The bones of the nose are articulated to the base of the triangle, and

here there is a point which penetrates between them. A deep furrow,

produced by the upper border of the orbit, descends from the two sides

above the orbit, which, approaching the sub-orbital hole, serves for

the insertion of various muscles connected with the proboscis. With

regard to the differences between the skull of the Malayan Tapir and

the American, Cuvier observes that a glance at the profile of their

respective crania is sufficient to impress upon the observer their

specific differences. The forehead of the Indian Tapir is convex, and

rises higher than the back of the head. It is accompanied, in its

rise, by the nasal bones, an arrangement by which space is given for

the comparatively large proboscis, and adding length to the furrows

where the muscles are inserted. This organisation, according to Cuvier,

explains why the Indian Tapir has a more powerful and more extensile

trunk than the American. There is also in the former, on the base of

the nasal bones, at their junction with the frontal bones and on each

side, a deep fossa, or depression, which does not exist in the other

species. This elevation of the forehead is accompanied by a depression

of the occipital crest, which, far from forming a pyramid, as in the

American species, rather descends backwards. The aperture of the

bony nostrils, enlarged by the prolongation of the maxillary bones,

terminates below and forwards by more elevated premaxillaries, which

are fused (anchylosed) together in early youth, as in the American.

[Illustration: HEAD OF MALAYAN TAPIR, SHOWING MUSCLES OF SHORT TRUNK

AND FACE. (_After Murie._)]

In the upper jaw there are, in the adult Tapir, on each side three

incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars. In the lower

jaw, on each side, there are three incisors, one canine, three

premolars, and three molars: altogether making forty-two teeth in

number.

Some peculiarities offer themselves with regard to the form of the

teeth: for instance, the outer incisors above are very large and

resemble canines, while those below are unusually small. The canines

themselves are very small, having their crowns considerably shorter

than their roots.

[Illustration: TEETH OF MALAYAN TAPIR.]

With regard to other portions of the skeleton nothing need be remarked,

except that the bones of the extremities are exceedingly strong, and

resemble in many respects those of the Rhinoceros.

Three species of Tapirs are known, namely, American Tapir (_Tapirus

americanus_), Roulin’s Tapir (_Tapirus villosus_), and Asiatic Tapir

(_Tapirus malayanus_).

THE AMERICAN TAPIR.[263]--Of the three foregoing species the

best known is the American Tapir, which is found in almost all parts of

South America from Buenos Ayres to Central America, and from the Andes

to the Atlantic. In its habits it is nocturnal, spending the whole of

the day-time in the cool shades of the densest forests, and coming

forth to feed on the surrounding vegetation as evening approaches.

It is a most powerful animal, and everything in the underwood of the

forest gives way to its rush. It has the habit of making runs or roads

through the brushwood, which beaten tracks are usually selected by

travellers in passing through the forests. It is stated that it has a

most keen sense of smell, enabling it to detect its enemies at long

distances, when it at once rushes into brushwood or thicket so dense

that neither man nor horse can follow. It never attacks man without

being very hardly pressed and brought to bay.

[Illustration: AMERICAN TAPIRS.]

It is excessively fond of the water, being a most expert swimmer,

and usually keeping to a particular track in the element in which it

indulges.

The American species is characterised by having the general colour

throughout of a deep brown, approaching to black; but the sides of

the lower lip, band on the under and middle part of the chin, upper

edges of the ears, and naked line at the bottom of the hoofs, are snowy

white. The scanty hair of the body is very short, and is hardly to be

distinguished at a comparatively short distance.

The skin, which is of great density beneath, is described by M. Roulin

to be not less than seven lines thick on the back; and he says that

in the days when rifles were not brought to their present pitch of

perfection a ball from one of them would scarcely make an impression.

On the back of the neck there is a thick rounded crest, which extends

from the forehead, as low as the level of the eyes, to the shoulders,

and beset with a comparatively thin mane of stiff blackish bristles.

The American Tapir is hunted for its excessively tough hide, and also

for its flesh, which, although described by Europeans as unsavoury,

being coarse and dry, is considered palatable by the Indians. It is

captured sometimes, although not often, by means of the lasso, an

instrument so successful in Horse-catching in America, but often futile

as regards the Tapir, for its usual haunts render this mode of capture

most difficult, and its determined rush and immense strength frequently

enable it to break the strongest lasso. Another way of hunting the

Tapir practised by the native hunters is to find out the animal’s track

leading to the water; there, with their Dogs, they patiently lie in

wait until evening approaches, when the Tapir comes out for the purpose

of taking his evening stroll and indulging in the indispensable bath.

They then get between him and the water, when a desperate encounter

ensues, the Dogs often getting very badly injured.

The most successful manner of catching the Tapir, however, is by means

of imitating its whistle or call, thus bringing the animal within range

of the Indian’s poisoned arrow.

[Illustration: MALAYAN TAPIR.]

The American Tapir is spoken of as being mild in captivity and easily

domesticated, and tame Tapirs are permitted to run at large in the

streets of the towns of Guiana, and often wander into the forests,

but return again in the evening to the house in which they are kept

and fed. The Tapir is capable of considerable attachment to its owner,

and possibly, by care and attention, might be turned to good account,

as the qualities with which it is credited--strength, docility, and

patience--ought to render it capable of the duties of a beast of burden.

THE HAIRY TAPIR,[264] the second species of American Tapir,

inhabits the inner range of the Cordilleras, this species being

strictly mountainous in its habits.

It is stated to differ from the other species of America by not

possessing a mane; but has altogether longer hair, and there are no

wrinkles on the proboscis. In the conformation of the skull and general

characteristics it more nearly resembles the Asiatic Tapir than the

American, and is less common than the latter animal.

THE MALAYAN TAPIR.[265]--The Asiatic Tapir, which appears

to have become known to Europeans only in the present century--at

least, the first certain information of it reached Europe in the

year 1816--is an inhabitant of Sumatra, Malacca, and the south-west

provinces of China. It is said to have been found also in Borneo. In

size it is larger than either _T. americanus_ or _T. villosus_. It is

distinguished by the absence of a mane, the general colour of the hair

being glossy black, but with the back, rump, and sides of the belly

white.

In its habits the Asiatic Tapir appears to be similar to his American

cousin, and in captivity it is said to be of a most mild and

inoffensive disposition, becoming as tractable and familiar as a Dog.

FOSSIL TAPIRS.--The living Tapir is known at the present day

only in the warmer regions of the New and Old Worlds, in South America,

and in the East. In the Pleistocene Age, however, it is proved to have

ranged far up the valley of the Mississippi in the United States. In

the Miocene and Pliocene Ages the animal inhabited Europe, and its

fossil teeth are met with by no means unfrequently in the Crag deposits

of Norfolk and Suffolk. The _Lophiodon_ of the European and American

Eocenes is also a closely allied form.

III.--THE RHINOCEROS FAMILY (RHINOCEROTIDÆ).

The Rhinoceroses form the third family of the sub-order of

Perissodactyla. They are to be found in Africa south of the Sahara

Desert, and in Eastern Asia--in India, Java, and Sumatra, &c., where

the climate is tropical or sub-tropical. They are represented by

several living species, as well as by several extinct forms which

ranged, in the later Tertiary times, over nearly the whole of Europe

and Northern Asia. The principal characters which are to be observed

in the Rhinoceros are the large unwieldy bodies, supported on short,

stout legs, terminating in a large callous pad with hoof-bearing toes,

the large and long head, the small eyes and ears, and the short tail.

All the living species also possess one or two horns, which are placed

in the middle line of the head on and above the nose. The horns are to

be viewed as a mere appendage to the skin, like hair, for they are only

skin deep, and are composed of a series of fibres matted together, and

are essentially a mass of hair in which each hair is confluent with

those next to it. Horns were present also in all the fossil species

excepting one, the Aceratherium, the hornless Rhinoceros of the Miocene

Age. The skin in all the Rhinoceroses is very thick, and is converted

into a jointed armour in some of the Asiatic species; it is also

scantily covered with hair, except in “the Hairy-eared Rhinoceros.” A

fossil kind was woolly.

It is a disputed point whether the word Reèm, mentioned several times

in the Bible, and translated in the authorised version as Unicorn,

is the Rhinoceros or the Urus; the probability seems to be that the

latter is intended. The first time Reèm is mentioned in the Bible

is in Numbers xxiii. verses 21, 22, to the following effect:--“The

Lord his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them. God

brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of Reèm.”

Whatever animal Reèm may have been, it was a creature evidently of

great power, and the strongest known to the prophet. In another

passage--Deut. xxxiii. verses 16, 17--we obtain the information that

Reèm was a two-horned and not a one-horned animal, and therefore could

not possibly have been the Indian Rhinoceros at least, and that it is

mentioned at the same time with Bullocks. Other passages speak of Reèm

in connection with the plough and harrow, for which its tameless and

savage disposition rendered it unfit. It is also spoken of in Isaiah in

connection with sacrifices of cattle (chap. xxxiv. verses 6, 7).

Topsel, an author of the sixteenth century, while trying to show that

there lived such a creature as the fabled Unicorn, and giving a picture

representing it as possessing the horn of the Narwhal, the body of a

Horse, and the feet of an Ox, successfully shows Reèm to mean neither a

Unicorn nor Rhinoceros, but simply an Ox. He relates:--“That there is

such a beast the Scripture itself witnesseth, for David thus speaketh

in the 92nd Psalm: _Et erigetur cornu meum tanquam, monocerotis_--that

is, my home shall bee lifteth up as the horne of a unicorn.” He goes on

to say: “We have already shown, in the story of the Rhinoceros, that

Reèm in Hebrew signifies a Unicorne, although Munster be of another

opinion; yet the Septuagints, in the translation of Deut. xxxiii., do

translate it a Unicorne, for the Rhinoceros hath not one horne but

two. Rabbi Solomon, David Kimchi, and Saadius do always take Reèm and

Karas for a Unicorne, and they derive Reèm from Rom, which signifieth

_Altitudinem_, height, because the horne of the Unicorn is lifted up

upon high. Hereunto the Arabians agree, which call it _Barkeron_, and

the Persians _Bark_; the Chaldeans, _Remana_. In the 39th chapter

of Job the Lord speaketh in this manner to Job:--‘Will the Unicorne

rest and serve thee, or tarry beside thy cratches? Canst thou bind

the Unicorne with a halter to thy plough to make furrows? or will

he make plaine the clots of the valleys?’ ... Whereby God Himself

must needs be traduced if there be no Unicorne in the world.” We may

therefore conclude that Reèm was one of the Oxen wild in those times in

Palestine. It, probably, was the great wild Ox, or Urus, which formerly

abounded in the forests of Macedonia, and was hunted in the forests of

Germany as late as the tenth century after Christ.

The Rhinoceros was first seen at Rome, according to Pliny, in the

games given by Pompey to the Roman people. He describes it as being

possessed of one horn on its nose, which it sharpens on a stone before

it fights, and that when it fights with the Elephant it attempts to

rip its belly open. The earliest time the animal was mentioned by name

was by Agatharchides, who describes it as fighting in the manner above

alluded to. In both these instances it is evident that the one-horned

Asiatic species is meant. The African Rhinoceros, according to Dion

Cassius, was for the first time brought before the notice of the Romans

in B.C. 39, in the games given by Augustus to celebrate his

victory over Cleopatra. It was exhibited along with a Hippopotamus, and

both animals were in all likelihood obtained from the Upper Nile.

Probably the first Rhinoceros ever seen by modern Europeans was a

one-horned species, the _R. unicornis_, sent from India to Emanuel,

King of Portugal, in 1513. A sketch was sent from Lisbon to Nürnberg,

and a most extraordinary engraving was made by Albert Dürer, from

which Gesner, Topsel, &c., took copies. This animal was made to

appear in a wonderful suit of armour beautifully decorated, and

supplied with a second horn on the shoulders, resembling the point of

that of the Narwhal. Topsel’s description of the Rhinoceros is most

ludicrous--“First of all, that there is such a beast in the world

both Pliny, Solinus, Diodorus, Ælianus, Lampridius, and others, doe

yeald erefrigable testimony.” He then goes on to say “The picture

here expressed was taken by Gesner from the beast alive at Lisbon, in

Portugale.... Eucherius saith that the Rhinoceros hath two hornes in

his nose, but that is utterly false, as you may see by the picture....

The Rhinoceros cast up a Beare into the aire even as a Bull would do a

ball which were laid upon his two hornes; we shall not neede to apply

_Gemino cornu_ to the Bull, as Politianus doth, but rather take it

figuratively for a strong horne, and if it must needs be litterall, it

is apparent by the picture that there is another little horne, not upon

the nose, but upon the wither of the beast.... When they are to fight

they whet their horne upon a stone; and there is not only a discord

betwixt these beasts and Elephants for their food, but a naturall

description and enmity: for it is confidently affirmed that when the

Rhinoceros which was at Lisbone was brought into the presence of an

Elephant, the Elephant ran away from him.... Hee (the Rhinoceros) is

taken by the same means that the Unicorn is taken, for it is said by

Albertus, Isidorus, and Alumnus, that above all other creatures they

love virgins, and that unto them they will come, be they never so

wilde, and fall asleep before them, so being asleep they are easily

taken and carried away.” Topsel then goes on to inform us that “all

the later physicians attribute the virtue of the Unicorn’s horne to

the Rhinoceros’s horn, but they are deceived by imitation of Isidorus

and Albertus, for there is none of the ancient Græcians that have ever

observed any medicines in the Rhinoceros. The Indians made bottles of

their skins, wherein they put their lycion, or _succum medicatum_.”

The first Rhinoceros brought alive to England was in 1685, and another

was shown throughout a great part of Europe in 1739, and another in

1741. Parsons[266] described and figured the Rhinoceros of 1739,

and refers to that of 1741, which Cuvier says he believes to be the

same animal afterwards shown in Paris in 1749, painted by Oudry, and

afterwards engraved by Edwards and figured by Albinus. It was the one

described by Daubenton, as well as by Meckel. The one of which Cuvier

gives the osteology was the fifth brought to Europe. It arrived at

Versailles in 1771, and died in 1793, at the age of about twenty-six

years. Another Rhinoceros arrived from the East Indies in 1790, as a

present to Mr. Dundas. This was afterwards purchased for £700, and

exhibited at Exeter ’Change and also about England generally. Another

animal, which was destined for the menagerie of the Emperor of Germany,

arrived from India in 1800, but died in London soon after its arrival.

It was dissected by Mr. Thomas, and his observations thereon were

published in the “Philosophical Transactions.” Shortly afterwards an

eighth arrived, which subsequently went to Germany. Since this it has

become common in the Zoological Gardens in various parts of Europe,

and, in 1878, the genus was represented in the Regent’s Park by no less

than five different species and varieties.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE RHINOCEROS.]

The skeleton of the Rhinoceros, viewed generally, has a resemblance

to that of the little Hyrax, the Tapir, and the Horse. The skull is

much elevated at the base, being somewhat of a pyramidal form, and the

nasal bones curve upwards and downwards, and are of such a size and

thickness, in order to support one or more immense horns, that they

are quite unparalleled for their development in any other existing

quadruped. The nasal bones, together with the pre-maxillary and

maxillary bones, form the general contour for the external apertures of

the nostrils. This is peculiar, and found in no other animal, with the

exception of the Tapir.

The Rhinoceros has no canine teeth; the incisor teeth vary, not only in

regard to their form and proportions, but also their existence; and in

the varieties of these teeth we may discern the same inverse relation

to the development of the horns which is manifested by the canines of

the Ruminants. Thus, the two-horned Rhinoceroses of Africa, which are

remarkable for the great length of one or both of the nasal weapons,

have no incisors in their adult dentition; neither had the great

extinct hairy species (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_), though that the

latter had great horns is proved by the nature of the bones of the nose

and face which supported their weight. The Sumatran bicorn Rhinoceros

combines, with comparatively small horns, moderately developed incisors

in both jaws.

The sternum of the mature animal consists of four bones, the first of

which is compressed into a ploughshare-like shape, and projects in

a point in front of the first rib. All the bones of the fore limbs

of the Rhinoceros resemble those of the Tapir more than those of any

other animal; but from their much larger size are not at all likely

to be confounded with them. Of the hind limbs, the points offering

peculiarities are as follows:--The femur is remarkable for being

extremely flattened from before backwards, and the projection called

by Cuvier the third trochanter projects very much, forming a hook

ascending towards a hook which descends from the projection known

as the grand trochanter, thereby leaving an oval hole between these

two projections. With regard to the lower portions of the hind leg,

resemblances are to be found both to the Horse and Tapir, the tibia,

fibula, and tarsus being built on the same plan as those of the former,

although some of the bones of the tarsus resemble those of the Tapir

more than they do those of the Horse. There are also some points of

resemblance in the metatarsus to that of both the Horse and Tapir. The

difference between the hind legs of the Rhinoceros and Elephant is very

marked, and their gait is different.

[Illustration: FEMUR OF RHINOCEROS.]

The dentition of the Rhinoceros differs in a very remarkable degree

from that of the family of Horses. The grinders are implanted by

distinct roots, and in the upper jaw their crowns are traversed by two

deep folds of enamel, which constitute open valleys. In the lower jaw

they are composed of two crescent-shaped lobes, also open. The covering

of “cement” is thin, and never fills up the valleys, as in the case of

the more complex dental system in the Horse. The normal number of the

grinders is seven in each jaw, while the incisors, as we have already

remarked, vary, not only in form, but also are sometimes absent, and

canines are not developed in any of the living or fossil members of the

family.

THE AFRICAN RHINOCEROSES.

Of the number of species of Rhinoceros there is considerable doubt.

At least four, possibly five, inhabit Africa, and four Asia. With

regard to the African species, we will first take the large “WHITE”

RHINOCEROS (_Rhinoceros simus_) described by Burchell. This is an

animal measuring somewhat over twelve feet in length and about five

feet ten inches in height. It has a square nose and two large rounded

horns, the anterior one averaging about two feet six inches in length,

but not uncommonly found measuring three feet six inches, sometimes

even over four feet; the posterior rarely or never exceeding fifteen

inches, and generally not being more than twelve inches. Its skin is

smooth, and without any of those folds so characteristic of the Asiatic

species. It inhabits all the country south of the Zambesi, and probably

it may also exist in Central Africa. It feeds solely on grass, and

sometimes collects into small herds.

[Illustration: DENTITION OF RHINOCEROS. A, UPPER; B, LOWER JAW.]

OSWELL’S RHINOCEROS[267] in no way differs from _R. simus_,

except that the front horn points forwards, and in some cases even

downwards. This Mr. Drummond considers not to be a distinct species,

but only an accidental and local variety.

The so-called BLACK RHINOCEROS (_Rhinoceros bicornis major_)

is a much smaller animal than _R. simus_, being about eleven feet

in length and five feet in height, with an elongated head and horns

thicker in proportion to length than those of _R. simus_. The front

horn is twenty inches or twenty-two inches in length, and never attains

to more than twenty-six or twenty-eight inches; while the back horn

averages ten inches or twelve inches. Its skin is not black, but

flesh-coloured, and the upper lip is highly prehensile. The first

specimen ever brought to Europe was captured in Upper Nubia in 1868,

and was provided with a lodging in the Regent’s Park Zoological

Gardens. It is found in all the country south of the Zambesi; inhabits

thorn thickets chiefly (in which _R. simus_ is never found), but

occasionally occurs in other jungle or open ground. It feeds chiefly on

thorn leaves and branches, though also eating grass, for the plucking

of which its flexible upper lip is as well fitted as the long tongue

of the Giraffe. It is gregarious, five or six being sometimes found

together.

[Illustration: “WHITE” RHINOCEROS.]

The KEITLOA, or Sloan’s Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros keitloa_),

differs but little from _R. bicornis major_, excepting in the

formation of the head, which is somewhat shorter and broader, and it

has a less prehensile lip. Its chief characteristic is the posterior

horn, which is flattened at the sides, being of almost equal length

to the anterior, and even occasionally longer, twenty inches and

twenty-two inches being about the average. It is found sparingly in all

the country south of the Zambesi, and is not gregarious, a bull and cow

only being usually seen together. RHINOCEROS BICORNIS MINOR

is the smallest, being seldom over ten feet in length, or more than

four feet ten inches in height. The head is more elongated and the nose

more prehensile than in any other species, while the legs are shorter

in proportion and the feet smaller. The anterior horns rarely exceed

twelve inches, and the posterior seven or eight inches. It is usually

found only between Zululand and the Limpopo river, although it has been

killed farther north, not far from the Zambesi. It is not gregarious,

two full-grown ones and a calf being the greatest number that has been

recorded as seen together. It feeds on thorns, leaves, and shoots, and

rarely, if ever, is found out of the thorn jungle.

[Illustration: KEITLOA.]

Until recent times, it was universally believed that the hide of a

Rhinoceros was too tough to allow a bullet to penetrate; indeed,

even now in popular opinion the belief is still retained, but, like

many popular opinions, it has been proved to be untrue; and that a

Rhinoceros may be as easily shot with an ordinary bullet as an Ox is

fully established on the authority of Gordon Cumming, Sir S. Baker, Dr.

Livingstone, and others.

Sir S. Baker, in his “Nile Tributaries,” gives the following

interesting account of a Rhinoceros hunt:--“We were leisurely returning

home through alternate plains and low open forests of mimosa, when

Taher Sheriff, who was leading the party, suddenly reined up his Horse,

and pointed to a thick bush, beneath which was a large, grey, but

shapeless mass. He whispered, as I drew near, ‘Oom qurrin’ (mother of

the horn), their name for the Rhinoceros. I immediately dismounted,

and with the short No. 10 Tatham rifle I advanced as near as I could,

followed by Suleiman, as I had sent all my gun-bearers direct home

by the river when we had commenced our circuit. As I drew near, I

discovered two Rhinoceroses asleep beneath a thick mass of bushes; they

were lying like Pigs, close together, so that at a distance I had been

unable to distinguish any exact form. It was an awkward place; if I

were to take the wind fairly, I should have to fire through the thick

bush, which would be useless; therefore I was compelled to advance

with the wind direct from me to them. The aggageers remained about a

hundred yards distant, while I told Suleiman to return, and hold my

Horse in readiness with his own. I then walked quietly to within about

thirty yards of the Rhinoceroses, but so curiously were they lying

that it was useless to attempt a shot. In their happy dreams they must

have been suddenly disturbed by the scent of an enemy, for, without

the least warning, they suddenly sprang to their feet with astonishing

quickness, and with a loud and sharp whiff, whiff, whiff! one of them

charged straight at me. I fired my right-hand barrel in his throat, as

it was useless to aim at the head, protected by two horns at the nose.

This turned him, but had no other effect, and the two animals thundered

off together at a tremendous pace. Now for a ‘tally ho!’ Our stock of

gum was scattered on the ground, and away went the aggageers in full

speed after the two Rhinoceroses. Without waiting to re-load, I quickly

remounted my Horse Tétel, and, with Suleiman in company, I spurred

hard to overtake the flying Arabs. Tétel was a good strong cob, but

not very fast; however, I believe he never went so well as upon that

day, for, although an Abyssinian Horse, I had a pair of English spurs,

which worked like missionaries, but with a more decided result. The

ground was awkward for riding at full speed, as it was an open forest

of mimosas, which, although wide apart, were very difficult to avoid,

owing to the low crowns of spreading branches; these, being armed with

fish-hook thorns, would have been serious on a collision. I kept the

party in view until, in about a mile, we arrived upon open ground.

Here I again applied the spurs, and by degrees I crept up, always

gaining, until I at length joined the aggageers. Here was a sight to

drive a hunter! The two Rhinoceroses were running neck and neck, like

a pair of Horses in harness, but bounding along at tremendous speed

within ten yards of the leading Hamram. This was Taher Sheriff, who,

with his sword drawn and his long hair flying wildly behind him, urged

his Horse forward in the race, amid a cloud of dust raised by the two

huge but active beasts, that tried every sinew of the Horses. Rodur

Sheriff, with the withered arm, was second; with the reins hung upon

the hawk-like claw that was all that remained of a hand, but with his

naked sword grasped in his right, he kept close to his brother, ready

to second his blow. Abou Do was third; his hair flying in the wind, his

heels dashing against the flanks of his Horse, to which he shouted in

his excitement to urge him to the front, while he leant forward with

his long sword, in the wild energy of the moment, as though hoping

to reach the game against all possibility. Now for the spurs! and as

these, vigorously applied, screwed an extra stride out of Tétel, I

soon found myself in the ruck of men, horses, and drawn swords. There

were seven of us, and passing Abou Do, whose face wore an expression

of agony at finding that his Horse was failing, I quickly obtained a

place between the two brothers, Taher and Rodur Sheriff. There had been

a jealousy between the two parties of aggageers, and each was striving

to outdo the other; thus Abou Do was driven almost to madness at the

superiority of Taher’s Horse, while the latter, who was the renowned

hunter of the tribe, was determined that his sword should be the first

to taste blood. I tried to pass the Rhinoceros on my left, so as to

fire close into the shoulder my remaining barrel with my right hand,

but it was impossible to overtake the animals, who bounded along with

undiminished speed. With the greatest exertion of man and horses,

we could only retain our position within about three or four yards

of their tails--just out of reach of the swords. The only chance in

the race was to hold the pace until the Rhinoceroses should begin to

flag. The Horses were pressed to the utmost; but we had already run

about two miles, and the game showed no signs of giving in. On they

flew--sometimes over open ground, then through low bush, which tried

the Horses severely; then through strips of open forest, until at

length the party began to tail off, and only a select few kept their

places. We arrived at the summit of a ridge, from which the ground

sloped in a gentle inclination for about a mile towards the river; at

the foot of this incline was thick, thorny, _nabbuk_ jungle, for which

impenetrable covert the Rhinoceroses pressed at their utmost speed.

Never was there better ground for the finish of a race; the earth was

sandy, but firm, and as we saw the winning post in the jungle that

must terminate the hunt, we redoubled our exertions to close with the

unflagging game. Suleiman’s Horse gave in--we had been for about twenty

minutes at a killing pace. Tétel, although not a fast Horse, was good

for a distance, and we now proved his power of endurance, as I was

riding at least two stone heavier than any of the party. Only four of

the seven remained; and we swept down the incline, Taher Sheriff still

leading, and Abou Do the last! His Horse was done, but not the rider;

for, springing to the ground while at full speed, sword in hand, he

forsook his tired Horse, and, preferring his own legs, he ran like an

Antelope, and for the first hundred yards I thought he would really

pass us and win the honour of first blow. It was of no use; the pace

was too severe, and, although running wonderfully, he was obliged to

give way to the Horses. Only three now followed the Rhinoceroses. Taher

Sheriff, his brother Rodur, and myself. I had been obliged to give the

second place to Rodur, as he was a mere Monkey in weight; but I was

a close third. The excitement was intense; we neared the jungle, and

the Rhinoceroses began to show signs of flagging, as the dust puffed

up before their nostrils, and with noses close to the ground, they

snorted as they still galloped on. ‘Oh for a fresh Horse!’ We were

within two hundred yards of the jungle; but the Horses were all done.

Tétel reeled as I urged him forward; Rodur pushed ahead; we were close

to the dense thorns, and the Rhinoceroses broke into a trot; they were

done! Away went Taher; he was close to the very heels of the beasts,

but his Horse could do no more than his present pace; still he gained

upon the nearest; he leaned forward, with his sword raised for the

blow--another moment and the jungle would be reached! One effort more,

aid the sword flashed in the sunshine, as the rearmost Rhinoceros

disappeared in the thick screen of thorns, with a gash about a foot

long upon his hind-quarters. Taher Sheriff shook his bloody sword in

triumph above his head; but the Rhinoceros was gone--we were fairly

beaten, regularly outpaced. Taher Sheriff explained that at all times

the Rhinoceros was the most difficult animal to sabre, on account of

his extraordinary swiftness, and, although he had killed many with the

sword, it was always after a long and fatiguing hunt, at the close of

which the animal, becoming tired, generally turned to bay, in which

case one hunter occupied his attention, while another galloped up

behind and severed the hamstring. The Rhinoceros, unlike the Elephant,

can go very well upon three legs, which enhances the danger, as one cut

will not utterly disable him.”

[Illustration: THE RHINOCEROS HUNT.]

[Illustration: RHINOCEROS.

(_From the Living Specimen in the Zoological Gardens, London._)]

Not unfrequently, however, it is the hunter who has to fly away before

the Rhinoceros, as Sir S. Baker found out to his cost in the Upper Nile.

Gordon Cumming, in his “Hunter’s Life in South Africa,” gives the

following details of the Rhinoceros:--“Of the Rhinoceros there are

four varieties in South Africa, distinguished by the Bechuanas by the

names of the Borèlé, or Black Rhinoceros; the Keitloa, or Two-horned

Black Rhinoceros; the Muchocho, or common White Rhinoceros; and the

Robaoba, or Long-horned White Rhinoceros. Both varieties of the Black

Rhinoceros are extremely fierce and dangerous, and rush headlong and

unprovoked at any object which attracts their attention. They never

attain much fat, and their flesh is tough, and not much esteemed by the

Bechuanas. Their food consists almost entirely of the thorny branches

of the waitabit thorns. Their horns are much shorter than those of the

other varieties, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in length. They are

finely polished with constant rubbing against the trees. The skull is

remarkably formed, its most striking feature being the tremendously

thick ossification in which it ends above the nostrils. It is on this

mass that the horn is supported. The horns are not connected with

the skull, being attached merely by the skin, and they may thus be

separated from the head by means of a sharp knife. They are hard and

solid throughout, and are a fine material for various articles, such

as drinking-cups, mallets for rifles, handles for turners’ tools, &c.,

&c. The horn is capable of taking a very high polish. The eyes of the

Rhinoceros are small and sparkling, and do not readily observe the

hunter, provided he keep to leeward of them. The skin is extremely

thick, and only to be penetrated by bullets hardened with solder.

During the day the Rhinoceros will be found lying asleep, or standing

indolently in some retired part of the forest, or under the base of the

mountains, sheltered from the power of the sun by some friendly grove

of umbrella-topped mimosas. In the evening they commence their nightly

rambles, and wander over a great extent of country. They usually visit

the fountains between the hours of nine and twelve o’clock at night,

and it is on these occasions that they may be most successfully hunted

and with the least danger. The Black Rhinoceros is subject to paroxysms

of unprovoked fury, often ploughing up the ground for several yards

with its horn, and assaulting large bushes in the most violent manner.

On these bushes they work for hours with their horns, at the same time

snorting and blowing loudly, nor do they leave them in general until

they have broken them in pieces. All the four varieties delight to roll

and wallow in the mud, with which their rugged hides are generally

encrusted. Both varieties of the Black Rhinoceros are much smaller and

more active than the white, and are so swift that a Horse with a rider

on his back can rarely overtake them. The two varieties of the White

Rhinoceros are so similar in habits that the description of one will

serve for both; the principal difference consisting in the length and

set of the anterior horn: that of the Muchocho averaging from two to

three feet in length, and pointing backwards; while the horn of the

Robaoba often exceeds four feet in length, and inclines forward from

the nose at an angle of 45°. The posterior horn of either species

seldom exceeds six or seven inches in length. The Robaoba is the rarer

of the two, and it is found very far in the interior, chiefly to the

eastward of the Limpopo. Its horns are very valuable for loading-rods,

supplying a substance at once suitable for a sporting implement and

excellent for the purpose. Both these varieties of Rhinoceros attain

an enormous size. They feed solely on grass, carry much fat, and their

flesh is excellent, being preferable to beef. They are of a much milder

and more inoffensive disposition than the Black Rhinoceros, rarely

charging their pursuer. Their speed is very inferior to that of the

other varieties, and a person well mounted can overtake and shoot

them. The head of these is a foot longer than that of the Borèlé. They

generally carry their heads low; whereas the Borèlé, when disturbed,

carries his very high. Unlike the Elephants, they never associate in

herds, but are met with singly or in pairs. In districts where they

are abundant from three to six may be found in company; and I once saw

upwards of a dozen congregated together on some young grass; but such

an occurrence is rare.”

Gordon Cumming relates that the Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus are usually

attended by little birds known as Rhinoceros Birds, “their object

being to feed upon the ticks and other parasites that swarm upon these

animals. They are of a greyish-colour, and are nearly as large as a

common Thrush. Their voice is very similar to that of the Mistletoe

Thrush. Many a time have these ever-watchful birds disappointed me

in my stalk, and tempted me to invoke an anathema upon their devoted

heads. They are the best friends the Rhinoceros has, and rarely fail to

awaken him even in his soundest nap. ‘Chukuroo’ perfectly understands

their warning, and, springing to his feet, he generally first looks

about him in every direction, after which he invariably makes off. I

have often hunted a Rhinoceros on horseback which led me a chase of

many miles, and required a number of shots before he fell, during which

chase several of these birds remained by the Rhinoceros to the last.

They reminded me of mariners on the deck of some bark sailing on the

ocean, for they perched along his back and sides; and as each of my

bullets told on the shoulder of the Rhinoceros, they ascended about six

feet into the air, uttering their harsh cry of alarm, and then resumed

their position. It sometimes happened that the lower branches of trees,

under which the Rhinoceros passed, swept them from their living deck;

but they always recovered their former station. They also adhere to

the Rhinoceros during the night. I have often shot these animals at

midnight when drinking at the fountains, and the birds, imagining they

were asleep, remained with them till morning; and on my approaching,

before taking flight, they exerted themselves to their utmost to awaken

Chukuroo from his deep sleep.”

THE ASIATIC RHINOCEROSES.

There are four different Rhinoceroses in Asia, of which two are

characterised by the possession of one horn, while the remaining two

possess two horns, as in the African species. All the adult Asiatic

possess incisors or front teeth, which are conspicuous by their absence

from the African species. The normal number of these is four in the

upper, and four in the lower jaws, the median pair being the larger in

the upper, and the smaller in the lower. The development of these teeth

seems to stand in relation to the development of horns, those animals

with the smallest horns being provided with the largest incisors. The

most familiar is the INDIAN RHINOCEROS (_Rhinoceros unicornis_

= _R. indicus_, Cuvier), with a single horn on the nose, and thick

naked skin covered with large boss-like granulations, which lies in

massive folds on various parts of the body, and more especially behind

and across the shoulders and before and across the thighs. There are

a few stiff hairs on the tail and ears. It inhabits the East Indies,

principally beyond the Ganges, and is recorded as having been found

in Bengal, Siam, and Cochin-China. It is found in shady forests, the

neighbourhood of rivers, and marshy places, its food consisting of

herbage and branches of trees. The fully-grown animal rarely arrives at

a greater height than five, and its average may be taken at four feet.

[Illustration: FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS OF HEAD OF SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS.

(_From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society._)]

[Illustration: INDIAN RHINOCEROS.]

Williamson, in his “Oriental Field Sports,” speaking of the Indian

Rhinoceros, describes it as an inveterate enemy of Elephants, attacking

whenever he can find them single, or, at least, not protected by a male

of great bulk; ripping without mercy, and confiding in his coat of mail

to defend him from the puny attacks of the females, as well as to

resist the tusks of young males. He relates that the apparent bluntness

of the horn of the Indian Rhinoceros, which is about as broad at the

base as it is high, would make it appear a somewhat insignificant

weapon, and inadequate to penetrate any hard or tough substance.

This, however, we are informed, is not the case, Elephants often

being found dead, obviously, it is stated, from the wounds received

from the horn of the Rhinoceros; and in one case, as is related by

Williamson, a large male Elephant and Rhinoceros were found both dead

together, the Elephant’s abdomen having been ripped open, and the

Rhinoceros’s horn found transfixed beneath the ribs. Williamson also

states that Major Lally, an officer of the Indian army, whose veracity

is beyond question, while engaged in one of his hunting expeditions,

and having arrived at the summit of a low range of hills, was suddenly

presented with a distinct view of a most desperate engagement between

a Rhinoceros and a large male Elephant, the latter, to all appearance,

protecting a small herd which were retiring in a state of alarm.

The Elephant was beaten, and decamped, followed by the Rhinoceros,

into a heavy jungle, where much roaring was heard, but nothing could

be discerned. From this we may conclude that the habit which Pliny

describes of the Rhinoceros ripping open the Elephant is confirmed by

modern observation.

THE JAVAN RHINOCEROS (_R. sondaicus_ = _R. javanus_ of Cuvier)

is a smaller representative of the Indian Rhinoceros, with the skin

not so coarsely granulated, and the folds not so strongly marked. It

is covered with a sparse growth of bristles, and its head and limbs

are longer and more slender in their proportions than in the latter

species. It inhabits Java and the Malay Peninsula, and the Sunderbunds

of Bengal, living on herbage and the branches of trees.

THE SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS (_R. sumatrensis_ of Cuvier) is the

more commonly known of the two two-horned species inhabiting Asia. Its

head is armed with two obtusely-pointed horns, its body is covered

with bristles, and the folds of the skin are deep, and especially

that behind the shoulder. The folds on the neck, however, are not so

distinct as in the one-horned species.

THE HAIRY-EARED RHINOCEROS (_R. lasiotis_) has been confounded

by naturalists with the Sumatran species, until Dr. Sclater showed from

the comparison of these two animals, in the Zoological Gardens, that

they were specifically distinct. The former is characterised by the

long hairy fringe to the ears, by the covering of long fine reddish

hair on the body, the smoother and more finely granulated skin, and

the shorter tail. The one in Regent’s Park was captured in January,

1868, under very singular circumstances, as described in the following

extract from a Calcutta newspaper:--“The quiet station of Chittagong

has been lately enlivened by the presence of a Rhinoceros. It appears

that about a month ago some natives came into Chittagong and stated

that a Rhinoceros had been found by them in a quicksand, and was quite

exhausted with the efforts to relieve herself. They had attached two

ropes to the animal’s neck, and with the assistance of about 200 men

dragged her out, and keeping her taut between two ropes they eventually

made her fast to a tree. The next morning, however, they found the

Rhinoceros so refreshed, and making such efforts to free herself,

that they were frightened, and made application to the magistrate of

Chittagong for protection. The same evening Captain Hood and Mr. H. W.

Wickes started with eight Elephants to secure the prize, and after a

march of about sixteen hours to the south of Chittagong they came up

with the animal. The Elephants, at the first sight of the Rhinoceros,

were very much afraid, and bolted one and all, but after some exertion

they were brought back and made to stand by. A rope was now with some

trouble attached to the animal’s hind leg, and secured to an Elephant.

At this juncture the Rhinoceros roared; the Elephants again bolted, and

had it not been for the rope slipping from the leg of the Rhinoceros,

that limb might have been pulled from the body. The Rhinoceros

was, however, eventually secured with ropes between Elephants, and

marched into Chittagong in perfect health. Two large rivers had to be

crossed--first the Sungoo River, where the animal was towed between

Elephants, for she could not swim, and could only just keep her head

above water by paddling with the fore-feet like a Pig; and, secondly,

the Kurnafoolie River, when the ordinary cattle ferry-boat was used.

Thousands of natives thronged the march in, which occupied a few days,

the temporary bamboo bridges on the Government road invariably falling

in with the numbers collected thereon to watch the Rhinoceros crossing

the stream below; and sometimes the procession was at least a mile in

length. The ‘Begum,’ as the Rhinoceros has been named, is now free from

all ropes, and kept within a stockade enclosure, having therein a good

bath excavated in the ground, and a comfortable covered shed attached.

She is already very tame, and will take plantain leaves or chupatties

from the hand, and might almost be led about by a string.” Begum was

ultimately brought to London, and sold to the Zoological Society for

£1,250.

[Illustration: HAIRY-EARED RHINOCEROS. (From the _Proceedings of the

Zoological Society._)]

THE FOSSIL RHINOCEROSES.

Although the species of Rhinoceroses living at the present time are but

few, the researches of palæontologists show us that in past time the

number of species was considerable, and that they were not, as now,

confined to the warmer parts of the Old World, but were distributed

over a large portion of Northern Asia and Europe.

The first representative of the Rhinoceros family is the

_Orthocynodon_, an animal with large upright canines, discovered in

the Upper Eocene strata of the United States. The fossil Rhinoceroses

properly so called are first found in the Miocene, and are divided into

four groups. The first group is characterised by the nostrils being

separated by a bony partition, and in the adult animal the incisor

teeth are lost: the second is distinguished by the absence of a bony

partition between the nostrils, and the incisor teeth are of a medium

size: in the third there is no partition, but the incisors are large;

and in the fourth it is imperfectly developed.

An example of the first group, and probably the best known form of

all the extinct Rhinoceroses, is _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, or the

Woolly Rhinoceros. Like that of the Mammoth, with which animal it was

evidently associated, its entire body was covered with hair and wool,

the skin had no folds, and its nose carried two horns, the anterior of

which was of remarkable size, and characteristic of the group to which

it belongs; the nostrils were separated by a complete bony partition.

The Woolly Rhinoceros has been discovered under similar circumstances

to that of the Mammoth, having been found embedded in ice in the

northern latitudes of Asia, in the years 1771 or 1772, being some

twenty years previous to that of the discovery of the first Mammoth by

a fisherman named Schumachoff. According to Pallas, the discovery was

made by some Yakuts, who were on a hunting expedition, and took its

dimensions on the spot; it was about eleven and a half feet in length.

Its body was still clothed with skin, but altogether the animal was so

far decomposed that not more than the head and feet could be brought

away. On the skin many short hairs still remained. The range of the

Woolly Rhinoceros was undoubtedly the same as that of the Mammoth,

except that it did not cross Behring Strait, and, consequently, its

remains are not found in America. The remains of the Woolly Rhinoceros

are found in numerous caves in association with the remains of

Hyænas, having undoubtedly been a staple article of food for these

animals. In England remains have been found in the caves at Creswell,

Nottinghamshire; in the Brixham Cave; in Kent’s Hole, near Torquay,

Devonshire; and in Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, as well as in the

caves of Wales and Derbyshire.

As an example of the second group, we have _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of

the Pliocene and Pleistocene strata. This animal possessed two horns.

Its remains are found in France and Italy, and in the pre-glacial

forest bed of Cromer, and in the lower brick earths of the Thames

valley. _Rhinoceros incisivus_ represents the third group in Miocene

times. It had no bony septum between the nostrils, the incisors are

large, and there are four toes on the fore-foot. Of the fourth group

the best examples are _R. etruscus_ and _R. leptorhinus_. The former

of these possessed two horns, and the nostrils were separated by an

imperfect bony septum. Its remains are found in various Pliocene and

Pleistocene deposits. The latter also possessed two horns, and its

nostrils were divided by a thin and delicate bony partition, which can

only be termed imperfect in comparison with the massive partition in

the Woolly Rhinoceros. It is devoid of incisors. This species is found

in Pleistocene deposits in Britain, France, and Italy, in caverns, and

in river-beds, the most perfect remains being met with in the valley

of the Thames near Ilford. These were collected by Sir Antonio Brady,

and are now to be seen in the British Museum. In the figure the fragile

nose septum is represented as broken.

[Illustration: SKULL OF FOSSIL RHINOCEROS [R. LEPTORHINUS].]

The genus _Aceratherium_, of Kaup, is a hornless Rhinoceros, found

in the same Miocene strata as the _R. incisivus_. Like the latter,

it possesses incisors, and, not improperly, may be considered as

a female of the latter species, if the horn be viewed as a sexual

characteristic: first of all in the possession of the male, and

afterwards transferred by descent, in the case of all the Post-Miocene

Rhinoceroses, to the female.

THE EXTINCT FAMILY PALÆOTHERIDÆ.

The Palæotheridæ, or fourth family to be considered under the head of

the Perissodactyla, is that which is found only in the fossil state

in the Eocene strata of Europe and North America. They are allied,

on the one hand, to the Horses, and on the other to the Tapirs. The

type of the family, the Palæotherium, was originally discovered by

Cuvier in the quarries of Montmartre, near Paris. The grinding teeth

closely resemble, in the pattern of their grinding surfaces, those of

the Rhinoceros. The full complement, however, of incisors and canines,

as well as of grinders, is present in each jaw, namely--Incisors, 3;

canines, 1; premolars, 4; molars, 3. These animals varied in size from

that of a Roedeer to that of a Tapir, and were possessed of three

well-developed hoof-bearing toes.

The genus Macrauchenia is also an extinct form, constituting a separate

family, Macraucheniadæ, peculiar to the later Tertiaries of South

America. Its skull is, on the whole, like that of the Horse, but the

nasal bones are short and like those of the Tapir. It possessed a long

neck, like the Llamas, and a full complement of teeth, partly equine,

partly resembling those of Rhinoceros. Both fore and hind feet were

furnished with three toes.

W. BOYD DAWKINS.

H. W. OAKLEY.

CHAPTER III.

ARTIODACTYLA--THE PIG OR HOG FAMILY.

Introductory Remarks on the Artiodactyla--Character of their

Feet--The Wanting Digit--Comparison of the Bones of the Fore

Feet of Representative Animals--Other Characters in the

Artiodactyla--Classification--SUIDÆ, OR HOG FAMILY--Groups

of the Family--Snout--Sense of Smell--Libels--Mention in the

Bible--Among the Jews--Range--Teeth--THE WILD BOAR--General

Features--Habits--Historical Mention--THE INDIAN HOG--Habits--A

Wild Boar Hunt--A Noble Foe--THE DOMESTIC HOG--The “Irish

Greyhound Pig”--Effects of Domestication--THE SOLID-HOOFED BREED

OF PIGS--Description of the Bones of Foot--MASKED PIG--BUSH

HOG--BABIRUSA--THE WART HOGS--ÆLIAN’S WART HOG--THE ETHIOPIAN WART

HOG--PECCARIES--Habits--Dentition--Feet--Species--THE FOSSIL HOGS.

SUB-ORDER ARTIODACTYLA.

[Illustration: BONES OF THE LEFT FORE LIMB OF (1) COMMON PIG, (2)

AFRICAN DEERLET, (3) JAVAN DEERLET, (4) ROEBUCK, (5) COMMON SHEEP, (6)

CAMEL.[268]

(_From Specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons._)]

Besides the Perissodactyla there is another large group of animals in

which the extremities of the fore and hind toes are entirely surrounded

by horny tissue in the shape of hoofs. These are the Artiodactyla, or

cloven-hoofed animals, which differ from the Perissodactyla in the

manner in which the weight of the body is carried upon the feet. In the

Artiodactyla the toes are even in number, being four in all the feet,

except in the Camel tribe, the Giraffe, and a very few Antelopes, in

which only two are present. It is the digit which corresponds to the

human thumb in the fore foot, and to the great toe in the hind, which

is always deficient, the inner and the outer digits (the second and

the fifth) being frequently reduced to but minute rudiments, as in the

Sheep and Ox. Some may ask how we know that it is the thumb and the

great toe which are missing, and not the little finger or toe, for

instance. A glance at the human hand and foot will explain the point.

Counting the bones in the thumb or great toe, it will be found that

there are but two bones beyond the limit of the “ball of the thumb,”

or the free part of the great toe, whilst in all the other fingers and

toes three bones can be counted. A reference to Fig. 3 makes it evident

that in the Artiodactyla there figured, as in all others, each toe has

three bones in it; and as all mammalian animals which have five toes

agree with man in possessing one less bone in the inner toe than in any

of the others, it is but logical to conclude that when four toes only

are present, all possessing an equal number of bones, the one absent

is that corresponding to the thumb and great toe. Each foot is always

symmetrical in itself, at the same time that its imaginary axis, which

is the line drawn down the middle of it, runs between the two medial

toes, they corresponding with the third and fourth of the human limb.

The accompanying drawings of the bones of the fore-foot of the Pig, the

Water Chevrotain (or Deerlet), the Javan Chevrotain, the Roebuck, the

Sheep, and the Camel, illustrate, better than can be done by words, the

difference in the degree of development of the outer toes found in the

group. In the Pig all the four toes are well developed, and there is

no consolidation of their constituent elements. In the Water Deerlet

of West Africa the external toes are smaller, whilst, as in the Pig,

each metacarpal--which is in the human hand the part of each finger

included within the palm--is independent of its neighbour, the Javan

Deerlet differing in having the third and fourth fused into a “cannon”

bone. But in the Red Deer the reduction of the second and fifth digits

is so great that their metacarpals are not perfect, being only present

in their upper parts; whilst the phalanges, or lower bones, are very

small, being reduced in the Sheep to mere bony spots with minute

hoofs, which latter are quite absent in the Camel, Llama, Giraffe, and

Pronghorn Antelope.

There are numerous other characters which associate these animals, and

prove the natural affinities of the different species, at the same time

that in geologic times there existed other creatures which fill up the

intervals between existing forms, and conclusively demonstrate the

manner in which the order has been evolved from a common type in times

long past.

All the Artiodactyla are strictly terrestrial, none being arboreal in

their habits. The Hippopotamus is the only member of the group which is

aquatic, spending much of its life in the water, without, however, any

special modification of its limbs or tail like that found in the more

truly aquatic Seals, Sirenia, or Whales.

There is a great uniformity throughout the order in the general plan

upon which the limbs are constructed. In all the species the wrist

in the fore limb--commonly called the knee--and the heel in the hind

limb--the hock--is raised a considerable distance above the ground, at

the same time that the whole weight of the body is carried upon the

extreme tips of the toes, the terminal bones of which are expanded

within the hoof to increase the basis of support. The collar-bone is

absent in all, as it is in nearly every animal that does not use its

fore limbs for any other purpose than that of carrying the weight of

the front parts of its body.

In the Perissodactylate Rhinoceros the horn or horns is or are situated

in the middle line of the face above the nose, and are not supported

upon any bony horn core. In all those Artiodactyla which carry horns or

antlers, there are appendages paired and lateral in position, at the

same time that they are either supported upon bony cores, or are formed

of bone itself, and are situated upon the forehead.

The following table best represents our present knowledge as to the

classification of the Artiodactyla:--

{ { Non- { Pigs of the Old World.

{ { ruminants { Peccaries of the New World.

{ { { Hippopotami.

ORDER { SUB-ORDER { { { Camels.

UNGULATA { ARTIODACTYLA { { { Llamas.

{ { Ruminants {

{ { { Chevrotains or Deerlets.

{ { { Bovidæe (Oxen).

{ { { Cervidæ (Deer).

A. H. GARROD.

I.--SUIDÆ, OR HOG FAMILY.

The Non-Ruminantia, or Artiodactyls which do not chew the cud,

possess the following characters: they usually have more than one

pair of incisors in the upper jaw, they are devoid of horns, and

the stomach has rarely more than two divisions. In only one genus,

that of the Peccary, are the metatarsal and metacarpal bones united

into one compact bony mass. They are divisible--as the above table

indicates--into three families: the Suidæ, or Hogs, the Hippopotamidæ,

or Hippopotamuses, and the Anoplotheridæ,[269] or Anoplotheres, an

extinct family, met with only in the Eocene strata of the Old and New

Worlds.

The Hog family may be divided into three well-marked groups:--1,

the True Swine, consisting of three genera, Sus, Potamochœrus, and

Babirusa; 2, the Wart Hogs, represented by one genus, Phacochœrus;

and 3, the Peccaries, represented also by one genus, Dicotyles. They

have three kinds of teeth--incisors, canines, and boss-covered or

transversely ridged grinders--slender limbs, and the third and fourth

toes are considerably larger than the second and fifth.

In order to enable the Hog family to “root” or turn up the ground, they

are provided with a truncated and cylindrical proboscis, or snout,

which is capable of considerable movement. The skin is more or less

supplied abundantly with hair, and the tail is short, and in some cases

merely represented by a tubercle.

The sense of smell in the Hog is very acute, and when its broad snout

ploughs up the herbage, not a root, an insect, or a worm, escapes the

olfactory sense. Although credited with stupidity, the Hog in its

native state is to be styled anything but a dull and lethargic animal,

neither is it the filthy animal that domestication has reduced it to.

Properly cared for, the Pig is as cleanly in its habits, and as capable

of strong attachment, as any other creature.

No animal that is mentioned in the Bible--not even the Dog--is spoken

of with more abhorrence than the Pig; and even at the present day a Jew

or Mohammedan looks upon this creature with anything but a generous

feeling, treating it as something utterly detestable. So great was the

horror with which the older Jews regarded the Hog, that they would not

even mention it by name, but called it “the abomination.” The origin

of the great antipathy which the Jews have always experienced for the

Pig appears to be lost in antiquity. In Lev. xi. 7, the Hog is spoken

of with other animals as being unclean and unfitted for food, simply

because it did not chew the cud, although the hoof was divided. It has,

however, been suggested that the Pig was so strictly prohibited by

Moses from being eaten, on account of its flesh being supposed in a hot

country to cause skin-diseases, and especially the dreaded leprosy; but

it is to be doubted whether Moses is to be considered as the originator

of the horror with which the Hog has been and still is regarded. It

seems probable that this disgust dates from a period of far greater

antiquity than that of Moses; and it is certain that the flesh of Swine

can be eaten in hot countries without producing any bad effects. It

is a matter of considerable wonder, that while Swine are held in such

abhorrence, we read of herds being so often kept in Palestine. In the

Gospel of St. Matthew (viii. 28-34), we read of a herd of Swine being

entered by devils, and which, so possessed, rushed down a hill and were

drowned in the sea. Again, in the parable of the Prodigal Son, we are

told of his becoming a swineherd. Although Pigs were so much disliked,

the Jews were evidently well acquainted with their habits, as we read

in the Second Epistle of St. Peter (ii. 22), where the apostle refers

to the fact of Pigs wallowing in the mire. It is also remarkable that

with the exception of one passage in the Bible, the mention of the Hog

is confined to those in a domesticated state, this exception being

found in Psalm lxxx. 13: “The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and

the wild beast of the field doth devour it.”

The genus Sus, or Hog proper, ranges, in the wild state, over the

greater portion of the Old World, through Central and Southern Europe

into Central and Southern Asia, and as far to the east and south as New

Guinea. It is also met with in the North African forests, in the region

north of the Sahara desert. It is conspicuous by its absence from North

and South America, Australia, and the cold northern regions of Europe

and Asia.

The adult teeth in the True Hogs (genus _Sus_) are forty-four, of which

there are in each jaw three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and

three true molars. The canines are very variable in size, being reduced

to a minimum under domestication, and arriving at a maximum in the wild

males.

THE WILD BOAR[270] inhabits Europe, North Africa, and

Hindostan, each country having its own peculiar type or race, which

sometimes is so marked as to constitute separate species in the opinion

of first-rate naturalists.

The Wild Boar is distinguished by a body generally of a dusky-brown or

greyish colour, having a tendency to black, and being diversified with

black spots. The canines or tusks in the male are long and powerful,

and project beyond the upper lip, the mouth is large, and the elongated

head is set on a short neck rising out of a thick and muscular body.

The size is variable, an old Wild Boar recorded by Desmarest being

five feet nine inches long, while a four-year-old of the more ordinary

size measured three feet without the tail. The female is smaller than

the male, and with smaller tusks. The hairs of the body are coarse,

intermixed with a downy wool. On the neck and shoulders the hairs take

the form of bristles, being long enough to assume a kind of mane which

the animal is enabled to erect if irritated. The young has the body

marked with longitudinal stripes of a reddish colour.

In its habits the Wild Boar is by choice herbivorous, feeding on

plants, fruits, and roots; but it will also eat Snakes, Lizards, and

various insects, and when pressed by hunger nothing appears to come

amiss to its voracious appetite; it is stated that even dead Horses

are sometimes called into requisition. The Boar is nocturnal in its

habits, rarely leaving the shadow of the woods in the day-time, and

coming forth as twilight approaches in search of food, delighting in

roots often deeply embedded in the soil, and which its keen sense of

smell enables it easily to detect. Much mischief is often done by this

animal, which ploughs up the ground in continuous furrows for long

distances, and is not content, like the domesticated variety, with

ploughing up a spot here and there.

[Illustration: DENTITION OF WILD BOAR.]

The Wild Boar was formerly an inhabitant of Great Britain. According to

Bell, “About the year 940, the laws of Hoel Dha direct that it shall

be lawful for the chief of his huntsmen to chase the Boar of the woods

from the fifth of the ides of November (9th), until the calends of

December (1st), Cap. xxi. sect. 14.” In the next century Bell states

that “the numbers had perhaps begun to diminish, since a forest law of

William I., established in A.D. 1087, ordained that any who

were found guilty of killing the Stag, the Roebuck, or the _Wild Boar_,

should have their eyes put out; and sometimes the penalty appears to

have been a painful death. It appears,” continues Bell, “that Charles

I. turned out some Wild Swine in the New Forest, for the purpose of

restoring the breed to that royal hunting-ground; but they were all of

them destroyed during the civil war. A similar attempt was made in Bere

Wood, in Dorsetshire; but one of the Boars having injured a valuable

Horse belonging to the worthy Nimrod who exhibited this specimen of

sporting epicurism, he caused them to be destroyed.”