[1] _Premier Recensement general de la population de l'empire de
Russie_, ed. N. Trointsky (St Petersburg, 1905, 2 vols.), in Russian
and French.
[2] Although the Ingushes speak a Chechen dialect, they have recently
been proved to be, anthropologically, quite a distinct race.
CAUCASUS, a mountain range of Asia, wholly within the Russian empire,
stretching north-west to south-east from the Strait of Kerch (between
the Black Sea and Sea of Azov) to the Caspian Sea, over a length of 900
m., with a breadth varying from 30 to 140 m. In its general character
and conformation the Caucasus presents a closer analogy with the
Pyrenees than with the Alps. Its general uniformity of direction, its
comparatively narrow width, and its well-defined limits towards both
south and north are all features which it has in common with the former.
The range of the Caucasus, like that of the Pyrenees, maintains for
considerable distances a high average elevation, and is not cleft by
deep trenches, forming natural passes across the range, such as are
common in the Alps. In both ranges, too, some of the highest summits
stand on spurs of the main range, not on the main range itself; as Mont
Perdu and Maladetta lie south of the main backbone of the Pyrenees, so
Mount Elbruz and Kasbek, Dykh-tau, Koshtan-tau, Janga-tau and
Shkara--all amongst the loftiest peaks of the Caucasus--stand on a
subsidiary range north of the principal range or on spurs connecting the
two. On the other hand, it is interesting to compare the arrangement of
the drainage waters of the Caucasus with those of the Alps. In both
orographical systems the principal rivers start nearly all together from
a central nucleus, and in both cases they radiate to opposite quarters
of the compass; but whereas in the Alps the Rhone and the Rhine, flowing
south-west and north-east respectively, follow longitudinal valleys, and
the Aar and the Ticino, flowing north-west and south-east respectively,
follow transverse valleys, in the Caucasus the streams which flow
south-west and north-east, namely, the headwaters of the Rion and the
Terek, travel along transverse valleys, and those of the Kura and the
Kuban, flowing south-east and north-west respectively, traverse
longitudinal valleys. For purposes of description it is convenient to
consider the range in four sections, a western, a middle with two
subsections, and an eastern.
1. WESTERN CAUCASUS. This section, extending from the Strait of Kerch to
Mount Elbruz in 42 deg. 40' E., is over 420 m. long, and runs parallel
to the north-east coast of the Black Sea and at only a short distance
from it. Between the main range and the sea there intervene at least two
parallel ranges separated by deep glens, and behind it a third
subsidiary parallel range, likewise separated by a deep trough-like
valley, and known as the Bokovoi Khrebet. All these ranges are shorn
through transversely by numerous glens and gorges, and, the rainfall
being heavy and the exposure favourable, they are densely clothed with
vegetation. Many of the spurs or broken segments of ranges thus formed
abut steeply upon the Black Sea, so that this littoral region is on the
whole very rugged and not readily accessible, especially as the general
elevations are considerable. The seaward flanking ranges run up to 4000
ft. and more, and in many places shoot out cliffs which overhang the
coast some 2000-3000 ft. sheer, while the main range gradually ascends
to 10,000-12,000 ft. as it advances eastwards, the principal peaks being
Fisht (8040 ft.), Oshten (9210 ft.), Shuguz (10,640 ft.), and Psysh
(12,425 ft.). And whereas the main range is built up of hard eruptive or
crystalline rocks, the subsidiary chains are composed of softer
(Cretaceous and Tertiary) laminated formations, which easily become
disintegrated and dislocated. The snow-line runs here at about 9000 ft.
on the loftiest summits, and east of Oshten the crest of the main range
is capped with perpetual snow and carries many hanging glaciers, while
larger glaciers creep down the principal valleys. The passes lie at
relatively great altitudes and are few in number, so that although the
northern versants of the various ranges all have a tolerably gentle
slope, communication between the Black Sea and the valley of the Kuban,
and the low steppe country beyond, is the reverse of easy. The more
important passes, proceeding from west to east, are Pshekh (5435 ft.)
west of Oshten, and Shetlib (6060 ft.) east of Oshten, Pscashka (6880
ft.) east of Shuguz, Sanchar (7990 ft.) west of Psysh; and between the
last-named mountain and Elbruz, facilitating communication between
Sukhum-Kaleh (and the coast as far as Poti) and the upper valley of the
Kuban, are the passes of Marukh (11,500 ft.), Klukhor (9450 ft.) and
Nakhar (9615 ft.).
_Flora._--The southern exposure of this littoral region, the shelter
afforded against the bitter winds of the north by the lofty Caucasus
range, and the copious rainfall all combine to foster a luxuriant and
abundant vegetation. The most distinguishing feature of the flora of
this region is the predominance of arborescent growths; forests cover in
fact 56% of the area, and are not only dense but laced together with
climbing and twining plants. The commonest species of trees are such as
grow in central Europe, namely, ash, fir, pine, beech, acacia, maple,
birch, box, chestnut, laurel, holm-oak, poplar, elm, lime, yew, elder,
willow, oak. The common box is especially prevalent, but the
preponderating species are _Coniferae_, including the Caucasian species
_Pinus halepensis_ and _P. insignis_. The commonest firs are _Abies
nordmannia_ and _A. orientalis_. There are two native oaks, _Quercus
ponticus_ and _Q. sessiliflora_. A great variety of shrubs grow on these
slopes of the western Caucasus, chiefly the following species, several
of which are indigenous--_Rhododendron ponticum, Azalea pontica,
Aristotelia maqui, Agave americana, Cephalaria tatarica, Coloneaster
pyracantha, Citrus aurantium, Diospyros ebenum, Ficus carica, Illicium
anisatum, Ligustrum caucasicum, Punica granatum, Philadelphus
coronarius, Pyrus salicifolia, Rhus cotinus_ and six species of
_Viburnum_. Aquatic plants thrive excellently and occur in great
variety. The following purely Caucasian species also grow on the
coast--five species of spearwort, three of saxifrage, _Aster caucasica,
Dioscorea caucasica, Echinops raddeanus, Hedera colchica, Helleborus
caucasica_ and _Peucedanum caucasicum_. Here too are found many of the
more beautiful open-air flowering plants of a shrubby character, e.g.
magnolia, azalea, camellia, begonia and paulownia. Among the cultivated
trees and shrubs the most valuable economically are the vine, peach,
pomegranate, fig, olive (up to 1500 ft. above sea-level), chestnut,
apricot, apple, pear, plum, cherry, melon, tea (on the coast between
Sukhum-Kaleh and Batum), maize (yielding the staple food of the
inhabitants), wheat (up to 6000 ft.), potatoes, peas, currants, cotton,
rice, colza and tobacco. Before the Russian conquest the native
inhabitants of this region were Kabardians, Circassians (Adigheh) and
Abkhasians, also a Circassian race. But half a million of these people
being Mahommedans, and refusing to submit to the yoke of Christian
Russia, emigrated into Turkish territory between 1864 and 1878, and the
country where they had lived remained for the most part unoccupied until
after the beginning of the 20th century. Then, however, the Russian
government held out inducements to settlers, and these have been
responded to by Russians, Greeks, Armenians and Rumanians, but the
process of repeopling the long deserted territory is slow and difficult.
The coast-line is remarkably regular, there being no deep bays and few
seaports. The best accommodation that these latter afford consists of
more or less open roadsteads, e.g. Novo-rossiysk, Gelenjik, Anapa,
Sukhum-Kaleh, Poti and Batum. Along the coast a string of summer bathing
resorts is springing up similar to those that dot the south-east coast
of the Crimea. The most promising of these little seaside places are
Anapa, Gelenjik and Gagry.
2. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (a) _Western Half._--This sub-section, with a length
of 200 m., reaches from Mount Elbruz to Kasbek and the Pass of Darial.
It contains the loftiest summits of the entire range, fully a dozen
exceeding Mont Blanc in altitude (see table below).
_List of Peaks in the west central Caucasus, with their altitudes,
names and dates of mountaineers who have climbed them._
+--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+
| Name of Peak. |Altitude| By whom ascended. |Date|
| |in Feet.| | |
+--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+
|Elbruz, E. peak | 18,345 |D.W. Freshfield, A.W. Moore and C. Tucker |1868|
|Elbruz, W. peak | 18,465 |F.C. Grove, H. Walker and F. Gardiner |1874|
| " " | " |H. Woolley |1889|
|Donguz-orun | 14,600 |G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller |1890|
| " | " |Donkin and H. Fox |1888|
| " | " |Helbling, Reichert and Weber |1903|
|Shtavler | 13,105 |Ficker, W.R. Rickmers, Scheck and Wigner |1903|
|Ledosht-tau | 12,580 |Schuster and Wigner |1903|
|Hevai | 13,055 |Schuster and Wigner |1903|
|Lakra-tau | 12,185 |Rolleston and Longstaff |1903|
|Ushba, N.E. peak | 15,400 |Cockin |1888|
|Ushba, S.W. peak | 15,410 |Helbling, Schulze, Reichert, Schuster and |1903|
| | | Weber | |
|Ushba, both peaks | |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann |1903|
|Sultran-kol-bashi | 12,495 |Grove, Walker and Gardiner |1874|
|Bak | 11,739 |Collier, Solly and Newmarch |1894|
|Gulba | 12,500 |Freshfield |1887|
|Salynan-bashi | 14,700 |Cockin and H.W. Holder |1888|
|Shikildi-tau | 14,170 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber |1903|
|Bshedukh | 14,010 |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann |1903|
|Ullu-tau-chana | 13,800 |Rolleston and Longstaff |1903|
|Adyr-su-bashi | 14,335 |Holder, Cockin and Woolley |1896|
|Sullu-kol-bashi | 13,970 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller |1890|
|Tikhtengen | 15,135 |Rolleston and Longstaff |1903|
|Gestola | 15,940 |C.T. Dent and Donkin |1886|
|Tetnuld | 15,920 |Freshfield |1887|
| " | " |Merzbacher and Purtscheller |1890|
|Adish or Katuyn-tau | 16,295 |Holder and Woolley |1888|
|Janga-tau, E. peak | 16,525 |Cockin |1888|
| " " | " |Merzbacher and Purtscheller |1890|
|Janga-tau, E. and W.| W. peak| | |
| peaks | 16,660 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber |1903|
|Shkara | 17,040 |Cockin |1888|
|Ailama | 14,855 |Woolley |1889|
|Ullu-auz | 15,350 |V. Sella |1888|
|Dykh-tau * | 17,050 |Cockin, Holder and Woolley |1888|
|Koshtan-tau ** | 16,875 |Woolley |1888|
|Mishirghi-tau | | | |
| E. peak | 16,350 |Woolley |1889|
|Laboda | 14,170 |Dent and Woolley |1895|
|Tsikhvarga, E. peak | 13,575 |V. Sella |1890|
| " W. peak | 13,575 |Holder and Cockin |1890|
|Karagom-khokh or | | | |
| Burdshula | 14,295 |Holder and Cockin |1890|
|Adai-khokh | 15,275 |Holder and Cockin |1890|
|Tepli | 14,510 |V. Sella |1896|
|Kasbek | 16,545 |Freshfield, Moore and Tucker |1868|
| " | " |Woolley |1889|
| " | " |Merzbacher |1890|
| " | " |V. Sella |1896|
|Gimarai-khokh | 15,670 |Merzbacher |1890|
|Laila, N. peak | 13,045 |Freshfield and Powell |1889|
|Laila, middle peak | 13,155 |V. Sella |1889|
|Laila, S. peak | 13,105 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller |1890|
|Khamkhakhi-khokh | 14,065 |M. de Dechy |1884|
+--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+
* Formerly the Koshtan-tau.
** Formerly the Dykh-tau.
In addition to the peaks enumerated in the table, the following also
exist between Elbruz and Kasbek all exceeding 13,000 ft. in altitude:
Dong-osenghi, 14,265 ft.; Kurmychi, 13,310 ft.; Ullu-kara-tau, 14,070
ft.; Jailyk, 17,780 ft.; Sarikol-bashi, 13,965 ft.; Dumala-tau, 14,950
ft.; Sugan-tau, 14,730 ft.; Tiutiu-bashi, 14,500 ft.; Nuamkuam, 13,975
ft.; Zurungal, 13,915 ft.; Mala-tau, 14,950 ft.; Tiutiun-tau, 15,115
ft.; Khrumkol-tau, 14,653 ft.; Bubis-khokh, 14,500 ft.; Giulchi,
14,680 ft.; Doppakh, 14,240 ft.; Nakhashbita-khokh, 14,405 ft.;
Shan-khokh, 14,335 ft.; Mishirghi-tau (W. peak), 16,410 ft.;
Fytnargyn-tau, 13,790 ft.; Gezeh-tau, 14,140 ft.; and Kaltber, 14,460
ft.
The crest of the main range runs continuously at an altitude exceeding
10,000 ft., but even it is surpassed in elevation by the secondary range
to the north, the Bokovoi Khrebet. These two ranges are connected by
more than half a dozen short transverse spurs or necks, inclosing as
many cirques or high cauldron glens. Besides the Bokovoi Khrebet several
other short subsidiary ranges branch off from the main range at acute
angles, lifting up high montane glens between them; for instance, the
two ranges in Svanetia, which divide, the one the river (glen) Ingur
from the river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali, and the other the river (glen)
Tskhenis-Tskhali from the rivers (glens) Lechkhum and Racha. Down all
these glens glacier streams descend, until they find an opportunity to
pierce through the flanking ranges, which they do in deep and
picturesque gorges, and then race down the northern slopes of the
mountains to enter the Terek or the Kuban, or down the southern versant
to join the Rion or the Kura. Amongst all these high glens there is a
remarkable absence of lakes and waterfalls; nor are there down in the
lower valleys at the foot of the mountains, as one would naturally
expect in a region so extensively glaciated, any sheets of water
corresponding to the Swiss lakes. In this section of the Caucasus the
loftiest peaks do not as a rule rise on the main range, but in many
cases on the short spurs that link it with the Bokovoi Khrebet and other
subsidiary ranges.
"The central chain of the Caucasus," writes Mr Douglas W.
Freshfield,[1] "consists of a number of short parallel or curved
horseshoe ridges, crowned with rocky peaks and enclosing basins filled
by the _neves_ of great glaciers.... On either side of the main chain
the same succession is repeated, with one important difference. On the
north the schists come first, sometimes rising into peaks and ridges
in a state of ruin ... but more often worn to rolling downs; then the
limestone range--writing-desk mountains that turn their steep fronts
to the central snows; lastly low Cretaceous foothills, that sink
softly into the steppe. But on the south side the crystalline rocks
are succeeded by a broad belt of slates, as to the age of which the
evidence is at present conflicting and the opinion of geologists
divided. East of Adai-khokh, by what seems a strange freak of nature,
the granitic [main] range is rent over and over again to its base by
gorges, the watershed being transferred to the parallel chain of clay
slates ... which has followed it from the Black Sea, attaining on its
way the height of 13,400 ft. in the Laila, and limiting the great
parallel basins of the Rion, Ingur and Skenis Shali
[= Tskhenis-Tskhali]...." "At the base of the central core of the chain
spread (to the north) broad, smooth, grassy downs, the pastures of the
Turk and the Ossete.... Their ridges attain to 9000 to 10,000 ft. They
are composed of friable crystalline schists.... Beyond these schists
rises a broken wall of limestone, cleft to the base by gorges, through
which flow the mountain torrents, and capped by pale precipitous
battlements, which face the central chain at a height of 11,000 to
12,000 ft. Beyond, again, lies a broad furrow, or 'longitudinal fold,'
as geologists call it, parallel to the ridges, and then rises the last
elevation, a belt of low calcareous hills, on which, here and there
among the waves of beech forest, purple or blue with distance, a white
cliff retains its local colour and shines like a patch of fresh snow.
Beyond, once more beyond, spreads the Scythian steppe, not the dead
level of Lombardy, but an expanse of long low modulations, which would
be reckoned hills in our home counties, seamed by long shining
ribbons, which mark the courses of the tributaries of the Terek....
Southwards too, immediately under the snows, we find 'crystalline
schists,' smooth grassy heights, separated by shallow trenches, which
form the lesser undulations of the three basins, the _drei
Langenhochthaler Imeritiens_ of Dr Radde. These basins or
'longitudinal folds' are enclosed on the south by the long high ridge
of dark slates, which extends parallel to the crystalline [main] chain
from the neighbourhood of Sukhum-Kale to the Krestovaya Gora [pass of
Darial.] Behind this slate crest spreads a confused multitude of
hills, Jurassic and Cretaceous in their formation.... Their outer
edge, distant some 30 to 40 m. from the snows, is marked by a
limestone belt, lower and less continuous than that on the north,
which frames the gorges of the Rion, and rises in the Kuamli (6352
ft.) and Nakarala (4774 ft.) near Kutais, its best known
elevations."[2] It may be added that, south of the central watershed,
the strata, both Mesozoic and Palaeozoic, are compressed, crumpled,
faulted and frequently overfolded, with their apices pointing to the
south.
_Glaciers._--As a rule the snow-line runs at 9500 to 10,000 ft. on the
northern face and 1000 ft. higher on the southern face. It is estimated
that there are in all over nine hundred glaciers in this section of the
range, and although they often rival those of the Alps in size, they do
not descend generally to such low altitudes as the latter. The best
known are the Bezingi or Ullu, between Dykh-tau and Janga-tau, 10-1/2 m.
long, covering an area of 31 sq.m., and descending to 6535 ft. above
sea-level; Leksyr, situated south of Adyr-su-bashi, 7-1/2 m. long, 19
sq.m. in area, and creeping down to as low as 5690 ft., this being the
lowest point to which any glacier descends on the south side of the
range; Tseya or Zea, descending 6 m. from the Adai-khokh to an altitude
of 6730 ft.; Karagom, from the same mountain, 9-1/2 m. long, 14 sq.m. in
area and reaching down to 5790 ft., the lowest on the north side;
Dyevdorak or Devdorak, from Kasbek, 2-1/2 m. long, its lower end at 7530
ft.; Khaldeh or Geresho 4-1/4 m. long, from Shkara and Janga-tau; Tuyber
from Tetnuld, 6-1/2 m. long, area 21 sq.m., and reaching down to 6565
ft.; Tsanner or Zanner, the same length and the same area, but stopping
short 240 ft. higher, likewise given off by Tetnuld; while between that
peak, Adish and Gestola originates the Adish or Lardkhat glacier, 5 m.
long and terminating at 7450 ft. The total area covered by glaciers in
the central Caucasus is estimated at 625 to 650 sq.m., the longest being
the Maliev on Kasbek, 36 m. long; but according to the investigations of
M. Rossikov several of the largest glaciers are shrinking or
retreating, the Tseya at the rate of something like 40-45 ft. per annum.
_Passes._--It is in this section that the entire mountain system is
narrowest, and here it is that (apart from the "gate" at Derbent close
beside the Caspian) the principal means of communication exist between
north and south, between the steppes of southern Russia and the
highlands of Armenia and Asia Minor. These means of communication are
the passes of Darial and Mamison. Over the former, which lies
immediately east of Kasbek, runs the Georgian military road (made
1811-1864) from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis, cutting through the mountains by
a gorge (8 m. long) of singular beauty, shut in by precipitous mountain
walls nearly 6000 ft. high, and so narrow that there is only just room
for the carriage-road and the brawling river Terek side by side. The
pass by which this road crosses the main range, farther south, is known
as the Krestovaya Gora (Mountain of the Cross) and lies 7805 ft. above
sea-level. The Mamison Pass, over which runs the Ossetic military road
(made passable for vehicles in 1889) from the Terek (below Vladikavkaz)
to Kutais in the valley of the Rion, skirting the eastern foot of the
Adai-khokh, lies at an altitude of 9270 ft. and is situated a little
south of the main range. Scarce any of the remaining passes in this
west-central region are better than mountain paths; horses can traverse
the best of them only during a few weeks in the height of summer. They
mostly range at altitudes of 9000-12,500 ft., and between the pass of
Nakhar in the west and that of Mamison in the east there is not a single
pass below 10,000 ft. The best known in this section are the three
Baksan passes of Chiper (10,800 and 10,720 ft.), Bassa (9950 ft.) and
Donguz-orun (10,490 ft.), south of Elbruz; those of Becho (11,070 ft.),
Akh-su (12,465 ft.), Bak (10,220 ft.), Adyr-su (12,305 ft.) and Bezingi
(10,090 ft.), between Elbruz and Dykh-tau; and those of Shari-vizk
(11,560 ft.), Edena, Pasis-mta or Godivizk (11,270 ft.), Shtulu-vizk
(10,860 ft.), Fytnargyn (11,130 ft.), between Dykh-tau and Adai-khokh;
the Bakh-fandak (9570 ft.), between Adai-khohk and Kasbek; and the two
Karaul passes (11,680 and 11,270 ft.) and Gurdzi-vizk (10,970 ft.),
connecting the valley of the Urukh with that of the Rion. The most
frequented pass in Svanetia is that of Latpari (9260 ft.), situated in
the first of the southern subsidiary ranges mentioned above, and thus
connecting the valley of the Ingur with the valley of the
Tskhenis-Tskhali.
_Flora._--In this section of the range again the southern slopes are
clothed with vegetation of remarkable luxuriance and richness, more
especially in the region of Svanetia (42 deg.-43 deg. E.). Not only are
the plants bigger than they grow in the Alps, but the blossoms are more
abundant. Here again forests of _Coniferae_ predominate, especially on
the northern and eastern slopes; and the other distinguishing features
of the flora are gigantic male ferns (_Aspidium filix-mas_), _Paris
incompleta_ (a member of the Trilliaceae), _Usnea_ or tree-moss, box,
holly (_Ilex aquifolium_), _Lilium monadelphum_ and many of the familiar
herbaceous plants which flower in English gardens, though here they grow
to an altogether extraordinary size--"monkshoods, _Cephalaria_,
_Mulgedia_ and groundsels, among which men on horseback might play at
hide and seek without stooping" (E. Levier). Other prominent species are
_Campanula_, _Pyrethrum_, aconite, _Cephaelis_, speedwell, _Alchemilla
sericea_, _Centaurea macrocephala_, _Primula grandis_ and a species of
primrose. And the great height (13,000 ft.) at which the flowering
plants blossom is not less remarkable than the great beauty and
abundance of the flowers. Species which grow on both the northern and
the southern slopes ascend 2000 ft. higher on the latter than on the
former. Walnuts grow up to an altitude of 5400 ft., the vine and
mulberry up to 3250 ft., the lime and ash to 4000 ft. The forests extend
to the upper end of the limestone gorges. Above that the crystalline
schists are bare of tree vegetation. The upper limit of arborescent
vegetation is considered to run at 7000-7500 ft., of shrubs such as
rhododendrons at 8500 ft., and of pasture-lands up to 9000 ft. The
principal cultivated varieties of plants in this section are wheat, rye,
oats, barley, beans, millet and tobacco.
3. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (b) _Eastern Part._--In this sub-section, which
stretches from Kasbek and the Darial gorge eastwards to the Baba-dagh
in 48 deg. 25' E., a distance of 230 m., the Caucasus attains its
greatest breadth. For the whole of that distance the main range keeps at
an average elevation of 10,000 ft., though the peaks in many instances
tower up 2000 to nearly 5000 ft. higher, the altitudes increasing
towards the east. As the main range approaches the Caspian its granite
core gradually disappears, giving place to Palaeozoic schists, which
spread down both the northern and the southern slopes. The glaciers too
decrease in the same proportion both in magnitude and in extent. Here
the principal peaks, again found for the most part on the spurs and
subsidiary ranges, are the Tsmiakom-khokh (13,570 ft.), Shan-tau (14,530
ft.), Kidenais-magali (13,840 ft.), Zilga-khokh (12,645 ft), Zikari
(12,565 ft.), Choukhi (12,110 ft.), Julti-dagh (12,430 ft.),
Alakhun-dagh (12,690 ft.) and Maghi-dagh (12,445 ft.). On the main range
itself stand Borbalo (10,175 ft.), Great Shavi-kildeh (12,325 ft.),
Murov (11,110 ft.), Ansal (11,740 ft.), Ginor-roso (11,120 ft), while
farther east come Trfan-dagh (13,765 ft.) and Bazardyuz or Kichen
(14,727 ft.). In the same direction, but again outside the main range,
lie Shah-dagh (13,955 ft.), Shalbuz (13,675 ft.) and Malkamud (12,750
ft.).
But the most noteworthy feature of this section is the broad _highland
region of Daghestan_, which flanks the main range on the north, and
sinks down both eastwards to the Black Sea and northwards to the valley
of the Terek. On the north-west this rugged highland region is well
defined by the distinctive transverse ridge of Andi, which to the east
of Kasbek strikes off from the Caucasus range almost at right angles.
The rest of the Daghestan region consists of a series of roughly
parallel folds, of Jurassic or Cretaceous age, ranging in altitudes from
7500 up to 12,500 ft., separated from one another by deep gorge-like
river glens which cut it up into a number of arid, treeless plateaus
which have something of the appearance of independent ranges, or rather
elongated tablelands of a mountainous character. The most prominent of
these tablelands is Bash-lam, which stretches east and west between the
Chanti Argun and the Andian Koisu, both tributaries of the Terek. Upon
it rise the conspicuous peaks of Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.), Tugo-mta
(13,795 ft.), Komito-tavi or Kachu (14,010 ft.), Donos-mta (13,560 ft.),
Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.), Kvavlos-mta or Kolos-mta (13,080 ft.),
Motshekh-tsferi (13,140 ft.) and Galavanas-tsferi (13,260 ft.). Farther
east come the Bogos tableland, stretching from south-south-west to
east-north-east between the Andian Koisu and the Avarian Koisu and
rising to over 13,400 ft. in several peaks, e.g. Antshovala (13,440
ft.), Botshokh-meer (13,515 ft.), Kosara-ku (13,420 ft.) and
Addala-shuogchol-meer (13,580 ft.); and the Dyulty tableland, reaching
12,400 ft. between the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu. On some of
these peaks again there is a considerable amount of glaciation, more
particularly on the slopes of Diklos-mta, where the glaciers descend to
7700 ft. on the north side and to 8350 ft. on the south side. In this
section of the Caucasus the passes run somewhat lower than those between
Elbruz and Kasbek, though still at appreciable heights, fully equal to
those that lead up from the Black Sea to the valley of the Kuban in the
western section of the range. The best known are the Krestovaya Gora
(7805 ft.) on the Georgian military road, south of Darial; Kodor (9300
ft.) and Satskheni, leading up from Telav in the upper valley of the
Alazan; and Gudur (10,120 ft.) and Salavat (9280 ft.), carrying the
Akhty military road from the valley of the Samur up past the Shah-dagh
and the Bazar-dyusi to the valley of the Alazan.
The _flora_ of this section bears a general resemblance to that farther
west. Ample details will be found in Dr G. Radde's (1831-1903)
monographs on Daghestan, quoted at the end of the present article.
4. The EASTERN SECTION of the Caucasus gradually dies away east of
Baba-dagh (11,930 ft.) towards the Caspian, terminating finally in the
peninsula of Apsheron. It is, however, continued under the waters of the
Caspian, as stated in the article on that sea, and reappears on its
eastern side in the Kopet-dagh, which skirts the north-east frontier of
Persia. In this section of the Caucasus no peak exceeds 9000 ft. in
altitude and the crest of the main range retains no snow. The most
frequented pass, that of Alty-agach, necessitates a climb of not more
than 4355 ft.
_Slopes of Range._--Between the northern and the southern sides of the
range there is quite as great a difference in climate, productions and
scenery as there is between the Swiss and the Italian sides of the Alps.
In the south-western valleys and on the south-western slopes of the
Caucasus, where a heavy rainfall is combined with a warm temperature,
magnificent forests clothe the mountain-sides and dip their skirts into
the waters of the Black Sea. There not only the littoral from (say)
Sukhum-Kaleh to Batum but the inland parts of the basin of the Rion will
bear comparison with any of the provinces of Italy in point of
fertility, and in richness and variety of products. But farther inland,
upon proceeding eastwards towards Tiflis, a great change becomes
noticeable on the other side of the transverse ridge of the Suram or
Meskes mountains. Arid upland plains and parched hillsides take the
place of the rich verdure and luxuriant arborescent growth of Imeretia,
Svanetia and Mingrelia, the districts which occupy the valleys of the
Ingur and Rion and the tributaries of the latter. A very similar change
likewise becomes noticeable in the higher regions of the Caucasus
Mountains upon proceeding north of the pass of Mamison, which separates
the head-waters of the Rion from those of the Ardon, an important
tributary of the Terek. The valleys of the two streams last mentioned,
and of others that flow in the same direction, are almost wholly
destitute of trees, but where the bare rock does not prevail, the
mountain slopes are carpeted with grass. Freshfield's description of the
valley of the Terek above Kasbek will apply pretty generally to all the
valleys that descend on that face of the range: "treeless valleys, bold
rocks, slopes of forbidding steepness (even to eyes accustomed to those
of the Alps), and stonebuilt villages, scarcely distinguishable from the
neighbouring crags." But, austere and unattractive though these valleys
are, the same epithets cannot be applied to the deep gorges by which in
most cases the streams make their escape through the northern subsidiary
range. These defiles are declared to be superior in grandeur to anything
of the kind in the Alps. That of Darial (the Terek) is fairly well
known, but those of the Cherek and the Urukh, farther west, are stated
to be still more magnificent. And not only do the snow-clad ranges and
the ice-panoplied peaks which tower up above them surpass the loftiest
summits of the Alps in altitude; they also in many cases excel them in
boldness and picturesqueness of outline, and equal the most difficult of
them in steepness and relative inaccessibility.
_Hydrography._--Nearly all the larger rivers of Caucasia have their
sources in the central parts of the Caucasus range. The short, steep,
torrential streams of Mdzimta, Pzou, Bzyb and Kodor drain the country
west of Elbruz. The Ingur, Tskhenis-Tskhali, Rion and its tributaries
(e.g. the Kvirila) are longer, but also in part torrential; they drain
the great glacier region between Elbruz and Kasbek. The Rion is the
_Phasis_ of the ancients and flows through the classic land of Colchis,
associated with the legends of Medea and the Argonauts. The Lyakhva and
Aragva, tributaries of the Kura, carry off the waters of the main range
south of Kasbek, and other tributaries, such as the Yora and the Alazan,
collect the surplus drainage of the main Caucasus range farther east.
The other large river of this region, the Aras, has its sources, not in
the Caucasus range, but on the Armenian highlands a long way south-west
of Ararat. The rivers which go down from the central Caucasus northwards
have considerably longer courses than those on the south side of the
range, partly as a consequence of the gentler versant and partly also
because of the great distances to which the steppes extend across which
they make their way to the sea. The most important of these are the
Kuban and the Terek; but it is the latter that picks up most of the
streams which have their sources among the central glaciers, e.g. the
Malka, Baksan, Chegem, Cherek, Urukh, Ardon, all confined to deep narrow
glens until they quit the mountains. The Kuma, which alone pursues an
independent course through the steppes, farther north than the Terek,
has its sources, not in the main ranges of the Caucasus, but in an
outlying group of mountains near Pyatigorsk, the highest summit of
which, Besh-tau, does not exceed 4600 ft. But its waters become absorbed
in the sands of the desert steppes before they reach the Caspian. Of the
streams that carve into chequers the elevated plateau or highland region
of Daghestan four are known by the common name of the Koisu, being
distinguished _inter se_ as the Andian Koisu, the Avarian Koisu, the
Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu, which all unite to form the Sulak.
The only other stream deserving of mention in this province is the
Samur. Both rivers discharge their waters into the Caspian; as also does
the Zumgail, a small stream which drains the eastern extremity of the
Caucasus range in the government of Baku.
_Volcanic Evidences._--Ancient, but now extinct, volcanic upheavals are
pretty common at the intersections of the main range with the transverse
ranges; of these the most noteworthy are Elbruz and Kasbek. The town of
Shemakha, near the eastern end of the system, was the scene of volcanic
outbreaks as late as 1859, 1872 and 1902; while in the adjacent
peninsula of Apsheron mud volcanoes exist in large numbers. All along
the northern foot of the system hot mineral springs gush out at various
places, such as Pyatigorsk, Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki and Kislovodsk; and
the series is continued along the north-eastern foot of the highlands of
Daghestan, e.g. Isti-su, Eskiendery, Akhta. In this connexion it may
also be mentioned that similar evidences of volcanic activity
characterize the northern border of the Armenian highlands on the
southern side of the Rion-Kura depression, in the mountains of Ararat,
Alagoz, Akmangan, Samsar, Godoreby, Great and Little Abull, and in the
mineral springs of Borzhom, Abbas-tuman, Sleptzov, Mikhailovsk and
Tiflis. (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)
_Geology._--The general structure of the Caucasus is comparatively
simple. The strata are folded so as to form a fan. In the centre of
the fan lies a band of crystalline rocks which disappears towards the
east. Beneath it, on both sides, plunge the strongly folded Palaeozoic
and Jurassic schists. On the northern flank the folded beds are
followed by a zone of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds which rapidly
assume a gentle inclination towards the plain. On the south the
corresponding zone is affected by numerous secondary folds which
involve the Sarmatian or Upper Miocene deposits. In the eastern part
of the chain the structure is somewhat modified. The crystalline band
is lost. The northern Mesozoic zone is very much broader, and is
thrown into simple folds like those of the Jura. The southern Mesozoic
zone is absent, and the Palaeozoic zone sinks abruptly in a series of
faulted steps to the plain of the Kura, beneath which no doubt the
continuation of the Mesozoic zone is concealed.
[Illustration]
The geological sequence begins with the granite and schists of the
central zone, which form a band extending from Fisht on the west to a
point some distance beyond Kasbek on the east. Then follow the
Palaeozoic schists and slates. Fossils are extremely rare in these
beds; _Buthotrephis_ has long been known, and doubtful traces of
_Calamites_ and ferns have been found, but it was not until 1897 that
undoubted Palaeozoic fossils were obtained. They appear to indicate a
Devonian age. Upon the Palaeozoic beds rest a series of Mesozoic
deposits, beginning with the Lias and ending with the Upper
Cretaceous. Whether the series is continuous or not is a matter of
controversy. F. Loewinson-Lessing states that there is a more or less
marked discordance between the Lias and the Upper Jurassic and between
the latter and the Cretaceous; E. Fournier asserts that there exists a
very strongly marked unconformity at the base of the Tithonian, and
other writers have expressed other views. In general the Upper
ajurassic beds are much more calcareous on the north flank of the
chain than they are on the south. The Mesozoic beds are followed by
the Tertiary deposits, which on the north are nearly horizontal but on
the south are in part included in the folds--the Eocene and Miocene
being folded, while the later beds, though sometimes elevated, are not
affected by the folding. The final folding of the chain undoubtedly
occurred at the close of the Miocene period. That there were earlier
periods of folding is almost equally certain, but there is
considerable difference of opinion as to their dates. The difference
in character of the Jurassic beds on the two sides of the chain
appears to indicate that a ridge existed in that period. The last
phase in the history of the Caucasus was marked by the growth of the
great volcanoes of Elbruz and Kasbek, which stand upon the old rocks
of the central zone, and by the outflow of sheets of lava upon the
sides of the chain. The cones themselves are composed largely of acid
andesites, but many of the lavas are augite andesites and basalts.
There seem to have been two periods of eruption, and as some of the
lavas have flowed over Quaternary gravels, the latest outbursts must
have been of very recent date.
[Illustration]
Near the northern foot of the Caucasus, especially in the
neighbourhood of the hot mineral springs of Pyatigorsk, a group of
hills of igneous rocks rises above the plain. They are laccolites of
trachytic rock, and raised the Tertiary beds above them in the form of
blisters. Subsequent denudation has removed the sedimentary covering
and exposed the igneous core. (P. La.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the older works the following are still useful: A.
von Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1856); A.
Petzholdt, _Der Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1866-1867); M.G. von
Thielmann, _Travels in the Caucasus_ (Eng. trans., 2 vols., London,
1875); F.C. Grove, _The Frosty Caucasus_ (London, 1875); G. Radde,
_Reisen im mingrelischen Hochgebirge_ (Tiflis, 1866) and _Vier
Vortrage uber den Kaukasus_ (Gotha, 1874); E. Favre, _Recherches
geologiques dans la partie centrale de la chaine du Caucase_ (Geneva,
1875); Batsevich, Simonovich and others, _Mat. dlya geologiy Kavkaza_
(Tiflis, 1873 seq.); O. Schneider, _Naturwissenschaftliche Beitrage
zur Kenntnis der Kaukasuslander_ (Dresden, 1879), and J. Bryce,
_Transcaucasia_ (London, 1878). The more important amongst the more
recent books are D.W. Freshfield, _Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd
ed., 1902, 2 vols., London); A.F. Mummery, _My Climbs in the Alps and
Caucasus_ (London, 1895); H. Abich, _Geologische Forschungen in den
kaukasischen Landern_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1878-1887), _Aus kaukasischen
Landern_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1896), and "Vergleichende Grundzuge des
Kaukasus wie der armenischen und nordpersischen Gebirge," in _Mem.
Acad. Sc. St-Petersb._ (ser. 6, _Math. et Phys._, vii. 359-534); R.
von Erckert, _Der Kaukasus und seine Volker_ (Leipzig, 1887); E.
Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (4 vols., Lyons
and Paris, 1885-1887); C. von Hahn, _Aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig,
1892), _Kaukasische Reisen und Studien_ (Leipzig, 1896), and _Bilder
aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig 1900); V. Sella and D. Vallino, _Nel
Caucaso Centrale_ (Turin, 1890); K. Koch, _Der Kaukasus_ (Berlin,
1882); C. Phillipps Woolley, _Savage Svanetia_ (2 vols., London,
1883); E. Levier, _A travers le Caucase_ (Paris, ed. 1905), especially
valuable for botany; G. Merzbacher, _Aus den Hochregionen des
Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1901); A. Fischer, _Zwei Kaukasische
Expeditionen_ (Berne, 1891); E. Fournier, _Description geologique du
Caucase central_ (Marseilles, 1896); G. Radde, _Reisen an der
persisch-russischen Grenze. Talysch und seine Bewohner_ (Leipzig,
1886), _Die Fauna und Flora des sudwestlichen Kaspigebiets_ (Leipzig,
1886), _Karabagh_ (Gotha, 1890), and _Aus den daghestanischen
Hochalpen_ (Gotha, 1887); and Count J. Zichy, _Voyages au Caucase_ (2
vols., Budapest, 1897). F. Loewinson-Lessing has an account of the
geology of the district along the military road from Vladikavkaz to
Tiflis in the _Guide des Excursions du VII^e Congres geol. internat_.
(St Petersburg, 1897). N.Y. Dinnik writes on the fauna in _Bull. Soc.
Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou_ (1901); J. Mourier on the
folk-tales in _Contes et legendes du Caucase_ (1888); and on modern
history G. Baumgarten, _Sechzig Jahre des kaukasischen Krieges_
(Leipzig, 1861). But a very great amount of most valuable information
about the Caucasus is preserved in articles in encyclopaedias and
scientific periodicals, especially the _Izvestia_ and _Zapiski_ of the
Russian and Caucasian geographical societies, in P.P. Semenov's
_Geographical Dictionary_ (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg,
1863-1884), and in the _Russkiy encyklopedicheskiy slovar_ (1894), and
in the _Kavkazskiy kalendar_ (annually at Tiflis). See also G. Radde
and E. Koenig, "Der Nordfuss des Daghestan und das vorlagernde
Tiefland bis zur Kuma" (Erganzungsheft No. 117 to _Petermanns
Mitteilungen_), and "Das Ostufer des Pontus und seine kulturelle
Entwickelung im Verlaufe der letzten 30 Jahre" (Erganzungsheft No. 112
of the same); by V. Dingelstedt in _Scot. Geog. Mag_.--"Geography of
the Caucasus" (July 1889); "The Caucasian Highlands" (June 1895); "The
Hydrography of the Caucasus" (June 1899); "The Riviera of Russia"
(June 1904), "The Small Trades of the Caucasus" (March 1892); and
"Caucasian Idioms" (June 1888). The best map is that of the Russian
General Staff on the scale of 1:210,000 (ed. 1895-1901).
(J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)