prevails in the neighbourhood of Cong, near Oughterard in Ireland.
It is well described in the following account of their tour by Mr.
and Mrs. S. C. Hall:--"On the way to Joyce's Country we saw heaps of
piled-up stones on either side of the road; these heaps continuing
for above a mile, after their commencement a short distance from the
western entrance to the town. The artist may convey a better notion
of their peculiar character than any written description can do. We
left our car to examine them minutely; and learned they were monuments
to the memory of "deceased" persons, "erected" by their surviving
friends. Upon death occurring, the primitive tumulus is built,--if
that may be called building which consists in placing a few large
stones upon a spot previously unoccupied. Each relative of the dead
adds to the heap; and in time it becomes a "mountain" of tolerable
size. Each family knows its own particular monument; and a member of,
or a descendant from it, prays and leaves his offering only at that
especial one. The custom has endured for many generations: some of the
heaps bore tokens of great age; and one was pointed out to us of which
there were records, in the transferred memories of the people, for at
least 500 years. The bodies are in no instance buried here--it is not
consecrated earth; the monuments are merely memorials, and no doubt
originated at a period when a Roman Catholic was, according to the
provisions of a law equally foolish and cruel, interred, without form
or ceremony, in church ground--the ground that had been the property
of their ancestors. None of these stone cairns have any masonwork, and
they are generally of the rudest forms, or rather without any form,
the stones having been carelessly cast one upon another. Upon one of
them only could we discover any inscription--this one is introduced
into the print; it is built with far more than the usual care; it
contained an inscription; "Pray for y{e} soule of John Joyce, & Mary
Joyce, his wife, died 1712;" some of them, however, seem to have been
constructed with greater care than others, and many of them were topped
with a small wooden cross. We estimated that there were at least 500
of these primitive monuments--of all shapes and sizes--along the road.
In each of them we observed a small hollow, which the peasants call
a "window;" most of these were full of pebbles, and upon inquiry we
learned that when one of the race to whom the deceased belonged kneels
by the side of this record to his memory and offers up a prayer for
the repose of his soul, it is customary to fling a little stone into
this "cupboard;" the belief being that gradually as it fills, so,
gradually, the soul is relieved from punishment in purgatory; when
completely full the soul has entered paradise. We have prolonged our
description of this singular and interesting scene, because it seems to
have been altogether overlooked by travellers, and because we believe
that nothing like it is to be met with in any other part of Ireland;
although similar objects are to be found in several other places about
Connemara, none of them, however, are so extensive as this which
adjoins Cong."
[Illustration: [++] Primitive Monuments.]
HINDOO ADORATION OF THE SALAGRAM.
[Illustration: [++] Hindoo Adoration of the Salagram.]
Among the many forms which Vishnu is believed by his Hindoo worshippers
to have assumed is that of the Salagram--an ammonite-stone, found in
the river Gandaka and other streams flowing from the Himalayas. The
reason for the worship of this is stated in one of the sacred books.
"Vishnu created the nine planets to preside over the fates of men.
Sani (Saturn) proposed commencing his reign by taking Brahma under his
influence for twelve years. The matter was referred to Vishnu, who
being equally averse to be placed under the inauspicious influence of
this planet, requested him to call the next day. The next day Saturn
could nowhere discover Vishnu, but perceived that he had united himself
to the mountain Gandaka; he entered the mountain in the form of a
worm called Vajrakita (the thunderbolt worm). He continued to afflict
the mountain-formed Vishnu for twelve years, when Vishnu assumed his
proper shape, and commanded that the stones of this mountain should be
worshipped, and become proper representatives of himself; adding that
each should have twenty marks in it, similar to those on his body, and
that its name should be Salagram."
The Salagram is usually placed under a tulasi-tree, which is planted
on the top of a pillar in the vicinity of a temple of Vishnu, or near
a house. Tulasi, a female, desired to become Vishnu's wife, but was
metamorphosed by Lakshmi into a tree, a small shrub, called therefore
_Tulasi_, or holy basil (Ocymum Sanctum). Vishnu, however, promised
to assume the form of a Salagram, and always continue with her. The
Vaishnaya priests, therefore, keep one leaf of the shrub under and
another over the Salagram, and thus pay their adorations to the stone
and the tree. In the evening a lamp is placed near it. In the month
of May it is watered from a pot suspended over it, as appears in the
engraving, which represents a person engaged in the worship at this
singular shrine.
TOMB OF THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN AT INSPRUCK.
This majestic tomb is placed in the centre of the middle aisle of the
church, upon a platform approached by steps of red marble. The sides
of the tomb are divided into twenty-four compartments, of the finest
Carrara marble, on which are represented, in bas-relief, the most
interesting events of the emperor's warlike and prosperous career. The
workmanship of the tablets is exquisite; and, taken in connexion with
the lofty deeds they record, they form the most princely decorations
ever seen. Each of the tablets contributing to this splendid
lithobiography is in size 2 feet 4 inches by 1 foot 8 inches; and every
object contained therein is in the most perfect proportion, while the
exquisite finish of the heads and draperies requires a magnifying glass
to do it justice. The tomb is surmounted by a colossal figure in bronze
of the emperor, kneeling in the act of prayer; and around it are four
allegorical figures, of smaller size, also in bronze.
But, marvellous as is the elaborate beauty of this work, it is far from
being the most remarkable feature of this imperial mausoleum. Ranged in
two long lines, as if to guard it, stand twenty-eight colossal statues
in bronze, of whom twenty are kings and princes, alliances of the house
of Hapsburg, and eight their stately dames. Anything more impressive
than the appearance of these tall dark guardians of the tomb, some clad
in regal robes, some cased in armour, and all seeming animated by the
mighty power of the artist, it would be difficult to imagine.
In the death-like stillness of the church, the visitor who, for the
first time, contemplates this tomb and its gloomy guard, is struck by
a feeling of awe, approaching to terror. The statues, with life-like
individuality of attitude and expression--each solemn, mournful,
dignified, and graceful; and all seeming to dilate before the eye into
enormous dimensions, and, as if framed to scare intruders, endowed by
a power more than mortal, to keep watch and ward round the mighty dead.
They appear like an eternal procession of mourners, who, while earth
endures, will cease not to gaze on, mourn over, and protect the relics
of him who was the glory of their noble, long since fallen race.
THE FAYENCE OF HENRY II. OF FRANCE.
The earliest known fabric of this earthenware is that mysterious and
unique manufacture of the "Renaissance," the fine Fayence of Henry
II. The manufacture of this ware, which was at once carried to a high
degree of perfection, seems to have been suddenly and unaccountably
lost, without leaving any record of where or by whom it was produced.
By many it is supposed to be of Florentine manufacture, and to have
been sent by some of the relations of Catherine de Medicis as a present
to Henry II.; but it differs too essentially from Italian Majolica,
both in the paste of which it is composed, and in the style in which
it is decorated, to warrant such a conjecture. Italy does not possess
in her museums a single specimen of this ware, and of the thirty-seven
pieces extant, twenty-seven have been traced as coming from Touraine
and La Vendee. Many antiquaries, therefore, infer that the manufacture
was at Thouars, in Touraine, although the Fayence may have been the
work of an Italian artist.
But if the place of its manufacture is unknown, the pieces extant
clearly attest the period of its fabrication. The Salamander, and
other insignia of Francis I., are met with on the earlier specimens of
this pottery; but upon the majority of pieces, upon those more pure
in design and more beautiful in execution than the preceding, we find
the arms of Henry II., with his device, the three crescents, or his
initial H, interlaced with the two D's of the Duchesse de Valentinois.
Indeed, so constantly do her emblems appear upon the pieces, that the
ware, though usually designated as "Faience de Henri II.," is sometimes
styled "Faience de Diane de Poitiers." Even her widow's colours, black
and white, are the two which are employed in some of the finest pieces.
They were the fashionable colours of the court, Henry wore no others
during his life, and was attired in them in the fatal tournament in
which he fell. Her _impresa_, the crescent of Diana, is conspicuous on
his palaces, and he even caused it to be engraved upon his coins. From
these circumstances we must, therefore, conclude that the manufacture
of this ware began at the end of the reign of Francis I., was continued
under that of Henry II., and, as we find upon it the emblems of these
two princes only, we may naturally infer that it is of French origin.
The paste of which this Fayence is composed is equally distinct from
Majolica and Palissy ware. The two latter are both soft, whereas this,
on the contrary, is hard. It is a true pipeclay, very fine, and very
white, so as not to require, like the Italian Fayence, to be concealed
by a thick enamel, and the ornaments with which it is enriched are
simply covered with a thin, transparent, yellowish varnish.
The style of decoration in this ware is unique. Patterns or arabesques,
are engraved on the paste, and the indentures filled with coloured
pastes, so as to present an uniform, smooth surface, of the finest
inlaying, or resembling, rather, a model of Cellini's silver work,
chiselled and worked in niello. Hence it is sometimes styled "Faience
a niellure." These patterns are sometimes disposed in zones of yellow
ochre, with borders of dark brown, sometimes of a pink, green, violet,
black, or blue; but the dark yellow ochre is the predominant colour.
[Illustration: [++] Fayence Candlestick.]
The collection of the late M. Preaux was the richest in the world in
the most beautiful examples of Fayence; it was disposed of by auction
about twelve years ago, in consequence of the death of the proprietor,
and the choicest specimen in it was the candlestick, of which we give
a figure, and which was purchased by Sir Anthony de Rothschild for
about L220, duty included. The surface is exquisitely enriched with
arabesque patterns, either in black upon a white ground, or in white
upon a black. The form is monumental, and in the finest style; three
figures of genii support escutcheons, bearing the arms of France,
and the double D. These genii stand upon masks, which are united by
garlands enamelled in green. The top of the candlestick terminates
in the form of a vase, and bears inscribed the fleurs-de-lys and the
monogram of our Saviour. This piece, for delicacy of detail and beauty
of execution, is unequalled by any specimen known of this exquisite
Fayence. Sir Anthony de Rothschild also purchased at M. Preaux's sale a
small cup, decorated in the same style, with the descents interlaced,
for which he gave 1300 francs. He, therefore, now is fortunate in
having the finest collection known of this ware, as, in addition to
the specimens already mentioned, he possesses two exquisite ewers of
the Henry II. Fayence. One he purchased at the sale of the Comte de
Monville for 2300 francs; the other, with a curious handle of elaborate
workmanship, he bought for nineteen guineas at Strawberry Hill, where
he also purchased a tripod salt-cellar, supported with scroll ornaments
for L21.
REFRESHMENTS FOR THE PULPIT.
In the books of Darlington parish church, the following items appear,
showing that, in the olden time, provision was made for comforting the
inner man: "Six quarts of sack to the minister who preached when he had
no minister to assist, 9s. For a quart of sack bestowed on Jillett,
when he preached, 2s. 6d. For a pint of brandy when Mr. George Bill
preached here, 1s. 4d. For a stranger who preached, a dozen of ale.
When the Dean of Durham preached here, spent in a treat in the house,
3s. 6d." This would hardly be considered orthodox at the present day.
BEDESMEN IN THE TIME OF HENRY VII.
[Illustration: [++] Bedesmen.]
Most of the monasteries in former times had hospitals of poor men and
women attached to them; generally either within the precincts or near
adjoining. Thus, at St. Edmund's Bury, there was St. John's Hospital,
or God's House, without the South Gate, and St. Nicholas' Hospital
without the East Gate, and St. Peter's Hospital without the Risby Gate,
and St. Saviour's Hospital without the North Gate,--all founded by
abbots of St. Edmund's. At Reading there was the Hospital of St. Mary
Magdalene for twelve leprous persons and chaplains, and the Hospital
of St. Lawrence for twenty-six poor people, and for the entertainment
of strangers and pilgrims, both founded by abbots of Reading. One at
the gate of Fountains' Abbey for poor persons and travellers; one
at Glastonbury, under the care of the almoner, for poor and infirm
persons. Thirteen was a favourite number for the inmates of a hospital.
From the initial letter of a deed in the British Museum (Harl. 1498),
by which King Henry VII. founded a fraternity of thirteen poor men in
Westminster Abbey, who were to be under the governance of the monks,
we take the accompanying illustration, which represents the abbot and
monks before the king, with a group of the king's bedesmen, each of
whom has the royal badge, a rose surmounted by a crown, on the shoulder
of his habit.
CHINESE GAMBLERS PLAYING FOR FINGERS.
The following strange account is taken from Hue's "Chinese Empire:--
"The Chinese are industrious and economical, but their cupidity, their
immoderate love of lucre, and their decided taste for stockjobbing
and speculation, easily tempts them to gambling, when they are not
engaged in traffic. They seek eagerly for strong excitements, and when
once they have got into the habit of gambling they seldom or never
recover from it. They cast aside every obligation of station, duty,
and family, to live only for cards and dice; and this fatal passion
gains such an empire over them, that they proceed even to the most
revolting extremities. When they have lost all their money they will
play for their houses, their land, and their wives even, whose destiny
often depends on a cast of the dice. Nay, the Chinese gambler does not
stop here, for he will stake the very clothes he has on for one game
more, and this horrible custom gives rise to scenes that would not be
credible, did we not know that the passions always tend to make men
cruel and inhuman.
"In the northern provinces, especially in the environs of the Great
Wall, you may sometimes meet, during the most intense cold of winter,
men running about in a state of complete nudity, having been driven
pitilessly from the gaming-houses when they had lost their all. They
rush about in all directions like madmen to try and save themselves
from being frozen, or crouch down against the chimneys, which in those
countries are carried along the walls of the houses, on a level with
the ground. They turn first one side towards the warmth, then the
other, while their gambling companions, far from trying to help them,
look on with ferocious and malignant hilarity. The horrible spectacle
seldom lasts long, for the cold soon seizes the unfortunate creatures,
and they fall down and die. The gamblers then return to their table,
and begin to play again with the most perfect composure. Such facts
as these will appear fabulous to many persons, but having resided
several years in the north of China, we can testify to their perfect
authenticity.
"These excesses seem surprising enough, but the truth is, that Chinese
gamblers have invented still more extraordinary methods of satisfying
their passion, which is really carried to absolute madness. Those who
have nothing more to lose will collect round a table and actually
play for _their fingers_, which they will cut off reciprocally with
frightful stoicism. We had thought to pass over these revolting
particulars, for we do not like to put the confidence of our readers
to too great a trial. We have a strong objection to relating things
that, although we know them to be strictly true, have an improbable
appearance. But these facts concerning Chinese gamblers were known, and
commented upon, by the Arab travellers in the ninth century. Here is a
passage on the subject from the 'Chain of Chronicles,' from which we
have already quoted more than once:--
"'Amongst men of a volatile and boastful character, those who belong
to the lower classes, and who have no money, will sometimes play for
the fingers of their hands. During the game, they keep by them a vase
containing nut, or sesame oil, for olive oil is not known in this
country. A fire is kept burning under it, and between the two players
is placed a small but very sharp hatchet. The one who wins then takes
the hand of the loser, places it on a stone and cuts off one of his
fingers with the hatchet; the piece falls, and the vanquished party
immediately dips his hand into the hot oil, which cauterises the wound.
This operation does not prevent the players from beginning again. Some
will take a match, dip it in oil, place it on their arms, and set fire
to it; the match burns, and you can smell the odour of the consuming
flesh, but the man goes on with his game, and exhibits no sign of
pain.'"
ENTRY OF THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR INTO LONDON, IN 1698.
The following is an extract from the "Flying Post," of May 17, 1698:--
"Yesterday, (Monday, May 16,) in the afternoon, Count Tallard, the
French Ambassador, made his public entry. The Earl Marshal's men came
first, then followed the Earl of Macclesfield's footmen, after them
twenty of the Ambassador's footmen, in red liveries with gold lace;
then came two of the Ambassador's gentlemen and six pages on horseback;
next came two heralds before His Majesty's coach, in which His
Excellency the Ambassador, the Earl of Macclesfield, and some others
of quality: after them came three of His Royal Highness the Prince of
Denmark's coaches, and next, three of the Ambassador's coaches, the
first of them very rich, and drawn by eight horses; then followed His
Grace the Duke of Norfolk's coach, with about forty-seven more, drawn
by six horses each. There was a splendid entertainment prepared for His
Excellency at Ossulston House, in St. James's Square."
EXPENSES AT CORONATIONS.
The quantity of provisions consumed at the feasts given by some of our
early Kings, was extraordinarily great. For that of King Edward I.
February 10th, 1274, the different Sheriffs were ordered to furnish
butcher meat at Windsor, in the following proportions:--
Oxen. Swine. Sheep. Fowls.
Sheriff of Gloucester, 60 101 60 3,000
" Bucks and Bedford 40 66 40 2,100
" Oxford 40 67 40 2,100
" Kent 40 67 40 2,100
" Surrey and Sussex 40 67 40 2,100
" Warwick and Leicester 60 98 40 3,000
" Somerset and Dorset 100 176 110 5,000
" Essex 60 101 60 3,160
---- ---- ---- ------
Total, twelve counties 440 743 430 22,560
In the year 1307, King Edward II. issued an order to the seneschal
of Gascony, and constable of Bordeaux, to provide a thousand pipes
of good wine, and send them to London, to be used at the approaching
coronation. The purchase and freight were to be paid by a company
of Florentine merchants, who farmed the revenues of Gascony. The
coronation oath was first taken by Ethelred II., A.D. 979; that now
used in 1377. It was amended in 1689. The first coronation sermon was
preached in 1041. The following statement of the prices given for
seats, to obtain a view of passing objects during the coronations of
former times, may, perhaps, prove interesting:--
The price of a good place at the coronation of William the Conqueror,
was a _blank_; at that of his son, William Rufus, the same. At Henry
I's., it was a _crocard_; at Stephen's and Henry II.'s, it was a
_pollard_. At Richard's, and King John's, it was a _fuskin_. It rose
at the 3d. Henry's, to a _dodkin_. In the reign of Edward, the coin
begins to be more intelligible; and we find that, for a seat, to view
his coronation, a _Q_ was given, or the half of a ferling, or farthing,
the fourth part of a sterling, or penny. At the 2d. Edward's, it was a
farthing; and at his son's, Edward III. a halfpenny. At Richard II.'s
it was a penny, and continued the same to that of Henry IV. inclusive.
At the 5th Henry's, it was _two pennies_; and similar prices were
paid at the coronations of Henry VI., Edward IV., Edward V., Richard
III., and Henry VII. At that of Henry VIII. it was a _grossus_, or
groat; and the same was paid at that of Edward VI. and Queen Mary's.
At Queen Elizabeth's, it rose to _a testoon_, or _tester_. At those of
James I. and Charles I. _a shilling_ was given; which was advanced to
_half-a-crown_, at those of Charles II. and James II. At King William's
and Queen Anne's it was _a crown_, and the same at that of George I.
At George II.'s _half-a-guinea_, and, afterwards, at George III.'s _a
guinea_ was the common charge. But, at that of George IV, as high as
_forty guineas_ were given for a single seat.
CURIOUS ANTIQUE SWORD.
The engraving which accompanies this article is a sketch of the upper
part of an antique Danish sword, which was found, together with several
other weapons, by the labourers who were engaged in the construction of
the railway from Dublin to Cashel.
[Illustration: [++] Antique Danish Sword.]
The discovery of the weapons was made at a locality called Island
Bridge, and many of them were fortunately secured for the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy, where they may now be seen. The swords are long
and straight, formed for cutting as well as thrusting, and terminate in
points formed by rounding off the edge towards the back of the blade.
The hilts are very remarkable in form, and in one or two instances,
like the example we have engraved, are highly ornamented. The mountings
are generally of a kind of brass, but several richly plated with silver
were found, and it is said that one of them had a hilt of solid gold.
The spears are long and slender, and similar in form to the lance-heads
used in some of the cavalry corps.
All these weapons, with one exception, are composed of a soft kind of
iron. Many of the swords were found doubled up, a circumstance for
which it is difficult to assign a reason, as they had evidently been
purposely bent. The sword we have represented in our engraving, is
remarkable for the unusual degree of ornament which appears upon its
hilt, and also for its material, steel.
DINNER IN CHINA.
It is certain that a real Chinese dinner would be a very odd thing in
the eyes of a stranger, especially if he were one of those who think,
as some people do, that there is only one way of living. To begin
dinner with the dessert, and end it with the soup; to drink the wine
smoking hot, out of little china cups, and have your food brought to
you ready cut up into small pieces, and to be presented with a couple
of sticks, instead of a knife and fork, to eat it with; to have,
instead of napkins, a provision of little bits of silk paper by the
side of your plate, which, as you use, the attendants carry off; to
leave your place between the courses, to smoke or amuse yourself;
and to raise your chop-sticks to your forehead, and then place them
horizontally upon your cup, to signify that you have finished your
dinner;--all these things would doubtless seem very odd, and create the
curiosity of Europeans. The Chinese, on the other hand, can never get
over their surprise at our way of dining. They ask how we can like to
drink cold fluids, and what can have put it into our heads to make use
of a trident to carry food to our mouths, at the risk of pricking our
lips or poking our eyes out. They think it very droll to see nuts put
on the table in their shell, and ask why our servants cannot take the
trouble to peel the fruit, and take the bones out of the meat. They are
themselves certainly not very difficult in the nature of their food,
and like such things as fried silkworms and preserved larvae, but they
cannot understand the predilection of our epicures for _high_ game, nor
for cheese that appears to belong to the class of animated beings.
CISTERN OF MAJOLICA WARE.
[Illustration: [++] Cistern of Majolica Ware.]
We have engraved the annexed, as it affords at once both a beautiful
specimen of the potter's art, and also an example of the taste and
luxury of the present day in articles of expensive ornament. It is a
cistern made of Majolica, or the enamelled pottery of Italy, the most
beautiful specimens of which were made in the sixteenth century. The
one before us came to England from the collection of the Borghese
Palace; and at the great sale at Stowe, the seat of the Duke of
Buckingham, was disposed of by auction for sixty-four guineas, and this
although it was much broken.
THEATRES IN THE TIME OF SHAKSPEARE.