The earlier revolutions against Spain were actuated by well-defined
causes. They have been summarized as follows:
[Causes of Earlier Revolutions]
(1) Denial of freedom of speech and press; (2) desire for Filipino
representation; (3) proceedings by which a man was condemned without
being heard; (4) violation of domicile and correspondence on mere
secret denunciations; (5) agitation for the secularization of parishes;
(6) political and civil equality for Filipinos and Spaniards; (7)
desire for promulgation of the Spanish Constitution in the Philippines;
and (7) the martyrdom of Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora, and later of Rizal.
[The Revolution of 1896]
The revolution of 1896, however, had an additional cause which was
dominant in the minds of the leaders. It was "Liberty, Equality,
and Fraternity." In the words of General Aguinaldo in a manifesto,
"We aspire to the glory of obtaining the Liberty, Independence,
and Honor of the Country."
[The Pact of Biac-na-Bato]
This revolution was halted in 1897 by the Pact of Biac-na-Bato,
which was signed between the Revolutionists and the Spanish
authorities. There were three outstanding stipulations in the pact:
First, that the Filipino leaders should leave the country for the
time being.
Second, that liberal and sweeping reforms would be introduced without
delay.
Third, that the sum of $800,000 would be paid the Filipinos in two
instalments, as evidence of good faith.
The Filipinos complied with their part of the agreement; Aguinaldo and
his followers went to Hongkong. But the Spaniards did not comply with
theirs; only $400,000 was paid to the revolutionists and no reforms
were introduced.
[The Republic]
Accordingly, Aguinaldo and his companions returned to the Islands
and renewed the struggle. On June 12, 1898 at Kawit, Cavite, they
proclaimed the Independence of the Philippines from Spain. Soon
afterwards a Philippine Republic was ratified, with General Aguinaldo
as President. The capital was established at Malolos about 30 miles
from Manila. There an elective Congress sat regularly, passed laws,
levied taxes, administered revenues, kept in motion the machinery of
justice, directed a military organization, carried on efficient war
and constantly appealed to the patriotism of the people.
[Governmental Machinery Set Up]
A complete governmental machinery was set up. The government was
declared to be "popular, representative, and responsible." Church
and state were made separate, and, profiting by the experience of
the past, freedom of religious worship was expressly recognized in
the Constitution. The powers of government were made to reside in
three distinct entities--the legislative, the executive, and the
judicial, to be entirely separate. It was declared that no two of
these powers should be vested in a single person or corporation,
nor can the legislative power be conferred on a single individual
alone. The government was recognized throughout the islands and had
the wholehearted support of the entire population.
At the time America insisted in imposing her sovereignty and authority
not only were the Filipinos in military control of the country; they
were administering its political affairs as well. This they did from
the establishment of the Republic until the autumn of 1899. "Up to
that time," writes Albert G. Robinson, of the New York Evening Post,
"the territory occupied by the forces of the United States in the
Island of Luzon was confined to a very limited area in the vicinity
of Manila, with a filamentary extension northward for some fifty
or sixty miles along the Manila-Dagupan railway. Very much the
same condition obtained on the other islands. One thing is certain:
although greatly disturbed by the conditions of war, this territory
was under some form of governmental administration."
THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION.--The fundamental law that had been prepared
and adopted by the independent government has since then been known as
the "Malolos Constitution." This Philippine Magna Carta embodied the
advanced thought of the times and was replete with sound principles. It
had all the requisites of a "fundamental law of the land"--an
enumeration of individual rights, the organization of the state
and of the government, provisions pertaining to the public welfare
(such as education, appropriation, the militia, local government,
impeachment, etc.) and provisions for constitutional revisions.
[Salient Features]
The Parliamentary System of government was adopted as best suited to
the needs of the archipelago. Sovereignty was to reside in the people
through their duly elected representatives. The aim throughout was to
adopt a government and a social order essentially democratic, without
those privileges of caste or classes which were the determinant causes
of the revolution. The popular assembly was to be the directing power.
The following progressive principles were enunciated:
(1) That no one should be tried in courts created by private laws or by
special tribunals; (2) that throughout the republic there should not be
more than one kind of court for all citizens both in civil, criminal,
and military actions; (3) that no person or corporation should be given
emoluments that were not as compensation for public service fixed
by law; (4) there shall be no primogeniture nor should decorations
and titles of nobility be accepted; (5) that every Filipino citizen
shall enjoy the right of meeting, association, petition, and liberty
of the press; (6) freedom of religious worship throughout the land and
inviolability of domicile, correspondence, and property; (7) the right
of habeas corpus; (8) gratuitous and compulsory public instruction;
(9) taxes to be in proportion to the income of the taxpayers.
The legislative power was vested in an unicameral assembly. The
representatives elected by the people were to be representatives of
the entire nation and could not bind themselves to specific mandates
from their constituents.
The President of the republic and the Assembly were to initiate laws.
Impeachment of high officials of the government was unhesitatingly
made a part of the fundamental law. Even the President of the republic
could be impeached in cases of high treason.
A permanent commission was created to take the place of the assembly
during recess, the motive behind its creation being that legislative
bodies should be permanent because the popular will works continually
and consequently should be continually represented in the governmental
machinery.
The permanent commission was to be composed of seven members elected
by the assembly from among its members. Its powers were:
(1) To declare if a certain official of the government should be
impeached; (2) to convene the assembly to an extraordinary session in
cases in which it should constitute itself into a tribunal of justice
to consider impeachments; (3) to resolve all pending questions with
a view to bringing them before the assembly for consideration; (4) to
convoke the assembly to special sessions whenever these are necessary;
(5) to substitute the assembly in its power regarding the. constitution
with the exception that the permanent commission can not pass laws.
The executive power was vested in the President of the Republic who
exercised it through his secretaries.
The President of the Republic was elected by the constituent assembly
by an absolute majority of votes. His term of office was four years
but might be reëlected. The powers of the President were expressly
enumerated. The secretaries of departments constituted the Cabinet,
presided over by the President. There were seven departments--foreign
relations; interior; finance; war and navy; public instruction;
communications and public works; agriculture, industry, and commerce.
Ministerial responsibility was established so that whenever a cabinet
had lost the confidence of the majority of the assembly its members
were morally bound to resign.
The judicial power was vested in a supreme court and in such other
tribunals as might be created by law. The judiciary was made absolutely
independent of the legislative and executive departments. The chief
justice and the attorney-general were appointed by the Assembly with
the concurrence of the President and of the cabinet.
Provinces and municipalities were given administrative autonomy. The
central government intervened in their acts only when they over-stepped
their powers to the prejudice of general or individual interests.
A Constituent Assembly was to be convened in case of an election
of the President of the Republic and whenever there were proposed
changes in the constitution. In either of these two cases the regular
assembly was dissolved by the President and the Constituent Assembly
convoked. The constituent assembly was to be composed of the same
members of the regular assembly plus special representatives.
Such was the framework of the governmental machinery created by the
first republican constitution ever promulgated in the East. In the
words of General Aguinaldo, the Constitution was "the most glorious
note in the noble aspirations of the Philippine revolution and is
an irrefutable proof before the civilized world of the culture and
capacity of the Filipino people to govern themselves."
Comments of Foreigners.--The comments of unbiased foreigners on
this ill-fated attempt of the Filipino people to live an independent
existence all point to the fact that the Republic together with the
constitution the independent government had established was a great
work of an unquestionably able people.
John Barrett, ex-director of the Pan-American Union, saw the Philippine
Republic in operation, and described it as follows:
"It is a government which has practically been administering
the affairs of that great island, 'Luzon' since the American
possession of Manila, and is certainly better than the former
administration. It had a properly formed Cabinet and Congress,
the members of which, in appearance and manners, would compare
favorably with the Japanese statesmen."
Admiral Dewey, after studying Philippine conditions, during the
Spanish-American War, spoke of the Filipinos as follows:
"In my opinion, these people are far more superior in intelligence
and more capable of self-government than the natives of Cuba. I
am familiar with both races."
General Merrit, on his arrival in Paris in October, 1898, was reported
as saying:
"The Filipinos impressed me very favorably. I think great injustice
has been done to the native population.... They are more capable
of self-government than, I think, the Cubans are. They are
considered to be good Catholics. They have lawyers, doctors,
the men of kindred professions, who stand well in the community,
and bear favorable comparison to those of other countries. They
are dignified, courteous, and reserved."
Leonard Sargent, a naval cadet, and W. B. Wilcox, paymaster of the
Navy, after travelling over the Island of Luzon, at that time wrote
a report of their trip, which was referred by Admiral Dewey to the
Navy Department with the indorsement that it was "the most complete
information obtainable." Mr. Sargent remarked:
"Although this government has never been recognized, and in all
probability will go out of existence without recognition, yet,
it cannot be denied that, in a region occupied by many millions
of inhabitants, for nearly six months, it stood alone between
anarchy and order.
"As a tribute to the efficiency of Aguinaldo's government and
to the law-abiding character of his subjects, I offer the fact
that Mr. Wilcox and I pursued our journey throughout in perfect
security, and returned to Manila with only the most pleasing
recollections of the quiet and orderly life which we found the
natives to be leading under the new régime."