[1] This is the form vouched for by the inscriptions.
CATANZARO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the
province of Catanzaro, 1125 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 22,799
(town); 32,005 (commune). The station for the town (Catanzaro Sala) is
situated on a branch line connecting the two main lines along the east
and west coasts of Calabria, 6 m. N. by W. of Catanzaro Marina on the
east coast, and 20 m. E. of S. Eufemia Biforcazione, on the west coast
line. The town enjoys a comparatively cool climate in summer, and
commands fine views. Numerous wealthy families reside here, and the town
has a trade in olive-oil, silk and velvet. The castle, built by Robert
Guiscard, has been modernized, and so has the cathedral. The see was
founded in 1121. The provincial museum contains antiquities and
especially coins from the ancient cities of Magna Graecia, and a few
pictures.
CATAPHYLL (Gr. [Greek: kata], down, [Greek: phullon], leaf), a botanical
term for the early leaf-forms produced in the lower part of a shoot,
such as bud-scales, or scales on underground stems.
CATAPULT (Lat. _catapulta_, Gr. [Greek: katapeltes]) a generic name for
warlike engines of the cross-bow type used by the ancients. Although
engines of war appear on Assyrian remains, and are mentioned in 2
Chronicles xxvi. 15, it appears that Greek armies, even of the 5th
century, did not possess them, and the first record of a large siege
train in classical literature is of the year 399 B.C., when Dionysius I.
of Syracuse, contemplating an expedition against Carthage, provided
himself with engines. From Sicily siege engines found their way some
years later into Greece; they were used by Philip of Macedon at the
siege of Byzantium in 340, and thereafter, as a natural consequence of
the regularizing or professionalizing of armies, artillery, as we may
call it, came into prominence and called into existence technical corps
to work it.
The war engines of the Romans, during the republic and early principate,
are of the same type as those of Alexander's successors in Greece. They
are usually classed as (a) catapults and (b) ballistae ([Greek:
lithoboloi]). The former were smaller and were used with arrows for what
is now called direct fire (i.e. at low angles of elevation); the latter
were large siege engines discharging heavy bolts or stones at a high
angle of elevation, like the modern howitzer. They were, of course,
principally siege engines, but the smaller natures of catapult appear in
field warfare from time to time, and eventually, during the early
principate, they are found as part of the regulation equipment of
infantry units. Both were constructed on the same principle.
[Illustration]
The essential parts of the catapult (see illustration) were the frame,
the propelling gear, the trough (corresponding to the modern barrel) and
the pedestal. The frame consisted of two horizontal beams forming top
and bottom sills, and four strong upright bars mortised into them. The
three open spaces or compartments, resembling narrow windows, between
these four uprights carried the propelling and laying gear. The
propelling gear occupied the two outer "windows." In each a thick skein
of cord or sinews was fastened to the top and bottom sills and tightly
twisted. Two stiff wooden arms were inserted in the two skeins, and a
specially strong bowstring joined the tips of these arms. In the middle
compartment was the hinged fore-end of the trough, which was at right
angles to the frame and at the back of it. The trough could be laid for
elevation by a movable prop, the upper end of which was hinged to the
trough, while the lower ran up and down a sort of trail fastened to the
pedestal. The whole equipment was laid for "line" by turning the frame,
and with it the trough, prop and trail by a pivot in the head of the
pedestal. Sliding up and down in the trough was a block, fitted with a
trigger mechanism, through which passed the middle of the bowstring. The
pedestal was a strong and solid upright resting upon, and strutted to, a
framework on the ground; its upper end, as mentioned above, took the
pivot of the frame and the head of the trail.
On coming into action the machine was laid for direction and elevation.
The block and with it the bowstring was next forced back against the
resistance of the twisted skeins to the rear end of the trough, this
being effected by a windlass attachment. The trigger being then pressed
or struck with a hammer, the bowstring was released from the block, the
stiff arms were violently brought back to the frame by the untwisting of
the skeins, and the arrow was propelled through the centre "window" with
great velocity. A small machine of the type described weighed about 85
lb., and sent a "three-span" (26-in.) arrow weighing 1/2 lb. at an
effective man-killing velocity somewhat over 400 yds.
The ballista was considerably larger and more expensive than this. In
Scipio's siege train, at the attack of New Carthage (Livy xxvi. 47. 5),
the number of the ballistae was only one-sixth that of the catapults. In
the ballista the rear end of the trough (which projected in front of the
frame) always rested upon the ground, or rather was fixed to the
framework of the pedestal--which was a heavy trestle construction--and
the trough was thus restricted to the angle of elevation, giving the
maximum range (45 deg.). Even so the range was not appreciably greater
than that of a catapult, and in the case of the largest ballistae
(ninety-pounder) it was much less. These enormous engines, which, once
in position, could not be laid on any fresh target, were used for
propelling beams and stones rather than for shooting arrows, that is,
more for the destruction of material than for man-killing effect. The
skeins that supplied the motive force of all these engines were made of
the sinews of animals, twisted raw hide, horsehair rope, and, in at
least one celebrated case, of women's hair. In 146 B.C., the authorities
of Carthage having surrendered their engines to the Romans in the vain
hope of staying their advance, new ones were hurriedly constructed, and
the women and virgins of the city cut off their hair to supply the
needed skeins.
The modern implement known as a "catapult" is formed by a forked stick,
to the forks of which are attached the ends of a piece of elastic. To
the middle of this elastic a pocket is fitted to contain a bullet or
small stone. In use the forked stick is held in the left hand and the
pocket drawn back with the right. Aim is taken and, the pocket being
released, the missile flies through the fork of the stick. Though
classed as a toy, this weapon can do considerable execution among birds,
&c., when skilfully used. The name of "catapult" has also been given to
a bowling machine which is used for cricket practice.
CATARACT (from the Lat. form _cataracta_ of the Gr. [Greek:
katarraktes], a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes
down), a downpour of water, a waterfall. The earliest use in English is
of a floodgate or portcullis, and this survives in the name of a disease
of the eye (see EYE: _Eye Diseases_), in which the crystalline lens
becomes opaque, and forms an apparent grating over the eye. The term is
also used of a device to regulate the strokes in certain types of
steam-engine.
CATARGIU (or CATARGI), LASCAR (1823-1899), Rumanian statesman, was born
in Moldavia in November 1823. He belonged to an ancient Walachian
family, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by
Prince Matthew Bassaraba, and had settled in Moldavia. Under Prince
Gregory Ghica (1849-1856), Catargiu rose to be prefect of police at
Jassy. In 1857 he became a member of the _Divan ad hoc_ of Moldavia, a
commission elected in accordance with the treaty of Paris (1856) to vote
on the proposed union of Moldavia and Walachia. His strongly
conservative views, especially on agrarian reform, induced the
Conservatives to support him as a candidate for the throne in 1859.
During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Catargiu was one of the
Opposition leaders, and received much assistance from his kinsman, Barbu
Catargiu (b. 1807), a noted journalist and politician, who was
assassinated at Bucharest on the 20th of June 1862. On the accession of
Prince Charles in May 1866, Lascar Catargiu became president of the
council, or prime minister; but, finding himself unable to co-operate
with his Liberal colleagues, I.C. Bratianu and C.A. Rosetti, he resigned
in July. After eight more ministerial changes, culminating in the
anti-dynastic agitation of 1870-1871, Catargiu formed, for the first
time in Rumanian history, a stable Conservative cabinet, which lasted
until 1876. His policy, which averted revolution and revived the
popularity of the crown, was regarded as unpatriotic and reactionary by
the Liberals, who resumed office in 1876; and a proposal to impeach the
whole Catargiu cabinet was only withdrawn in 1878. Catargiu remained in
opposition until 1889, when he formed another cabinet, taking the
portfolio of the Interior; but this administration fell after seven
months. In the Florescu ministry of March 1891 he occupied the same
position, and in December he again became president of the council,
retaining office until 1895. During this period he was responsible for
several useful reforms, chiefly financial and commercial. He died
suddenly at Bucharest on the 11th of April 1899.
CATARRH (from the Gr. [Greek: katarrein], to flow down), a term
principally employed to describe a state of irritation of the mucous
membrane of the respiratory passages, or what is called in popular
language a "cold." It is the result of infection by a micro-organism in
one or more of various predisposing conditions, damp, chill, fatigue,
&c. The complaint usually begins as a nasal catarrh or _coryza_ (Gr.
[Greek: korys], head), with a feeling of weight about the forehead and
some degree of difficulty in breathing through the nose, increased on
lying down. Fits of sneezing accompanied with a profuse watery discharge
from the nostrils and eyes soon follow, while the sense of smell and to
some extent that of taste become considerably impaired. There is usually
present some amount of sore throat and of bronchial irritation, causing
hoarseness and cough. Sometimes the vocal apparatus becomes so much
inflamed (laryngeal catarrh) that temporary loss of voice results. There
is always more or less feverishness and discomfort, and frequently an
extreme sensitiveness to cold. After two or three days the symptoms
begin to abate, the discharge from the nostrils and chest becoming
thicker and of purulent character, and producing when dislodged
considerable relief to the breathing. On the other hand the catarrh may
assume a more severe aspect and pass into some form of pulmonary
inflammation (see BRONCHITIS) or influenza (q.v.).
When the symptoms are first felt it is well to take a good purge, and to
encourage free perspiration by a hot bath, some diaphoretic drug, as
spirits of nitrous ether, being taken before retiring to bed. Some of
the older school of physicians still pin their faith to a dose of
Dover's powder. When the cold manifests itself by aches and pains in
back and limbs, aspirin taken three or four times in the first
twenty-four hours will often act like magic. Locally a snuff made of
menthol 1 part, ammonium chloride 3 parts and boracic acid 2 parts will
relieve the discomfort of the nose. Also, remembering the microbic
origin of the disease, gargling and nasal syringing should be repeated
at intervals. As soon as the attack shows signs of subsiding, a good
tonic and, still better, a change of air are very helpful.
The term catarrh is used in medical nomenclature in a wider sense to
describe a state of irritation of any mucous surface in the body, which
is accompanied with an abnormal discharge of its natural secretion,
hence the terms gastric catarrh, intestinal catarrh, &c.
See also RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_, and DIGESTIVE ORGANS,
_Pathology of_.
CATARRHINE APE, the term used to describe those apes which have the
nostrils approximated, the aperture pointing downward, and the
intervening septum narrow; distinguishing features of both the lower
"doglike" apes (Cynomorpha) and the higher "manlike" apes
(Anthropomorpha). The Catarrhini are restricted entirely to the Old
World, and include the gorilla, the chimpanzee and orang-utan.
CATASTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: katastrophe], from [Greek: katastrephein], to
overturn), a term of the ancient Greek drama for the change in the plot
which leads up to the conclusion. The word is thus used of any sudden
change, particularly of a violent or disastrous nature, and in geology
of a cataclysm or great convulsion of the earth's surface.
CATAUXI, a numerous cannibal tribe of South American Indians of the
Purus river district, Brazil. They are a fine warlike race, with
remarkably clear complexions and handsome features; round wrists and
ankles they wear rings of twisted hair. They cultivate mandioc, and make
pottery and bark canoes.
CATAWBAS (from the Choctaw for "divided"), a tribe of North American
Indians of Siouan stock; formerly the dominant people of South Carolina.
Some of their divisions extended into North Carolina. They are now
almost extinct, but were at one time able to send nearly 2000 "braves"
into battle. In the American War of Independence they furnished a
valuable contingent to the South Carolina troops. They then occupied a
number of small towns on the Catawba river, but they afterwards leased
their land and removed to the territory of the Cherokees, with whom they
had been formerly at war. There, however, they did not long remain, but
returned to a reservation in their original district. Their affinities
have not been very clearly made out, and by Albert Gallatin they were
grouped with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Muskogees and Natchez. A
vocabulary of sixty of their words was published by Horatio Hale in vol.
ii. of the _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_ in 1848;
and a much fuller list--about 300--collected by Oscar M. Lieber, the
geologist, in 1856, made its appearance in vol. ii. of _Collections of
the South Carolina Historical Society_, 1858. Of the one hundred
Catawbas still said to be surviving, few, if any, can claim to be
full-blooded. They are in the Catawba Reservation in York county, South
Carolina. The name is familiar in connexion with the white American
wine, the praises of which have been sung by Longfellow. The grape from
which the wine is obtained was first discovered about 1801, near the
banks of the Catawba river, and named by Major Adlum in 1828, but it is
now cultivated extensively in Illinois, Ohio and New York, and
especially on the shores of Lake Erie.
See also _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
CATCH THE TEN, sometimes Called _Scotch Whist_, a game played with a
pack of 36 cards, from ace, king, queen to six in each suit, the ace
being highest both in play and cutting. In trumps, however, the knave
ranks highest. Any number from two to eight may play. If an even number,
partners are cut for; if odd, each plays for himself. An odd number of
players sit as they like; four players sit as at whist; six playing in
two sides sit so that no two partners shall be next each other; six
playing three sides sit so that two opponents shall divide each pair;
eight are arranged in alternate pairs. After cutting, the cards are
dealt according to the number of players. The last card is turned up for
the trump. When five or seven play, the six of spades is usually
omitted; when eight play, the four sixes are thrown out. The eldest hand
leads any card he chooses and all must follow suit if able, the penalty
for a revoke being the loss of the game. The tricks are not kept
separate but gathered in by one player for his side. At the end of the
deal there are six hands of six cards on the table. The players first
play out the first two hands, next the second two and finally the last
two, the trump card remaining on the table until the first four hands
are played out. The game is 41 points, the object of the play being to
win the cards which have a special value. These are, with their values:
knave of trumps 11, ace of trumps 4, king of trumps 3, queen of trumps
2, ten of trumps 10. All other cards have no counting value. As the ten
can be taken by any other honour the object is to "catch the ten."
CATECHISM (from Gr. [Greek: katechein], teach by word of mouth), a
compendium of instruction (particularly of religious instruction)
arranged in the form of questions and answers. The custom of
catechizing, common to all civilized antiquity, was followed in the
schools of Judaism and in the Early Church, where it helped to preserve
the Gospel narrative (see CATECHUMEN).
The catechism as we know it is intended primarily for children and
uneducated persons. Its aim is to instruct, and it differs from a creed
or confession in not being in the first instance an act of worship or a
public profession of belief. The first regular catechisms seem to have
grown out of the usual oral teaching of catechumens, and to have been
compiled in the 8th and 9th centuries. Among them the work of Notker
Labeo and of Kero, both monks of St Gall, and that of Ottfried of
Weissenburg in Alsace deserve mention. But it is not until the first
stirrings of revolt against the hierarchy, which preceded the
Reformation, that they became at all widespread or numerous. The
Waldenses of Savoy and France, the _Brethren_ (small communities of
evangelical dissenters from the medieval faith) of Germany, and the
_Unitas Fratrum_ of Bohemia all used the same catechism (one that was
first printed in 1498, and which continued to be published till 1530)
for the instruction of their children. It was based on St Augustine's
_Enchiridion_, and considers (a) Faith, i.e. the Creed, (b) Hope, i.e.
the Lord's Prayer, and (c) Love, i.e. the Decalogue.
The age of the Reformation gave a great stimulus to the production of
catechisms. This was but natural at a time when the invention of
printing had thrown the Bible open to all, and carried the war of
religious opinion from the schools into the streets. The adherents of
the "old" and the "new" religions alike had to justify their views to
the unlearned as well as to the learned, and to give in simple formulas
their reasons for the faith that was in them. Moreover, in the universal
unrest and oversetting of all authority, Christianity itself was in
danger of perishing, not only as the result of the cultured paganism of
the Renaissance, but also through the brutish ignorance of the common
folk, deprived now of their traditional religious restraints. To the
urgency of this peril the reformers were fully alive; and they sought
its remedy in education. "Let the people be taught," said Luther, "let
schools be opened for the poor, let the truth reach them in simple words
in their own mother tongue, and they will believe."
_Catechisms of the Chief Religious Communions._--(a) _Evangelical
(Lutheran and Reformed)._--It was the ignorance of the peasantry, as
revealed by the horrors of the Peasants' War of 1524-25, and his
pastoral visitation of the electorate of Saxony 1525-1527, that drew the
above exclamation from Luther, and impelled him to produce his two
famous catechisms (1529). In 1520 he had brought out a primer of
religion dealing briefly with the Decalogue, the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer; and Justus Jonas, Johannes Agricola and other leaders had done
something of the same kind. Now all these efforts were superseded by
Luther's Smaller Catechism meant for the people themselves and
especially for children, and by his Larger Catechism intended for clergy
and schoolmasters. These works, which did much to mould the character of
the German people, were set among the doctrinal standards of the
Lutheran Church and powerfully influenced other compilations. The
Smaller Catechism, with the Augsburg Confession, was made the Rule of
Faith in Denmark in 1537.
In this same year (1537) John Calvin at Geneva published his catechism
for children. It was called _Instruction and Confession of Faith for the
Use of the Church of Geneva_ (a reprint edited by A. Rilliet and T.
Dufour Was published in 1878), and explained the Decalogue, the
Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sacraments. Though it was
meant, as he said, to give expression to a simple piety rather than to
exhibit a profound knowledge of religious truth, it was the work of a
man who knew little of the child mind, and, though it served as an
admirable and transparent epitome of his famous _Institutes_, it was too
long and too minute for the instruction of children. Calvin came to see
this, and in 1542, after his experience in Strassburg, drafted a new one
which was much more suitable for teaching purposes, though, judged by
modern standards, still far beyond the theological range of childhood.
It was used at the Sunday noon instruction of children, on which Calvin
laid much stress, and was adopted and similarly used by the Reformed
Church of Scotland. The Reformed churches of the Palatinate, on the
other hand, used the Heidelberg Catechism (1562-1563), "sweet-spirited,
experiential, clear, moderate and happily-phrased," mainly the work of
two of Calvin's younger disciples, Kaspar Olevianus and Zacharias
Ursinus. The Heidelberg Catechism, set forth by order of the elector, is
perhaps the most widely accepted symbol of the Calvinistic faith, and is
noteworthy for its emphasis on the less controversial aspects of the
Genevan theology. As revised by the synod of Dort in 1619, this
catechism became the standard of most of the Reformed churches of
central Europe, and in time of the Dutch and German Reformed churches of
America. Other compilations were those of Oecolampadius (Basel, 1526),
Leo Juda (Zurich, 1534), and Bullinger (Zurich, 1555). In France, after
Calvin's day, the Reformed church used besides Calvin's book the
catechisms of Louis Capell (1619), and Charles Drelincourt (1642), and
at the present time Bonnefon's _Nouveau Catechisme elementaire_ (14th
ed., 1900) seems most in favour. In Scotland both Calvin's Geneva
Catechism and then the Heidelberg Catechism were translated by order of
the General Assembly and annotated. In 1592 these were superseded by
that of John Craig, for a time the colleague of John Knox at the High
Church, Edinburgh.
Since 1648 the standard Presbyterian catechisms have been those compiled
by the Westminster Assembly, presented to parliament in 1647, and then
authorized by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (July 1648)
and by the Scottish parliament (January 1649). The Larger Catechism is
"for such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of the
Christian religion," but is too detailed and minute for memorizing, and
has never received anything like the reception accorded to the Shorter
Catechism, which is "for such as are of weaker capacity." The work was
done by a committee presided over first by Herbert Palmer, master of
Queens', Cambridge, and then by Anthony Tuckney, master of Emmanuel. The
scriptural proof texts were added at the request of the English
parliament. In his negotiations with the parliament in 1648 Charles I.
offered to license the printing of the catechism, but, as the
negotiations were broken off, this was not done. The Shorter Catechism,
after a brief introduction on the end, rule and essence of religion, is
divided into two parts:--I. The doctrines we are to believe (1)
concerning the nature of God, (2) concerning the decrees of God and
their execution--(a) in creation and providence, (b) in the covenant of
works, (c) in the covenant of grace; II. The duties we are to perform
(1) in regard to the moral law, (2) in regard to the gospel--(a) inward
duties, i.e. faith and repentance, (b) outward duties as to the Word,
the sacraments and prayer. It has 107 questions and answers, while that
of the Anglican Church has but 24, grouping as it does the ten
commandments and also the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, instead of
dealing with them singly. Though the Shorter Catechism, closely
associated as this has been from the first with Scottish public
elementary education, has had very great influence in forming and
training the character of Presbyterians in Scotland, America and the
British colonies, it is, like most other catechisms drawn up by dogmatic
theologians, more admirable as an epitome of a particular body of
divinity than as an instruction for the young and the unlearned. Its use
is now generally preceded by something more adapted to the child-mind,
and this is true also in other communions and in the case of other
catechisms.
(b) _Roman Catholic_.--There was no universal catechism published by the
Latin Church before the council of Trent, but several provincial
councils, e.g. in Germany and Scotland (where Archbishop Hamilton's
catechism appeared in 1552 and was ordered to be read in church by the
parish priest), moved in self-defence along the lines already adopted by
the reformers. The council of Trent in 1563 resolved on an authoritative
work which was finally carried through by two small papal commissions,
and issued in 1566 by Pius V. (Eng. trans, by Donovan, Dublin, 1829).
Being uncatechetical in form and addressed to the clergy rather than to
the people, it missed its intention, and was superseded by others of
less exalted origin, especially by those of the Jesuit Peter Canisius,
whose _Summa Doctrinae et Institutionis Christianae_ (1554) and its
shorter form (1556) were already in the field. The catechisms of
Bellarmine (1603) and Bossuet (1687) had considerable vogue, and a
summary of the former known as _Schema de Parvo_ was sanctioned by the
Vatican council of 1870. But the Roman Catholic Church as a whole has
never had any one official catechism, each bishop being allowed to
settle the matter for his own diocese. In England the Roman Catholic
bishops have agreed on the use of what is known as "The Penny
Catechism," which is very lucid and well constructed.
(c) _Orthodox Eastern Church._--Peter Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev,
drew up in 1643 the _Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic
Eastern Church_. This bulwark against the encroachments of the Jesuits
and the Reformed Church was standardized by the synod of Jerusalem in
1672. A smaller catechism was drawn up by order of Peter the Great in
1723. The catechisms of Levshin Platon (1762) and V.D. Philaret (1839),
each in his day metropolitan of Moscow, are bulky compilations which
cannot be memorized, though there is a short introductory catechism
prefaced to Philaret's volume (Eng. trans, in Blackmore's _Doctrine of
the Russian Church_, 1845). These works are not to any extent in the
hands of the people, but are used by the Russian clergy and
schoolmasters as guides in giving instruction. The Coptic and Armenian
churches also have what H. Bonar describes as "mere pretences at
catechisms."
(d) _Anglican._--The catechism of the Church of England is included in
the Book of Common Prayer between the Orders for Baptism and
Confirmation. It has two parts: (i.) the baptismal covenant, the Creed,
the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, drawn up probably by Cranmer[1] and
Ridley in the time of Edward VI., and variously modified between then
(1549) and 1661; (ii.) the meaning of the two sacraments, written on the
suggestion of James I. at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 by John
Overall, then dean of St Paul's, and afterwards bishop successively of
Coventry and Lichfield and of Norwich. This supplement to what had
become known as the Shorter Catechism established its use as against the
longer one, _King Edward VIth's Catechisme_, which had been drawn up in
1553 by John Ponet or Poynet, bishop of Winchester, and then revised and
enlarged in 1570 by Alexander Nowell, Overall's predecessor as dean of
St Paul's. The Anglican catechism with occasional modification,
especially in the sacramental section, is used not only in the Church of
England but in the Episcopal churches of Ireland, Scotland, the British
dominions and the United States of America. By the rubric of the Prayer
Book and by the 59th canon of 1603 the clergy are enjoined to teach the
catechism in church on Sundays and holidays after the second lesson at
Evening Prayer. This custom, long fallen into disuse, has largely been
revived during recent years, the children going to church for a special
afternoon service of which catechizing is the chief feature. Compared
with the thoroughness of most other catechisms this one seems very
scanty, but it has a better chance of being memorized, and its very
simplicity has given it a firm hold on the inner life and conscience of
devout members of the Anglican communion throughout the world.
(e) _Other Communions._--Almost every section of the church, e.g. the
Wesleyan Methodist, has its catechism or catechisms, but in addition to
those already enumerated only a few need be mentioned. The Socinians
embodied their tenets in the larger and smaller works drawn up by Fausto
Sozzini and Schmalz, and published at Rakow in Poland in 1605;[2] modern
Unitarians have modern catechisms. The Quakers or Friends possess a kind
of catechism said to have been written by George Fox in 1660, in which
father and son are respectively questioner and answerer, and an
interesting work by Robert Barclay, in which texts of Scripture form the
replies. Congregationalists for some time used Isaac Watts's _Catechisms
for Children and Youth_ (1730), since superseded by the manuals of J.H.
Stowell, J.H. Riddette and others. In 1898 the National Council of the
Evangelical Free Churches in England and Wales published an
_Evangelical Free Church Catechism_, the work of a committee (convened
by Rev. Hugh Price Hughes) comprising Congregationalists, Baptists,
Methodists (Wesleyan, Primitive and others), and Presbyterians, and thus
representing directly or indirectly the beliefs of sixty or seventy
millions of avowed Christians in all parts of the world, a striking
example of inter-denominational unity. More remarkable still in some
respects is _The School Catechism_, issued in 1907 by a conference of
members of the Reformed churches in Scotland, which met on the
invitation of the Church of Scotland. In its compilation representatives
of the Episcopal Church in Scotland co-operated, and the book though
"not designed to supersede the distinctive catechisms officially
recognized by the several churches for the instruction of their own
children," certainly "commends itself as suitable for use in schools
where children of various churches are taught together."
Catechisms have a strong family likeness. In the main they are
expositions of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Decalogue, and
thus follow a tradition that has come down from the days when Cyril of
Jerusalem delivered his catechetical Lectures. Even when (as in the
Shorter Westminster Catechism and the School Catechism) the Creed is
simply printed as an appendix, or where (as in the Free Church
Catechism) it is not mentioned at all, its substance is dealt with.
The order in which these three main themes are treated is by no means
constant. The Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms are of a more
logical and independent character. The former is based on the Epistle
to the Romans, and deals with the religious life as (1) Repentance,
(2) Faith, (3) Love. Under these heads it discusses respectively the
sin and misery of men, the redemption wrought by Christ (here are
included the Creed and the Sacraments), and the grateful service of
the new life (the Decalogue).
It may be noted that Sir Oliver Lodge has adopted the catechetical
form in his book, _The Substance of Faith Allied with Science_ (1907),
which is described as "a catechism for parents and teachers."
See Ehrenfeuchter, _Geschichte des Katechismus_ (1857); P. Schaff,
_History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (3 vols., 1876-1877); Mitchell,
_Catechisms of the Second Reformation_ (1887); C. Achelis, _Lehrbuch
der prakt. Theologie_ (2 vols., 1898); L. Pullan, _History of the Book
of Common Prayer_, pp. 207-208; E.A. Knox, _Pastors and Teachers_
(1902), chs. iii. and iv.; W. Beveridge, _A Short History of the
Westminster Assembly_ (1904), ch. x. (A. J. G.)