[1] If Bacon was the author of _The Christian Paradoxes_, his
philosophical standpoint in reference to religion was not only less
advanced than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it.
HOOKER, THOMAS (1586-1647), New England theologian, was born, probably
on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the parish of Tilton, County of
Leicester, England. He graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, the intellectual centre of Puritanism,
remained there as a fellow for a few years, and then preached in the
parish of Esher in Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church
of St Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and Sunday
afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable for their moral
fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures to suppress church
lectureships, which were an innovation of Puritanism. Hooker was placed
under bond and retired to Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630
he was cited to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he
forfeited his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated to
the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became pastor at
Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company of Puritans who had
arrived from England in the previous year and in expectation of his
joining them were called "Mr Hooker's Company." Hooker seems to have
been a leader in the formation of that sentiment of discontent with the
Massachusetts government which resulted in the founding of Connecticut.
He publicly criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members,
and, according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard (_General
History of New England_), "after Mr Hooker's coming over it was observed
that many of the freemen grew to be very jealous of their liberties." He
was a leader of the emigrants who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut.
In a sermon before the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared
that "the choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God's
own allowance" and that "they who have the power to appoint officers and
magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the bounds and
limitations of the power and place unto which they call them." Though
this theory was in advance of the age, Hooker had no idea of the
separation of church and state--"the privilege of election, which
belongs to the people," he said, must be exercised "according to the
blessed will and law of God." He also defended the right of magistrates
to convene synods, and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639),
which he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed.
Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on the 7th of
July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which preceded the
formation of the New England Confederation in 1643. In the same year he
attended the meeting of Puritan ministers at Boston, whose object was to
defend Congregationalism, and he wrote a _Survey of the Summe of Church
Discipline_ (1648) in justification of the New England church system.
His other works deal chiefly with the experimental phases of religion,
especially the experience precedent to conversion. In _The Soule's
Humiliation_ (1637), he assigns as a test of conversion a willingness of
the convert to be damned if that be God's will, thus anticipating the
doctrine of Samuel Hopkins in the following century.
See George L. Walker's _Thomas Hooker_ (New York, 1891); the appendix
of which contains a bibliography of Hooker's published works.
HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785-1865), English botanist, was born at
Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a
member of the same family as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much
of his time to the study of German literature and the cultivation of
curious plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich, on
leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel and to take up
as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and
entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the
recommendation of Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a
rare moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in the
summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks; but the natural
history specimens which he collected, with his notes and drawings, were
lost on the homeward voyage through the burning of the ship, and the
young botanist himself had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory,
however, aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its
inhabitants and flora (_Tour in Iceland_, 1809), privately circulated in
1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive
preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, with a
view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the disturbed state of
the island led to the abandonment of the projected expedition. In 1814
he spent nine months in botanizing excursions in France, Switzerland and
northern Italy, and in the following year he married the eldest daughter
of Mr Dawson Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth,
Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which
became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816 appeared the
_British Jungermanniae_, his first scientific work, which was succeeded
by a new edition of William Curtis's _Flora Londinensis_, for which he
wrote the descriptions (1817-1828); by a description of the _Plantae
cryptogamicae_ of A. von Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the _Muscologia
Britannica_, a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and
Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818); and by his
_Musci exotici_ (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new foreign mosses and
other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he accepted the regius professorship
of botany in Glasgow University where he soon became popular as a
lecturer, his style being both clear and ready. The following year he
brought out the _Flora Scotica_, in which the natural method of
arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial.
Subsequently he prepared or edited many works, the more important being
the following:--
_Botanical Illustrations_ (1822); _Exotic Flora_, indicating such of
the specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827);
_Account of Sabine's Arctic Plants_ (1824); _Catalogue of Plants in
the Glasgow Botanic Garden_ (1825); the _Botany of Parry's Third
Voyage_ (1826); _The Botanical Magazine_ (38 vols., 1827-1865);
_Icones Filicum_, in concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols.,
1829-1831); _British Flora_, of which several editions appeared,
undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. (1830); _British Flora
Cryptogamia_ (1833); _Characters of Genera from the British Flora_
(1830); _Flora Boreali-Americana_ (2 vols., 1840), being the botany of
British North America collected in Sir J. Franklin's voyage; _The
Journal of Botany_ (4 vols., 1830-1842); _Companion to the Botanical
Magazine_ (2 vols., 1835-1836); _Icones plantarum_ (10 vols.,
1837-1854); the _Botany of Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific and
Behring's Straits_ (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the _Genera Filicum_
(1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with
additions and descriptive letterpress; _The London Journal of Botany_
(7 vols., 1842-1848); _Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of
the Erebus and Terror_ (1843); _Species filicum_ (5 vols., 1846-1864),
the standard work on this subject; _A Century of Orchideae_ (1846);
_Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany_ (9 vols., 1849-1857);
_Niger Flora_ (1849); _Victoria Regia_ (1851); _Museums of Economic
Botany at Kew_ (1855); _Filices exoticae_ (1857-1859); _The British
Ferns_ (1861-1862); _A Century of Ferns_ (1854); _A Second Century of
Ferns_ (1860-1861).
It was mainly by Hooker's exertions that botanists were appointed to the
government expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium
received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and
his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a
knight of Hanover in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the
Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton. Under
his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres, with an
arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum
of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the _Synopsis
filicum_ with J. G. Baker when he was attacked by a throat disease then
epidemic at Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865.
HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist, son of a
watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at Moorfields, London,
in December 1727. He was educated at a private school at Hoddesdon,
Hertfordshire, kept by James Bennet, who edited Ascham's English works.
At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants' department
of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the auditors of
Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to the study of Latin and
especially Italian, and began writing translations of the chief works of
the Italian poets. He published translations of the _Jerusalem
Delivered_ of Tasso in 1763, the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto in
1773-1783, the _Dramas_ of Metastasio in 1767, and _Rinaldo_, an early
work of Tasso, in 1792. Among his plays are: _Cyrus_ (1768), _Timanthes_
(1770) and _Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia_ (1775), none of which
achieved success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with whom
he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth and flowing,
they cannot be commended for any other merit. His translation of the
_Orlando Furioso_ was superseded by the version (1823-1831) of W. S.
Rose. Hoole was also the friend of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell
(1730-1783), whose life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott's _Critical
Essays_ (1785). In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian
accounts, an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the
parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden, Kent,
dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803.
See _Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole_, by his
surviving brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are
reprinted in J. Bell's _British Theatre_ (1797).
HOOLIGAN, the generally accepted modern term for a young street ruffian
or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to the young street
ruffians of the South-East of London about 1890, but though popular in
the district, did not attract general attention till later, when
authentic information of its origin was lost, but it appears that the
most probable source was a comic song which was popular in the
lower-class music-hall in the late 'eighties or early 'nineties, which
described the doings of a rowdy family named Hooligan (i.e. Irish
Houlihan). A comic character with the same name also appears to have
been the central figure in a series of adventures running through an
obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and also in a
similar New York paper, where his confrere in the adventures is a German
named Schneider (see _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227
and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p. 115, 1901). In other
countries the "hooligan" finds his counterpart. The Parisian _Apache_,
so self-styled after the North American Indian tribe, is a much more
dangerous character; mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English
"hooligan," is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally
dangerous class of young street ruffian is the "hoodlum" of the United
States of America; this term arose in San Francisco in 1870, and thence
spread. Many fanciful origins of the name have been given, for some of
which see _Manchester (N.H.) Notes and Queries_, September 1883 (cited
in the _New English Dictionary_). The "plug-ugly" of Baltimore is
another name for the same class. More familiar is the Australian
"larrikin," which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne. The
story that the word represents an Irish policeman's pronunciation of
"larking" is a mere invention. It is probably only an adaptation of the
Irish "Larry," short for Lawrence. Others suggest that it is a
corruption of the slang _Leary Kinchen_, i.e. knowing, wide-awake child.
HOOPER, JOHN (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and martyr,
was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th century and graduated
B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to have then entered the Cistercian
monastery at Gloucester; but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the
names of the Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars
at Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper was
likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire; but identification
of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful. The _Greyfriars'
Chronicle_ says that Hooper was "sometime a white monk"; and in the
sentence pronounced against him by Gardiner he is described as "_olim
monachus de Cliva Ordinis Cisterciensis_," i.e. of the Cistercian house
at Cleeve in Somerset. On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not
accused, like the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of
infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger are
curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there speaks of
himself as being the only son and heir of his father and as fearing to
be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted the reformed religion.
Before 1546 he had secured employment in the household of Sir Thomas
Arundell, a man of influential connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at
this period as being "a courtier and living too much of a court life in
the palace of our king." But he chanced upon some of Zwingli's works and
Bullinger's commentaries on St Paul's epistles; and after some
molestation in England and some correspondence with Bullinger on the
lawfulness of complying against his conscience with the established
religion, he determined to secure what property he could and take refuge
on the continent. He had an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned,
driven about for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the
midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de Tserclaes, and
later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zurich, where his Zwinglian
convictions were confirmed by constant intercourse with Zwingli's
successor, Bullinger.
It was not until May 1549, after he had published various works at
Zurich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He at once became the
principal champion of Swiss Protestantism against the Lutherans as well
as the Catholics, and was appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset.
Somerset's fall in the following October endangered Hooper's position,
and for a time he was in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom,
more especially as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and
Bonner, whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick,
afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the reactionaries
in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation resumed its course.
Hooper became Warwick's chaplain, and after a course of Lent lectures
before the king he was offered the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to
a prolonged controversy; Hooper had already denounced the "Aaronic
vestments" and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and
he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer, Ridley,
Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement to his house
by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual; and it was not until
he had spent some weeks in the Fleet prison that the "father of
nonconformity" consented to conform, and Hooper submitted to
consecration with the legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551).
Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal duties with
exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese (printed in _English
Hist. Rev._ Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed a condition of almost
incredible ignorance among his clergy. Fewer than half could say the Ten
Commandments; some could not even repeat the Lord's Prayer in English.
Hooper did his best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year
the bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and added to
Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession to Nicholas
Heath (q.v.). He was opposed to Northumberland's plot for the exclusion
of Mary from the throne; but this did not save him from speedy
imprisonment. He was sent to the Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a
doubtful charge of debt to the queen; but the real cause was his
stanchness to a religion which was still by law established. Edward
VI.'s legislation was, however, repealed in the following month, and in
March 1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man. There
was still no statute by which he could be condemned to the stake, but
Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of the heresy acts in
December 1554 was swiftly followed by execution. On the 29th of January
1555, Hooper, Rogers, Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by
Gardiner and degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at
Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting his fate
with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction.
Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his Zwinglian
views placed him further beyond the pale than Cranmer, Ridley and
Latimer. He represented the extreme reforming party in England. While he
expressed dissatisfaction with some of Calvin's earlier writings, he
approved of the _Consensus Tigurinus_ negotiated in 1549 between the
Zwinglians and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of
religion that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of
Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative
theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to narrow limits; and his
views had considerable influence on the Puritans of Elizabeth's reign,
when many editions of Hooper's various works were published.
Two volumes of Hooper's writings are included in the Parker Society's
publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in 1855. See also
Gough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's _Works_ (General
Index); Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. Townsend; _Acts of the Privy
Council; Cal. State Papers_, "Domestic" Series; Nichols's _Lit.
Remains of Edward VI._; Burner, Collier, Dixon, Froude and Gairdner's
histories; Pollard's _Cranmer; Dict. Nat. Biogr._ (A. F. P.)
HOOPOE (Fr. _Huppe_, Lat. _Upupa_, Gr. [Greek: epops]--all names
bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in literature,
and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its large erectile
crest,[1] the _Upupa epops_ of naturalists, which is the type of the
very peculiar family _Upupidae_, placed by Huxley in his group
_Coccygomorphae_, but considered by Dr Murie (_Ibis_, 1873, p. 208) to
deserve separate rank as _Epopomorphae_. This species has an exceedingly
wide range in the Old World, being a regular summer-visitant to the
whole of Europe, in some parts of which it is abundant, as well as to
Siberia, mostly retiring southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial
Africa and India, though it would seem to be resident throughout the
year in north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily
seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as is
testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes its
appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts), and also
by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly mount to an
extreme height and frequently effect its escape from the enemy. About
the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed and slightly arched bill, its
head and neck are of a golden-buff--the former adorned by the crest
already mentioned, which begins to rise from the forehead and consists
of broad feathers, gradually increasing in length, tipped with black and
having a subterminal bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back
is of a vinous-grey, and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black,
broadly barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is
black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third part of
its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for running or walking
as for perching, and the scutellations are continued round the whole of
the tarsi. Chiefly on account of this character, which is also possessed
by the larks, Sundevall (_Tentamen_, pp. 53-55) united the _Upupidae_
and _Alaudidae_ in the same "cohors" _Holaspideae_. Comparative anatomy,
however, forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between
these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no means so
striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the coloration in
certain larks (of the genus _Certhilauda_, for instance), must be
ascribed to analogy merely.
[Illustration: Hoopoe.]
Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly parades its
showy plumage, some of its habits are much the reverse. All observers
agree in stating that it delights to find its food among filth of the
most abominable description, and this especially in its winter-quarters.
But where it breeds, its nest, usually in the hole of a tree or of a
wall, is not only partly composed of the foulest material, but its
condition becomes worse as incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely
ever leaves her eggs, being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and
when the young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their
parents,[2] as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the
immediate neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which
can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally form the
hoopoes' food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn that they are
esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries of southern Europe,
and especially by the Christian population of Constantinople.[3]
Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in some part or
other of the British Islands, most often in spring, and if unmolested
would doubtless stop to breed in them, and a few instances are known in
which it has done so. But its remarkable plumage always attracts
attention, and it is generally shot down so soon as it is seen, and
before it has time to begin a nest. Eight or nine so-called species of
the genus have been described, but of them the existence of five only
has been recognized by Sharpe and Dresser (_Birds of Europe_, pt. vii.).
Besides the _Upupa epops_ above treated, these are _U. indica_, resident
in India and Ceylon; _U. longirostris_, which seems to be the form of
the Indo-Chinese countries; _U. marginata_, peculiar to Madagascar; and
_U. africana_ or _U. minor_ of some writers, which inhabits South Africa
to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on the west coast. In habits and
appearance they all resemble the best-known and most widely-spread
species.[4] (A. N.)