_LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY._
The revival of literature in Europe, commencing with the latter part
of the fourteenth century, its steady growth, and its wonderful
development in the succeeding age, have been dwelt upon by many
writers. Nowhere was this revival more strongly marked than in France
and the Low Countries.
The French kings and the princes of the royal blood had been for many
generations the constant patrons of authors and of all engaged in the
production of books. In 1350, John II, who has the credit of having
founded the library of the Louvre, ascended the throne of France.
No particulars concerning the library of this monarch have been
preserved, and it was probably of no great extent; but his literary
tastes descended to each of his four sons, and from the inventories
which have come down to us of the libraries of these princes, we obtain
very interesting information as to the number, the description, the
illuminations, the bindings, and the market value of the books which
they contained. Charles, the eldest son, who succeeded his father in
1364, had a highly-developed taste for everything connected with the
fine arts. He greatly increased the number of volumes in the Louvre
library, so that in the ninth year of his reign, when Gilles Mallet
drew up a catalogue, they amounted to 910, the greater number of
which were written on fine vellum, and were magnificently bound, and
enriched with gold clasps and precious stones. This library, the Duke
of Bedford, when Regent of France, is supposed to have transported
to England in 1429. In after years, a few of the volumes returned
to France, but the famous library of the Louvre never recovered its
ancient splendour. Louis, Duke of Anjou, second son of King John,
shared to a great degree the love of books and works of art displayed
by his elder brother. The third son, John, Duke of Berry, formed an
extensive library at his château at Bicêtre, near Paris, inferior only
to that of the king himself. But of all the king’s sons, Philip, who
soon equalled his eldest brother in power, far surpassed him in the
number and splendour of his literary treasures. King John’s second wife
was Jane, widow of the Duke of Burgundy, and in her right he succeeded
to that duchy on the death of her only son. When dividing his kingdom
among his four sons, King John apportioned Burgundy to the youngest,
Philip the Hardy, who, by his marriage with Margaret, only daughter
and heiress of Louis, Count of Flanders, inherited, on the death of
his father-in-law in 1384, a large extent of territory. Philip, who
has the character of having been a generous prince, was well read in
the literary lore of his age. He was passionately addicted to music
and to the collection of fine books, and he spared no expense in
the employment of artists, and in the purchase of their most choice
productions. Nor did he rest satisfied with the encouragement of
artists alone, but gathered round him some of the most learned and able
authors of his time, who enriched his library with new works. This
prince died in 1404, and was succeeded by his son, John the Fearless,
who, although distracted by continual wars, maintained and even added
somewhat to his father’s library. Christine de Pisan received one
hundred crowns for two books which she presented to him. But all
previous patronage is eclipsed by the encouragement given to literature
by Philip the Good, who succeeded to the dukedom of Burgundy upon the
decease of John in 1419. At Bruges, where he kept his court, he gave
continual employment to a crowd of authors, translators, copyists, and
illuminators, who enriched his library with their best productions,
and did not forget to sing the praises of their generous patron. David
Aubert, a celebrated scribe, thus describes the duke in 1457:--“This
renowned and virtuous prince has been accustomed, for many years past,
to have ancient histories read to him daily. His library surpasses
all others, for from his youth he has had in his service numerous
translators, scholars, historians, and scribes in various countries,
all diligently working, so that now there is not a prince in all
Christendom who has so varied and so rich a library.” In the account
which M. Barrois gives of the library of this sovereign, he enumerates
nearly two thousand works, the greater part being magnificent folios on
vellum beautifully illuminated, and bound in velvet, satin, or damask,
studded with gems, and closed by gold clasps, jewelled and chased. Many
of these are still preserved in the Royal Library at Brussels.
The taste of successive rulers spread its influence among their
subjects, and fashion lent its aid in multiplying libraries. No present
was more acceptable than a beautifully-executed manuscript, and the
opulent nobles of the French and Burgundian courts offered costly books
to their sovereigns and their friends. The records and inventories of
this period contain numerous entries of such gifts, often with their
estimated value.
Among the nobles at the court of Philip the Good, many emulated the
literary taste of their sovereign, but none showed greater judgment
and liberality in the formation of his library than Louis de Bruges,
Seigneur de la Gruthuyse. This nobleman, who had risen by his talents
to the highest position, received, at his château of Oostcamp, near
Bruges, in 1470, Edward IV of England, when he sought refuge from the
Lancastrians in Flanders, and was afterwards rewarded by that king with
the title of Earl of Winchester. His library was scarcely inferior
to that of his sovereign, and nearly the whole of the manuscripts
were the production of Flemish artists at Bruges or Ghent. The large
size of the volumes, the beauty of the vellum, the elegance of the
writing, the artistic merit of the illuminations and ornaments, and
the luxury displayed in the bindings, are evidences of the deep
interest taken by the Seigneur de la Gruthuyse in the formation of his
library. On his death it passed to his son, Jean de Bruges, and was
soon after added to the collection already existing at the château of
Blois, belonging to the kings of France. Great pains were then taken
to obliterate the armorial bearings, devices, and monograms which
showed the former ownership of the manuscripts, which efforts were
but partially successful, as about a hundred volumes, now among the
most precious treasures of the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, still
attest that they once belonged to this celebrated collection. As the
patron of literary men and of artists, Louis de Bruges takes a high
place in the annals of his country, whilst the friendly attitude he
assumed towards Colard Mansion, in the early career of that unfortunate
pioneer of the press, should ever endear his name to bibliographers.
This passion for beautiful books was not confined to the dukedom of
Burgundy, but existed equally in France, Italy, Germany, England,
and other countries. Henry VI of England had a valuable library, and
many of the books written and illuminated for him are still among the
Royal MSS. in the British Museum. The Duke of Bedford, whose love for
literature was no doubt greatly stimulated during the time he held the
office of Regent of France, was surpassed by none of his countrymen in
his patronage of the fine arts, and the celebrated Missal, written and
illuminated for him, still remains as one of the choicest productions
of his age. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the protector of England
during the minority of Henry VI, was also greatly attached to his
library, and many manuscripts are extant, over which the antiquary
pauses with respect and interest as he reads the boldly-written
autograph, “Cest a moy Homfrey.”
Owing to these causes, the various artists connected with bookwriting
and bookbinding, as well as the trades necessary to them, received
much encouragement, while, to ensure rapidity as well as excellence
of workmanship, division of labour was carried out to a great extent.
Indeed, so important a branch of commerce had the manufacture of books
now become, and so numerous were the different classes of craftsmen
thus employed in Bruges, that there sprang up in that city a guild,
apparently very similar to the trade companies in London, to which,
in 1454, the duke granted a formal charter and special privileges.
The company is styled “der ghilde van sinte jan Ewāgz,” or “The Guild
of St. John the Evangelist,” who was the patron saint of scribes; and
the volume of receipts and expenditure of this guild, beginning with
the entrance fees of the original members, exists still in a perfect
state of preservation in the city Archives of Bruges. Van Praet gives
some interesting extracts from this volume, which show that the guild
comprised members of both sexes, to whose names their respective trades
are affixed, thus indicating the various branches of industry employed
at that time in the manufacture of books.
Librariers et bockverkopers (_Booksellers_).
Prenter-vercoopers (_Printsellers_).
Scilders (_Painters_).
Vinghette makers (_Painters of Vignettes_).
Scrivers et bouc-scrivers (_Scriveners and copyists of books_).
Verlichters (_Illuminators_).
Prenters (_Printers, whether from blocks or types_).
Bouc-binders (_Bookbinders_).
Reimmakers (_Curriers_).
Drooch-scherrers (_Cloth-shearers_).
Parkement makers et fransyn makers (_Parchment and Vellum makers_).
Guispel snyders (_Boss carvers_).
Letter sniders (_Letter engravers_).
Beelde makers (_Figure engravers_).
Similar corporations existed in other cities. Thus, at Antwerp, the
Guild of St. Luke was formed before 1450, and included trades like
those of the Guild of St. John at Bruges; and at Brussels there was
a guild of writers called “Les Frères de la Plume.” These guilds
supported their own chapel and chaplain, and sometimes had considerable
property. Nearly all the early printers, whose names are now famous in
the annals of Flemish typography were enrolled in one or other of these
associations.
The object of the foregoing sketch, and its bearings on the subject of
this memoir, will be evident to the reader who recalls to mind that it
was while the pursuit of literature in Bruges was most ardent--that
it was during the reign of the greatest bibliophile of the fifteenth
century, when Bruges teemed with authors, translators, scribes, and
illuminators, who resorted thither from all parts of Europe to Philip
the Good as to a second Mæcenas--that it was during the time when the
bibliographical treasures of Philip the Hardy, enriched by the numerous
additions of his son and grandson, and the libraries of Louis de Bruges
and other nobles of the Flemish court were concentrated in the same
city--that William Caxton was, for thirty-three years at least, a
resident in Bruges. Access to these libraries would be easy to him, and
that he availed himself of the privilege seems all the more probable,
since we find, without exception, that the books which he translated
for his own press may be traced in the catalogues of these noble
libraries. As “Governor of the English Nation,” through whom all the
negotiations between the English and the Burgundian governments would
be carried on, Caxton would be well acquainted with the nobles and
officers of the court, and hence he would naturally become the agent
for the literary wants of his countrymen. He would also be brought into
close contact with the most clever authors, scribes, and illuminators
of the time, among whom were Colard Mansion and Jean Brito, originally
artistic bookwriters, but afterwards the first to introduce the art of
printing into the city of Bruges.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]