Transcriber's Note:
Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have
been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Italics in the footnote citations were inconsistently applied by the
typesetter.
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
The following changes were made or suggested:
Page xlix: "Viena" is a possible typo for "Vienna"
Page xlix: "Megico" is a possible typo for "Mejico"
Page 18: the opening quote mark is missing in the quote ending "in
company,"
Page 37: "Aläsku" should possibly be "Aläksu"
Page 104: "von 10 bis 12 Pud" should possibly be "von 10 bis 12
Pfund"
Page 105: "mit grellen Farben" should possibly be "die mit grellen
Farben"
Page 203: Viaye changed to Viage
Page 210: "Some of women would with difficulty" is apparently missing
a word
Page 212: Crane's Topog. Mem. possibly should be Cram's
Page 283: Farnham's Trav., pp. 81-; is missing an end page reference
Page 401: "galeon" should possibly be "galleon"
Page 413: Footnote 591 is missing its anchor
Page 417: Footnote 597 is missing its anchor
Page 420: Footnote 601 is missing its anchor
Page 468: "to the west fork of Walker's river the south.'" is
apparently missing a word
Page 606: headquarters possibly should be headwaters
Page 699: gray colors possibly should be gay colors
Page 763: looses possibly should be loses
THE WORKS
OF
HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT.
VOLUME I.
THE NATIVE RACES.
VOL. I. WILD TRIBES.
SAN FRANCISCO:
A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.
1883.
Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1882, by
HUBERT H. BANCROFT,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
_All Rights Reserved._
[Illustration: THE WORLD:
The white part showing THE PACIFIC STATES.]
PREFACE.
In pursuance of a general plan involving the production of a series of
works on the western half of North America, I present this delineation
of its aboriginal inhabitants as the first. To the immense territory
bordering on the western ocean from Alaska to Darien, and including the
whole of Mexico and Central America, I give arbitrarily, for want of a
better, the name Pacific States. Stretching almost from pole to equator,
and embracing within its limits nearly one tenth of the earth's surface,
this last Western Land offers to lovers of knowledge a new and enticing
field; and, although hitherto its several parts have been held somewhat
asunder by the force of circumstances, yet are its occupants drawn by
nature into nearness of relationship, and will be brought yet nearer by
advancing civilization; the common oceanic highway on the one side, and
the great mountain ramparts on the other, both tending to this result.
The characteristics of this vast domain, material and social, are
comparatively unknown and are essentially peculiar. To its exotic
civilization all the so-called older nations of the world have
contributed of their energies; and this composite mass, leavened by its
destiny, is now working out the new problem of its future. The modern
history of this West antedates that of the East by over a century, and
although there may be apparent heterogeneity in the subject thus
territorially treated, there is an apparent tendency toward ultimate
unity.
To some it may be of interest to know the nature and extent of my
resources for writing so important a series of works. The books and
manuscripts necessary for the task existed in no library in the world;
hence, in 1859, I commenced collecting material relative to the Pacific
States. After securing everything within my reach in America, I twice
visited Europe, spending about two years in thorough researches in
England and the chief cities of the Continent. Having exhausted every
available source, I was obliged to content myself with lying in wait for
opportunities. Not long afterward, and at a time when the prospect of
materially adding to my collection seemed anything but hopeful, the
_Biblioteca Imperial de Méjico_, of the unfortunate Maximilian,
collected during a period of forty years by Don José María Andrade,
litterateur and publisher of the city of Mexico, was thrown upon the
European market and furnished me about three thousand additional
volumes.
In 1869, having accumulated some sixteen thousand books, manuscripts,
and pamphlets, besides maps and cumbersome files of Pacific Coast
journals, I determined to go to work. But I soon found that, like
Tantalus, while up to my neck in water, I was dying of thirst. The facts
which I required were so copiously diluted with trash, that to follow
different subjects through this trackless sea of erudition, in the
exhaustive manner I had proposed, with but one life-time to devote to
the work, was simply impracticable. In this emergency my friend, Mr
Henry L. Oak, librarian of the collection, came to my relief. After many
consultations, and not a few partial failures, a system of indexing the
subject-matter of the whole library was devised, sufficiently general to
be practicable, and sufficiently particular to direct me immediately to
all my authorities on any given point. The system, on trial, stands the
test, and the index when completed, as it already is for the twelve
hundred authors quoted in this work, will more than double the practical
value of the library.
Of the importance of the task undertaken, I need not say that I have
formed the highest opinion. At present the few grains of wheat are so
hidden by the mountain of chaff as to be of comparatively little benefit
to searchers in the various branches of learning; and to sift and select
from this mass, to extract from bulky tome and transient journal, from
the archives of convent and mission, facts valuable to the scholar and
interesting to the general reader; to arrange these facts in a natural
order, and to present them in such a manner as to be of practical
benefit to inquirers in the various branches of knowledge, is a work of
no small import and responsibility. And though mine is the labor of the
artisan rather than that of the artist, a forging of weapons for abler
hands to wield, a producing of raw materials for skilled mechanics to
weave and color at will; yet, in undertaking to bring to light from
sources innumerable essential facts, which, from the very shortness of
life if from no other cause, must otherwise be left out in the physical
and social generalizations which occupy the ablest minds, I feel that I
engage in no idle pastime.
A word as to the Nations of which this work is a description, and my
method of treating the subject. Aboriginally, for a savage wilderness,
there was here a dense population; particularly south of the thirtieth
parallel, and along the border of the ocean north of that line. Before
the advent of Europeans, this domain counted its aborigines by millions;
ranked among its people every phase of primitive humanity, from the
reptile-eating cave-dweller of the Great Basin, to the Aztec and
Maya-Quiché civilization of the southern table-land,--a civilization, if
we may credit Dr Draper, "that might have instructed Europe," a culture
wantonly crushed by Spain, who therein "destroyed races more civilized
than herself."
Differing among themselves in minor particulars only, and bearing a
general resemblance to the nations of eastern and southern America;
differing again, the whole, in character and cast of features from every
other people of the world, we have here presented hundreds of nations
and tongues, with thousands of beliefs and customs, wonderfully
dissimilar for so segregated a humanity, yet wonderfully alike for the
inhabitants of a land that comprises within its limits nearly every
phase of climate on the globe. At the touch of European civilization,
whether Latin or Teutonic, these nations vanished; and their unwritten
history, reaching back for thousands of ages, ended. All this time they
had been coming and going, nations swallowing up nations, annihilating
and being annihilated, amidst human convulsions and struggling
civilizations. Their strange destiny fulfilled, in an instant they
disappear; and all we have of them, besides their material relics, is
the glance caught in their hasty flight, which gives us a few customs
and traditions, and a little mythological history.
To gather and arrange in systematic compact form all that is known of
these people; to rescue some facts, perhaps, from oblivion, to bring
others from inaccessible nooks, to render all available to science and
to the general reader, is the object of this work. Necessarily some
parts of it may be open to the charge of dryness; I have not been able
to interlard my facts with interesting anecdotes for lack of space, and
I have endeavored to avoid speculation, believing, as I do, the work of
the collector and that of the theorizer to be distinct, and that he who
attempts to establish some pet conjecture while imparting general
information, can hardly be trusted for impartial statements. With
respect to the territorial divisions of the first volume, which is
confined to the Wild Tribes, and the necessity of giving descriptions of
the same characteristics in each, there may be an appearance of
repetition; but I trust this may be found more apparent than real.
Although there are many similar customs, there are also many minor
differences, and, as one of the chief difficulties of this volume was to
keep it within reasonable limits, no delineation has been repeated where
a necessity did not appear to exist. The second volume, which treats of
the Civilized Nations, offers a more fascinating field, and with ample
space and all existing authorities at hand, the fault is the writer's if
interest be not here combined with value. As regards Mythology,
Languages, Antiquities, and Migrations, of which the three remaining
volumes treat, it has been my aim to present clearly and concisely all
knowledge extant on these subjects; and the work, as a whole, is
intended to embody all facts that have been preserved concerning these
people at the time of their almost simultaneous discovery and
disappearance. It will be noticed that I have said little of the natives
or their deeds since the coming of the Europeans; of their wars against
invaders and among themselves; of repartimientos, presidios, missions,
reservations, and other institutions for their conquest, conversion,
protection, or oppression. My reason for this is that all these things,
so far as they have any importance, belong to the modern history of the
country and will receive due attention in a subsequent work.
In these five volumes, besides information acquired from sources not
therein named, are condensed the researches of twelve hundred writers, a
list of whose works, with the edition used, is given in this volume. I
have endeavored to state fully and clearly in my text the substance of
the matter, and in reaching my conclusions to use due discrimination as
to the respective value of different authorities. In the notes I give
liberal quotations, both corroborative of the text, and touching points
on which authors differ, together with complete references to all
authorities, including some of little value, on each point, for the use
of readers or writers who may either be dissatisfied with my
conclusions, or may wish to investigate any particular branch of the
subject farther than my limits allow.
I have given full credit to each of the many authors from whom I have
taken material, and if, in a few instances, a scarcity of authorities
has compelled me to draw somewhat largely on the few who have treated
particular points, I trust I shall be pardoned in view of the
comprehensive nature of the work. Quotations are made in the languages
in which they are written, and great pains has been taken to avoid
mutilation of the author's words. As the books quoted form part of my
private library, I have been able, by comparison with the originals, to
carefully verify all references after they were put in type; hence I
may confidently hope that fewer errors have crept in than are usually
found in works of such variety and extent.
The labor involved in the preparation of these volumes will be
appreciated by few. That expended on the first volume alone, with all
the material before me, is more than equivalent to the well-directed
efforts of one person for ten years. In the work of selecting, sifting,
and arranging my subject-matter, I have called in the aid of a large
corps of assistants, and, while desiring to place on no one but myself
any responsibility for the work, either in style or matter, I would
render just acknowledgment for the services of all; especially to the
following gentlemen, for the efficient manner in which, each in his
special department, they have devoted their energies and abilities to
the carrying out of my plan;--to Mr T. Arundel-Harcourt, in the
researches on the manners and customs of the Civilized Nations; to Mr
Walter M. Fisher, in the investigation of Mythology; to Mr Albert
Goldschmidt, in the treatise on Language; and to Mr Henry L. Oak, in the
subject of Antiquities and Aboriginal History.
CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME.
CHAPTER I.
ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
PAGE.
Facts and Theories--Hypotheses concerning Origin--Unity of
Race--Diversity of Race--Spontaneous Generation--Origin of
Animals and Plants--Primordial Centres of Population--
Distribution of Plants and Animals--Adaptability of Species
to Locality--Classification of Species--Ethnological
Tests--Races of the Pacific--First Intercourse with
Europeans 1
CHAPTER II.
HYPERBOREANS.
General Divisions--Hyperborean Nations--Aspects of
Nature--Vegetation--Climate--Animals--The Eskimos--Their
Country--Physical Characteristics--Dress--Dwellings--Food--
Weapons--Boats--Sledges--Snow-Shoes--Government--Domestic
Affairs--Amusements--Diseases--Burial--The Koniagas, their
Physical and Social Condition--The Aleuts--The Thlinkeets--
The Tinneh 35
CHAPTER III.
COLUMBIANS.
Habitat of the Columbian Group--Physical Geography--Sources
of Food Supply--Influence of Food and Climate--Four extreme
Classes--Haidahs--Their Home--Physical Peculiarities--
Clothing--Shelter--Sustenance--Implements--Manufactures--
Arts--Property--Laws--Slavery--Women--Customs--Medicine--
Death--The Nootkas--The Sound Nations--The Chinooks--The
Shushwaps--The Salish--The Sahaptins 150
CHAPTER IV.
CALIFORNIANS.
Groupal Divisions; Northern, Central, and Southern
Californians, and Shoshones--Country of the Californians--
The Klamaths, Modocs, Shastas, Pitt River Indians, Eurocs,
Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Weeyots, Tolewahs, and Rogue River
Indians and their Customs--The Tehamas, Pomos, Ukiahs,
Gualalas, Sonomas, Petalumas, Napas, Suscols, Suisunes,
Tamales, Karquines, Tulomos, Thamiens, Olchones, Runsiens,
Escelens, and others of Central California--The Cahuillos,
Diegueños, Islanders, and Mission Rancherías of Southern
California--The Snakes or Shoshones proper, Utahs,
Bannocks, Washoes and other Shoshone Nations 322
CHAPTER V.
NEW MEXICANS.
Geographical Position of this Group, and Physical Features
of the Territory--Family Divisions; Apaches, Pueblos, Lower
Californians, and Northern Mexicans--The Apache Family:
Comanches, Apaches proper, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninos,
Yampais, Yalchedunes, Yamajabs, Cruzados, Nijoras, Navajos,
Mojaves, and their customs--The Pueblo Family: Pueblos,
Moquis, Pimas, Maricopas, Pápagos, and their Neighbors--The
Cochimis, Waicuris, Pericuis, and other Lower Californians--
The Seris, Sinaloas, Tarahumares, Conchos, Tepehuanes,
Tobosos, Acaxees, and others in Northern Mexico 471
CHAPTER VI.
WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
Territorial Aspects--Two Main Divisions; Wild Tribes of
Central Mexico, and Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico--The
Coras and others in Jalisco--Descendants of the Aztecs--The
Otomís and Mazahuas Adjacent to the Valley of Mexico--The
Pames--The Tarascos and Matlaltzincas of Michoacan--The
Huaztecs and Totonacos of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas--The
Chontales, Chinantecs, Mazatecs, Cuicatecs, Chatinos,
Miztecs, Zapotecs, Mijes, Huaves, Chiapanecs, Zoques,
Lacandones, Choles, Mames, Tzotziles, Tzendales, Chochones
and others of Southern Mexico 615
CHAPTER VII.
WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
Physical Geography and Climate--Three Groupal Divisions;
First, the nations of Yucatan, Guatemala, Salvador, Western
Honduras, and Nicaragua; Second, The Mosquitos of Honduras;
Third, the nations of Costa Rica and the Isthmus of
Panamá--The Popolucas, Pipiles and Chontales--The
Descendants of the Maya-Quiché Races--The Natives of
Nicaragua--The Mosquitos, Poyas, Ramas, Lencas, Towkas,
Woolwas, and Xicaques of Honduras--The Guatusos of the Rio
Frio--The Caimanes, Bayamos, Dorachos, Goajiros, Mandingos,
Savanerics, Sayrones, and Viscitas living in Costa Rica and
on the Isthmus 684
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THE NATIVE RACES
OF THE
PACIFIC STATES.
WILD TRIBES.
CHAPTER I.
ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
FACTS AND THEORIES--HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN--UNITY OF
RACE--DIVERSITY OF RACE--SPONTANEOUS GENERATION--ORIGIN OF
ANIMALS AND PLANTS--PRIMORDIAL CENTRES OF POPULATION--
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS--ADAPTABILITY OF SPECIES
TO LOCALITY--CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES--ETHNOLOGICAL TESTS--
RACES OF THE PACIFIC--FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.
Facts are the raw material of science. They are to philosophy and
history, what cotton and iron are to cloth and steam-engines. Like the
raw material of the manufacturer, they form the bases of innumerable
fabrics, are woven into many theories finely spun or coarsely spun,
which wear out with time, become unfashionable, or else prove to be
indeed true and fit, and as such remain. This raw material of the
scholar, like that of the manufacturer, is always a staple article; its
substance never changes, its value never diminishes; whatever may be the
condition of society, or howsoever advanced the mind, it is
indispensable. Theories may be only for the day, but facts are for all
time and for all science. When we remember that the sum of all knowledge
is but the sum of ascertained facts, and that every new fact brought to
light, preserved, and thrown into the general fund, is so much added to
the world's store of knowledge,--when we consider that, broad and far as
our theories may reach, the realm of definite, tangible, ascertained
truth is still of so little extent, the importance of every
never-so-insignificant acquisition is manifest. Compare any fact with
the fancies which have been prevalent concerning it, and consider, I
will not say their relative brilliance, but their relative importance.
Take electricity, how many explanations have been given of the lightning
and the thunder, yet there is but one fact; the atmosphere, how many
howling demons have directed the tempest, how many smiling deities moved
in the soft breeze. For the one all-sufficient First Cause, how many
myriads of gods have been set up; for every phenomenon how many causes
have been invented; with every truth how many untruths have contended,
with every fact how many fancies. The profound investigations of
latter-day philosophers are nothing but simple and laborious inductions
from ascertained facts, facts concerning attraction, polarity, chemical
affinity and the like, for the explanation of which there are countless
hypotheses, each hypothesis involving multitudes of speculations, all of
which evaporate as the truth slowly crystallizes. Speculation is valuable
to science only as it directs the mind into otherwise-undiscoverable
paths; but when the truth is found, there is an end to speculation.
So much for facts in general; let us now look for a moment at the
particular class of facts of which this work is a collection.
[Sidenote: TENDENCY OF PHILOSOPHIC INQUIRY.]
The tendency of philosophic inquiry is more and more toward the origin
of things. In the earlier stages of intellectual impulse, the mind is
almost wholly absorbed in ministering to the necessities of the present;
next, the mysterious uncertainty of the after life provokes inquiry, and
contemplations of an eternity of the future command attention; but not
until knowledge is well advanced does it appear that there is likewise
an eternity of the past worthy of careful scrutiny,--without which
scrutiny, indeed, the eternity of the future must forever remain a
sealed book. Standing as we do between these two eternities, our view
limited to a narrow though gradually widening horizon, as nature unveils
her mysteries to our inquiries, an infinity spreads out in either
direction, an infinity of minuteness no less than an infinity of
immensity; for hitherto, attempts to reach the ultimate of molecules,
have proved as futile as attempts to reach the ultimate of masses. Now
man, the noblest work of creation, the only reasoning creature, standing
alone in the midst of this vast sea of undiscovered truth,--ultimate
knowledge ever receding from his grasp, primal causes only thrown
farther back as proximate problems are solved,--man, in the study of
mankind, must follow his researches in both of these directions,
backward as well as forward, must indeed derive his whole knowledge of
what man is and will be from what he has been. Thus it is that the study
of mankind in its minuteness assumes the grandest proportions. Viewed in
this light there is not a feature of primitive humanity without
significance; there is not a custom or characteristic of savage nations,
however mean or revolting to us, from which important lessons may not be
drawn. It is only from the study of barbarous and partially cultivated
nations that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive being, and
to recognize the successive stages through which our savage ancestors
have passed on their way to civilization. With the natural philosopher,
there is little thought as to the relative importance of the manifold
works of creation. The tiny insect is no less an object of his patient
scrutiny, than the wonderful and complex machinery of the cosmos. The
lower races of men, in the study of humanity, he deems of as essential
importance as the higher; our present higher races being but the lower
types of generations yet to come.
Hence, if in the following pages, in the array of minute facts incident
to the successive peoples of which we speak, some of them appear small
and unworthy of notice, let it be remembered that in nature there is no
such thing as insignificance; still less is there anything connected
with man unworthy of our most careful study, or any peculiarity of
savagism irrelevant to civilization.
[Sidenote: ORIGIN OF MAN.]
Different schools of naturalists maintain widely different opinions
regarding the origin of mankind. Existing theories may be broadly
divided into three categories; in the first two of which man is
considered as a special creation, and in the third as a natural
development from some lower type. The special-creation school is divided
on the question of unity or diversity of race. The first party holds by
the time-honored tradition, that all the nations of the earth are
descended from a single human pair; the second affirms, that by one
creative act were produced several special creations, each separate
creation being the origin of a race, and each race primordially adapted
to that part of the globe which it now inhabits. The third theory, that
of the development school, denies that there ever were common centres of
origin in organic creation; but claims that plants and animals generate
spontaneously, and that man is but the modification of some preexisting
animal form.
[Sidenote: HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN.]
The first hypothesis, the doctrine of the monogenists, is ably supported
by Latham, Prichard, and many other eminent ethnologists of Europe, and
is the favorite opinion of orthodox thinkers throughout Christendom. The
human race, they say, having sprung from a single pair, constitutes but
one stock, though subject to various modifications. Anatomically, there
is no difference between a Negro and a European. The color of the skin,
the texture of the hair, the convolutions of the brain, and all other
peculiarities, may be attributed to heat, moisture, and food. Man,
though capable of subduing the world to himself, and of making his home
under climates and circumstances the most diverse, is none the less a
child of nature, acted upon and molded by those conditions which he
attempts to govern. Climate, periodicities of nature, material
surroundings, habits of thought and modes of life, acting through a long
series of ages, exercise a powerful influence upon the human physical
organization; and yet man is perfectly created for any sphere in which
he may dwell; and is governed in his condition by choice rather than by
coercion. Articulate language, which forms the great line of demarcation
between the human and the brute creation, may be traced in its leading
characteristics to one common source. The differences between the races
of men are not specific differences. The greater part of the flora and
fauna of America, those of the circumpolar regions excepted, are
essentially dissimilar to those of the old world; while man in the new
world, though bearing traces of high antiquity, is specifically
identical with all the races of the earth. It is well known that the
hybrids of plants and of animals do not possess the power of
reproduction, while in the intermixture of the races of men no such
sterility of progeny can be found; and therefore, as there are no human
hybrids, there are no separate human races or species, but all are one
family. Besides being consistent with sound reasoning, this theory can
bring to its support the testimony of the sacred writings, and an
internal evidence of a creation divine and spiritual, which is
sanctioned by tradition, and confirmed by most philosophic minds. Man,
unlike animals, is the direct offspring of the Creator, and as such he
alone continues to derive his inheritance from a divine source. The
Hebraic record, continue the monogenists, is the only authentic solution
of the origin of all things; and its history is not only fully sustained
by science, but it is upheld by the traditions of the most ancient
barbarous nations, whose mythology strikingly resembles the Mosaic
account of the creation, the deluge, and the distribution of peoples.
The Semitic family alone were civilized from the beginning. A peculiar
people, constantly upheld by special act of Providence from falling into
paganism, they alone possessed a true knowledge of the mystery of
creation. A universal necessity for some form of worship, a belief
inherent in all mankind, in an omnipotent deity and a life beyond the
grave, point to a common origin and prophesy a common destiny. This much
for the monogenists.
The second hypothesis, that of the polygenists, holds that there was not
one only, but several independent creations, each giving birth to the
essential, unchangeable peculiarities of a separate race; thus
constituting a diversity of species with primeval adaptation to their
geographical distribution. Morton, Agassiz, Gliddon, and others in
America, stand sponsors for this theory. The physiological differences
of race, they say, which separate mankind into classes, do not result
from climatic surroundings, but are inherited from original progenitors.
They point to marked characteristics in various peoples which have
remained unchanged for a period of four thousand years. In place of
controverting divine revelation, they claim that Mosaic history is the
history of a single race, and not the history of all mankind; that the
record itself contains an implied existence of other races; and that the
distribution of the various species or races of men, according to their
relative organisms, was part of the creative act, and of no less
importance than was the act of creation.
The third hypothesis, derived mainly from the writings of Lamarck,
Darwin, and Huxley, is based upon the principle of evolution. All
existing species are developments of some preëxisting form, which in
like manner descended by true generation from a form still lower. Man,
say they, bears no impress of a divine original that is not common to
brutes; he is but an animal, more perfectly developed through natural
and sexual selection. Commencing with the spontaneous generation of the
lowest types of vegetable and animal life,--as the accumulation of mold
upon food, the swarming of maggots in meat, the infusorial animalcules
in water, the generation of insect life in decaying vegetable
substances,--the birth of one form arising out of the decay of another,
the slow and gradual unfolding from a lower to a higher sphere, acting
through a long succession of ages, culminate in the grandeur of
intellectual manhood. Thus much for this life, while the hope of a like
continued progress is entertained for the life to come. While the
tendency of variety in organic forms is to decrease, argue these
latter-day naturalists, individuals increase in a proportion greater
than the provisional means of support. A predominating species, under
favorable circumstances, rapidly multiplies, crowding out and
annihilating opposing species. There is therefore a constant struggle
for existence in nature, in which the strongest, those best fitted to
live and improve their species, prevail; while the deformed and
ill-favored are destroyed. In courtship and sexual selection the war for
precedence continues. Throughout nature the male is the wooer; he it is
who is armed for fight, and provided with musical organs and ornamental
appendages, with which to charm the fair one. The savage and the wild
beast alike secure their mate over the mangled form of a vanquished
rival. In this manner the more highly favored of either sex are mated,
and natural selections made, by which, better ever producing better, the
species in its constant variation is constantly improved. Many
remarkable resemblances may be seen between man and the inferior
animals. In embryonic development, in physical structure, in material
composition and the function of organs, man and animals are strikingly
alike. And, in the possession of that immaterial nature which more
widely separates the human from the brute creation, the 'reasonable
soul' of man is but an evolution from brute instincts. The difference in
the mental faculties of man and animals is immense; but the high culture
which belongs to man has been slowly developed, and there is plainly a
wider separation between the mental power of the lowest zoöphyte and
the highest ape, than between the most intellectual ape and the least
intellectual man. Physically and mentally, the man-like ape and the
ape-like man sustain to each other a near relationship; while between
the mammal and the mollusk there exists the greatest possible
dissimilarity. Articulate language, it is true, acting upon the brain,
and in turn being acted upon to the improvement of both, belongs only to
man; yet animals are not devoid of expedients for expressing feeling and
emotion. It has been observed that no brute ever fashioned a tool for a
special purpose; but some animals crack nuts with a stone, and an
accidentally splintered flint naturally suggests itself as the first
instrument of primeval man. The chief difficulty lies in the high state
of moral and intellectual power which may be attained by man; yet this
same progressive principle is likewise found in brutes. Nor need we
blush for our origin. The nations now most civilized were once
barbarians. Our ancestors were savages, who, with tangled hair, and
glaring eyes, and blood-besmeared hands, devoured man and beast alike.
Surely a respectable gorilla lineage stands no unfavorable comparison.
Between the first and the last of these three rallying points, a whole
continent of debatable land is spread, stretching from the most
conservative orthodoxy to the most scientific liberalism. Numberless
arguments may be advanced to sustain any given position; and not
unfrequently the same analogies are brought forward to prove
propositions directly oppugnant. As has been observed, each school ranks
among its followers the ablest men of science of the day. These men do
not differ in minor particulars only, meeting in general upon one broad,
common platform; on the contrary, they find themselves unable to agree
as touching any one thing, except that man is, and that he is surrounded
by those climatic influences best suited to his organization. Any one of
these theories, if substantiated, is the death-blow of the others. The
first denies any diversity of species in creation and all immutability
of race; the second denies a unity of species and the possibility of
change in race; the third denies all special acts of creation and, like
the first, all immutability of race.
[Sidenote: PLANTS AND ANIMALS.]
The question respecting the origin of animals and plants has likewise
undergone a similar flux of beliefs, but with different result. Whatever
the conclusions may be with regard to the origin of man, naturalists of
the present day very generally agree, that there was no one universal
centre of propagation for plants and animals; but that the same
conditions of soil, moisture, heat, and geographical situation, always
produce a similarity of species; or, what is equivalent, that there were
many primary centres, each originating species, which spread out from
these centres and covered the earth. This doctrine was held by early
naturalists to be irreconcilable with the Scripture account of the
creation, and was therefore denounced as heretical. Linnæus and his
contemporaries drew up a pleasing picture, assigning the birth-place of
all forms of life to one particular fertile spot, situated in a genial
climate, and so diversified with lofty mountains and declivities, as to
present all the various temperatures requisite for the sustenance of the
different species of animal and vegetable life. The most exuberant types
of flora and fauna are found within the tropical regions, decreasing in
richness and profusion towards either pole; while man in his greatest
perfection occupies the temperate zone, degenerating in harmony of
features, in physical symmetry, and in intellectual vigor in either
direction. Within this temperate zone is placed the hypothetical cradle
of the human race, varying in locality according to religion and
tradition. The Caucasians are referred for their origin to Mount
Caucasus, the Mongolians to Mount Altai, and the Africans to Mount
Atlas. Three primordial centres of population have been assigned to the
three sons of Noah,--Arabia, the Semitic; India, the Japetic; and Egypt,
the Hamitic centre. Thibet, and the mountains surrounding the Gobi
desert, have been designated as the point from which a general
distribution was made; while the sacred writings mention four rich and
beautiful valleys, two of which are watered by the Tigris and Euphrates,
as the birth-place of man. It was formerly believed that in the
beginning, the primeval ocean covered the remaining portion of the
globe, and that from this central spot the waters receded, thereby
extending the limits of terrestrial life.
Admitting the unity of origin, conjecture points with apparent reason to
the regions of Armenia and of Iran, in western Asia, as the cradle of
the human race. Departing from this geographical centre, in the
directions of the extremities of the continent, the race at first
degenerated in proportion to distance. Civilization was for many ages
confined within these central limits, until by slow degrees, paths were
marked out to the eastward and to the westward, terminating the one upon
the eastern coast of Asia, and the other upon the American shores of the
Pacific.
[Sidenote: PRIMORDIAL CENTERS.]
Concerning the distribution of plants and animals, but one general
opinion is now sustained with any degree of reason. The beautifully
varied systems of vegetation with which the habitable earth is clothed,
springing up in rich, spontaneous abundance; the botanical centres of
corresponding latitudes producing resemblance in genera without identity
of species; their inability to cross high mountains or wide seas, or to
pass through inhospitable zones, or in any way to spread far from the
original centre,--all show conclusively the impossibility that such a
multitude of animal and vegetable tribes, with characters so diverse,
could have derived their origin from the same locality, and disappearing
entirely from their original birth-place, sprung forth in some remote
part of the globe. Linnæus, and many others of his time, held that all
telluric tribes, in common with mankind, sprang from a single pair, and
descended from the stock which was preserved by Noah. Subsequently this
opinion was modified, giving to each species an origin in some certain
spot to which it was particularly adapted by nature; and it was supposed
that from these primary centres, through secondary causes, there was a
general diffusion throughout the surrounding regions.
A comparison of the entomology of the old world and the new, shows that
the genera and species of insects are for the most part peculiar to the
localities in which they are found. Birds and marine animals, although
unrestricted in their movements, seldom wander far from specific
centres. With regard to wild beasts, and the larger animals,
insurmountable difficulties present themselves; so that we may infer
that the systems of animal life are indigenous to the great zoölogical
provinces where they are found.
On the other hand, the harmony which exists between the organism of man
and the methods by which nature meets his requirements, tends
conclusively to show that the world in its variety was made for man, and
that man is made for any portion of the earth in which he may be found.
Whencesoever he comes, or howsoever he reaches his dwelling-place, he
always finds it prepared for him. On the icy banks of the Arctic Ocean,
where mercury freezes and the ground never softens, the Eskimo, wrapped
in furs, and burrowing in the earth, revels in grease and train-oil,
sustains vitality by eating raw flesh and whale-fat; while the naked
inter-tropical man luxuriates in life under a burning sun, where ether
boils and reptiles shrivel upon the hot stone over which they attempt to
crawl. The watery fruit and shading vegetation would be as useless to
the one, as the heating food and animal clothing would be to the other.
The capability of man to endure all climates, his omnivorous habits, and
his powers of locomotion, enable him to roam at will over the earth. He
was endowed with intelligence wherewith to invent methods of migration
and means of protection from unfavorable climatic influence, and with
capabilities for existing in almost any part of the world; so that, in
the economy of nature the necessity did not exist with regard to man for
that diversity of creation which was deemed requisite in the case of
plants and animals.
The classification of man into species or races, so as to be able to
designate by his organization the family to which he belongs, as well as
the question of his origin, has been the subject of great diversity of
opinion from the fact that the various forms so graduate into each
other, that it is impossible to determine which is species and which
variety. Attempts have indeed been made at divisions of men into classes
according to their primeval and permanent physiological structure, but
what uniformity can be expected from such a classification among
naturalists who cannot so much as agree what is primeval and what
permanent?
The tests applied by ethnologists for distinguishing the race to which
an individual belongs, are the color of the skin, the size and shape of
the skull,--determined generally by the facial angle,--the texture of
the hair, and the character of the features. The structure of language,
also, has an important bearing upon the affinity of races; and is, with
some ethnologists, the primary criterion in the classification of
species. The facial angle is determined by a line drawn from the
forehead to the front of the upper jaw, intersected by a horizontal line
passing over the middle of the ear. The facial angle of a European is
estimated at 85°, of a Negro at 75°, and of the ape at 60°.
Representations of an adult Troglodyte measure 35°, and of a Satyr 30°.
Some writers classify according to one or several of these tests, others
consider them all in arriving at their conclusions.
[Sidenote: SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATIONS.]
Thus, Virey divides the human family into two parts: those with a facial
angle of from eighty-five to ninety degrees,--embracing the Caucasian,
Mongolian, and American; and those with a facial angle of from
seventy-five to eighty-two degrees,--including the Malay, Negro, and
Hottentot. Cuvier and Jaquinot make three classes, placing the Malay
and American among the subdivisions of the Mongolian. Kant makes four
divisions under four colors: white, black, copper, and olive. Linnæus
also makes four: European, whitish; American, coppery; Asiatic, tawny;
and African, black. Buffon makes five divisions and Blumenbach five.
Blumenbach's classification is based upon cranial admeasurements,
complexion, and texture of the hair. His divisions are Caucasian or
Aryan, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Malay, and American. Lesson makes six
divisions according to colors: white, dusky, orange, yellow, red, and
black. Bory de St Vincent arranges fifteen stocks under three classes
which are differenced by hair: European straight hair, American straight
hair, and crisped or curly hair. In like manner Prof. Zeune designates
his divisions under three types of crania for the eastern hemisphere,
and three for the western, namely, high skulls, broad skulls, and long
skulls. Hunter classifies the human family under seven species; Agassiz
makes eight; Pickering, eleven; Desmoulins, sixteen; and Crawford,
sixty-three. Dr Latham, considered by many the chief exponent of the
science of ethnology in England, classifies the different races under
three primary divisions, namely: Mongolidæ, Atlantidæ, and Japetidæ.
Prichard makes three principal types of cranial conformation, which he
denominates respectively, the civilized races, the nomadic or wandering
races, and the savage or hunting races. Agassiz designates the races of
men according to the zoölogical provinces which they respectively
occupy. Thus the Arctic realm is inhabited by Hyperboreans, the Asiatic
by Mongols, the European by white men, the American by American Indians,
the African by black races, and the East Indian, Australian and
Polynesian by their respective peoples.
Now when we consider the wide differences between naturalists, not only
as to what constitutes race and species,--if there be variety of species
in the human family,--but also in the assignment of peoples and
individuals to their respective categories under the direction of the
given tests; when we see the human race classified under from one to
sixty-three distinct species, according to individual opinions; and when
we see that the several tests which govern classification are by no
means satisfactory, and that those who have made this subject the study
of their lives, cannot agree as touching the fundamental characteristics
of such classification--we cannot but conclude, either that there are no
absolute lines of separation between the various members of the human
family, or that thus far the touchstone by which such separation is to
be made remains undiscovered.
[Sidenote: ALL TESTS FALLACIOUS.]
The color of the human skin, for example, is no certain guide in
classification. Microscopists have ascertained that the normal
colorations of the skin are not the results of organic differences in
race; that complexions are not permanent physical characters, but are
subject to change. Climate is a cause of physical differences, and
frequently in a single tribe may be found shades of color extending
through all the various transitions from black to white. In one people,
part occupying a cold mountainous region, and part a heated lowland, a
marked difference in color is always perceptible. Peculiarities in the
texture of the hair are likewise no proof of race. The hair is more
sensibly affected by the action of the climate than the skin. Every
degree of color and crispation may be found in the European family
alone; and even among the frizzled locks of negroes every gradation
appears, from crisped to flowing hair. The growth of the beard may be
cultivated or retarded according to the caprice of the individual; and
in those tribes which are characterized by an absence or thinness of
beard, may be found the practice, continued for ages, of carefully
plucking out all traces of beard at the age of puberty. No physiological
deformities have been discovered which prevent any people from
cultivating a beard if such be their pleasure. The conformation of the
cranium is often peculiar to habits of rearing the young, and may be
modified by accidental or artificial causes. The most eminent scholars
now hold the opinion that the size and shape of the skull has far less
influence upon the intelligence of the individual than the quality and
convolutions of the brain. The structure of language, especially when
offered in evidence supplementary to that of physical science, is most
important in establishing a relationship between races. But it should be
borne in mind that languages are acquired, not inherited; that they are
less permanent than living organisms; that they are constantly changing,
merging into each other, one dialect dying out and another springing
into existence; that in the migrations of nomadic tribes, or in the
arrival of new nations, although languages may for a time preserve their
severalty, they are at last obliged, from necessity, to yield to the
assimilating influences which constantly surround them, and become
merged into the dialects of neighboring clans. And on the other hand, a
counter influence is exercised upon the absorbing dialect. The dialectic
fusion of two communities results in the partial disappearance of both
languages, so that a constant assimilation and dissimilation is going
on. "The value of language," says Latham, "has been overrated;" and
Whitney affirms that "language is no infallible sign of race;" although
both of these authors give to language the first place as a test of
national affinities. Language is not a physiological characteristic, but
an acquisition; and as such should be used with care in the
classification of species.
Science, during the last half century, has unfolded many important
secrets; has tamed impetuous elements, called forth power and life from
the hidden recesses of the earth; has aroused the slumbering energies of
both mental and material force, changed the currents of thought,
emancipated the intellect from religious transcendentalism, and spread
out to the broad light of open day a vast sea of truth. Old-time
beliefs have had to give place. The débris of one exploded dogma is
scarcely cleared away before we are startled with a request for the
yielding up of another long and dearly cherished opinion. And in the
attempt to read the book of humanity as it comes fresh from the impress
of nature, to trace the history of the human race, by means of moral and
physical characteristics, backward through all its intricate windings to
its source, science has accomplished much; but the attempt to solve the
great problem of human existence, by analogous comparisons of man with
man, and man with animals, has so far been vain and futile in the
extreme.
I would not be understood as attempting captiously to decry the noble
efforts of learned men to solve the problems of nature. For who can tell
what may or may not be found out by inquiry? Any classification,
moreover, and any attempt at classification, is better than none; and in
drawing attention to the uncertainty of the conclusions arrived at by
science, I but reiterate the opinions of the most profound thinkers of
the day. It is only shallow and flippant scientists, so called, who
arbitrarily force deductions from mere postulates, and with one sweeping
assertion strive to annihilate all history and tradition. They attempt
dogmatically to set up a reign of intellect in opposition to that of the
Author of intellect. Terms of vituperation and contempt with which a
certain class of writers interlard their sophisms, as applied to those
holding different opinions, are alike an offense against good taste and
sound reasoning.
Notwithstanding all these failures to establish rules by which mankind
may be divided into classes, there yet remains the stubborn fact that
differences do exist, as palpable as the difference between daylight and
darkness. These differences, however, are so played upon by change, that
hitherto the scholar has been unable to transfix those elements which
appear to him permanent and characteristic. For, as Draper remarks,
"the permanence of organic forms is altogether dependent on the
invariability of the material conditions under which they live. Any
variation therein, no matter how insignificant it might be, would be
forthwith followed by a corresponding variation in form. The present
invariability of the world of organization is the direct consequence of
the physical equilibrium, and so it will continue as long as the mean
temperature, the annual supply of light, the composition of the air, the
distribution of water, oceanic and atmospheric currents, and other such
agencies, remain unaltered; but if any one of these, or of a hundred
other incidents that might be mentioned, should suffer modification, in
an instant the fanciful doctrine of the immutability of species would be
brought to its true value."
[Sidenote: ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS.]
The American Indians, their origin and consanguinity, have, from the
days of Columbus to the present time proved no less a knotty question.
Schoolmen and scientists count their theories by hundreds, each
sustaining some pet conjecture, with a logical clearness equaled only by
the facility with which he demolishes all the rest. One proves their
origin by holy writ; another by the writings of ancient philosophers;
another by the sage sayings of the Fathers. One discovers in them
Phoenician merchants; another, the ten lost tribes of Israel. They are
tracked with equal certainty from Scandinavia, from Ireland, from
Iceland, from Greenland, across Bering Strait, across the northern
Pacific, the southern Pacific, from the Polynesian Islands, from
Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Carthaginians were thrown upon the
eastern shore; Japanese junks on the western. The breezes that wafted
hither America's primogenitors are still blowing, and the ocean currents
by which they came cease not yet to flow. The finely spun webs of logic
by which these fancies are maintained would prove amusing, did not the
profound earnestness of their respective advocates render them
ridiculous. Acosta, who studied the subject for nine years in Peru,
concludes that America was the Ophir of Solomon. Aristotle relates that
the Carthaginians in a voyage were carried to an unknown island;
whereupon Florian, Gomara, Oviedo, and others, are satisfied that the
island was Española. "Who are these that fly as a cloud," exclaims
Esaias, "or as the doves to their windows?" Scholastic sages answer,
Columbus is the _columba_ or dove here prophesied. Alexo Vanegas shows
that America was peopled by Carthaginians; Anahuac being but another
name for Anak. Besides, both nations practiced picture-writing; both
venerated fire and water, wore skins of animals, pierced the ears, ate
dogs, drank to excess, telegraphed by means of fires on hills, wore all
their finery on going to war, poisoned their arrows, beat drums and
shouted in battle. Garcia found a man in Peru who had seen a rock with
something very like Greek letters engraved upon it; six hundred years
after the apotheosis of Hercules, Coleo made a long voyage; Homer knew
of the ocean; the Athenians waged war with the inhabitants of Atlantis;
hence the American Indians were Greeks. Lord Kingsborough proves
conclusively that these same American Indians were Jews: because their
"symbol of innocence" was in the one case a fawn and in the other a
lamb; because of the law of Moses, "considered in reference to the
custom of sacrificing children, which existed in Mexico and Peru;"
because "the fears of tumults of the people, famine, pestilence, and
warlike invasions, were exactly the same as those entertained by the
Jews if they failed in the performance of any of their ritual
observances;" because "the education of children commenced amongst the
Mexicans, as with the Jews, at an exceedingly early age;" because
"beating with a stick was a very common punishment amongst the Jews," as
well as among the Mexicans; because the priesthood of both nations "was
hereditary in a certain family;" because both were inclined to pay great
respect to lucky or unlucky omens, such as the screeching of the owl,
the sneezing of a person in company," etc., and because of a hundred
other equally sound and relevant arguments. Analogous reasoning to this
of Lord Kingsborough's was that of the Merced Indians of California.
Shortly after the discovery of the Yosemite Valley, tidings reached the
settlers of Mariposa that certain chiefs had united with intent to drop
down from their mountain stronghold and annihilate them. To show the
Indians the uselessness of warring upon white men, these chieftains were
invited to visit the city of San Francisco, where, from the number and
superiority of the people that they would there behold, they should
become intimidated, and thereafter maintain peace. But contrary to the
most reasonable expectations, no sooner had the dusky delegates returned
to their home than a council was called, and the assembled warriors were
informed that they need have no fear of these strangers: "For," said the
envoys, "the people of the great city of San Francisco are of a
different tribe from these white settlers of Mariposa. Their manners,
their customs, their language, their dress, are all different. They wear
black coats and high hats, and are not able to walk along the smoothest
path without the aid of a stick."
There are many advocates for an Asiatic origin, both among ancient and
modern speculators. Favorable winds and currents, the short distance
between islands, traditions, both Chinese and Indian, refer the peopling
of America to that quarter. Similarity in color, features, religion,
reckoning of time, absence of a heavy beard, and innumerable other
comparisons, are drawn by enthusiastic advocates, to support a Mongolian
origin. The same arguments, in whole or in part, are used to prove that
America was peopled by Egyptians, by Ethiopians, by French, English,
Trojans, Frisians, Scythians; and also that different parts were settled
by different peoples. The test of language has been applied with equal
facility and enthusiasm to Egyptian, Jew, Phoenician, Carthaginian,
Spaniard, Chinese, Japanese, and in fact to nearly all the nations of
the earth. A complete review of theories and opinions concerning the
origin of the Indians, I propose to give in another place; not that
intrinsically they are of much value, except as showing the different
fancies of different men and times. Fancies, I say, for modern scholars,
with the aid of all the new revelations of science, do not appear in
their investigations to arrive one whit nearer an indubitable
conclusion.
It was obvious to the Europeans when they first beheld the natives of
America, that these were unlike the intellectual white-skinned race of
Europe, the barbarous blacks of Africa, or any nation or people which
they had hitherto encountered, yet were strikingly like each other. Into
whatsoever part of the newly discovered lands they penetrated, they
found a people seemingly one in color, physiognomy, customs, and in
mental and social traits. Their vestiges of antiquity and their
languages presented a coincidence which was generally observed by early
travelers. Hence physical and psychological comparisons are advanced to
prove ethnological resemblances among all the peoples of America, and
that they meanwhile possess common peculiarities totally distinct from
the nations of the old world. Morton and his confrères, the originators
of the American homogeneity theory, even go so far as to claim for the
American man an origin as indigenous as that of the fauna and flora.
They classify all the tribes of America, excepting only the Eskimos who
wandered over from Asia, as the American race, and divide it into the
American family and the Toltecan family. Blumenbach classifies the
Americans as a distinct species. The American Mongolidæ of Dr Latham are
divided into Eskimos and American Indians. Dr Morton perceives the same
characteristic lineaments in the face of the Fuegian and the Mexican,
and in tribes inhabiting the Rocky Mountains, the Mississippi Valley,
and Florida. The same osteological structure, swarthy color, straight
hair, meagre beard, obliquely cornered eyes, prominent cheek bones, and
thick lips are common to them all. Dr Latham describes his American
Mongolidæ as exercising upon the world a material rather than a moral
influence; giving them meanwhile a color, neither a true white nor a jet
black; hair straight and black, rarely light, sometimes curly; eyes
sometimes oblique; a broad, flat face and a retreating forehead. Dr
Prichard considers the American race, psychologically, as neither
superior nor inferior to other primitive races of the world. Bory de St
Vincent classifies Americans into five species, including the Eskimos.
The Mexicans he considers as cognate with the Malays. Humboldt
characterizes the nations of America as one race, by their straight
glossy hair, thin beard, swarthy complexion, and cranial formation.
Schoolcraft makes four groups; the first extending across the northern
end of the continent; the second, tribes living east of the Mississippi;
the third, those between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains; and
the fourth, those west of the Rocky Mountains. All these he subdivides
into thirty-seven families; but so far as those on the Pacific Coast are
concerned, he might as reasonably have made of them twice or half the
number.
All writers agree in giving to the nations of America a remote
antiquity; all admit that there exists a greater uniformity between them
than is to be found in the old world; many deny that all are one race.
There is undoubtedly a prevailing uniformity in those physical
characteristics which govern classification; but this uniformity goes as
far to prove one universal race throughout the world, as it does to
prove a race peculiar to America. Traditions, ruins, moral and physical
peculiarities, all denote for Americans a remote antiquity. The action
of a climate peculiar to America, and of natural surroundings common to
all the people of the continent, could not fail to produce in time a
similarity of physiological structure.
[Sidenote: INDIVIDUALITY OF RACE.]
The impression of a New World individuality of race was no doubt
strengthened in the eyes of the Conquerors, and in the mind of the
train of writers that followed, by the fact, that the newly discovered
tribes were more like each other than were any other peoples they had
ever before seen; and at the same time very much unlike any nation
whatever of the old world. And so any really existing physical
distinctions among the American stocks came to be overlooked or
undervalued. Darwin, on the authority of Elphinstone, observes that in
India, "although a newly arrived European cannot at first distinguish
the various native races, yet they soon appear to him entirely
dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference
between the several European nations."
It has been observed by Prof. von Martius that the literary and
architectural remains of the civilized tribes of America indicate a
higher degree of intellectual elevation than is likely to be found in a
nation emerging from barbarism. In their sacerdotal ordinances,
privileged orders, regulated despotisms, codes of law, and forms of
government are found clear indications of a relapse from civilization to
barbarism. Chateaubriand, from the same premises, develops a directly
opposite conclusion, and perceives in all this high antiquity and
civilization only a praiseworthy evolution from primeval barbarism.
Thus arguments drawn from a comparison of parallel traits in the moral,
social, or physical condition of man should be received with allowance,
for man has much in common not only with man, but with animals.
Variations in bodily structure and mental faculties are governed by
general laws. The great variety of climate which characterizes America
could not fail to produce various habits of life. The half-torpid
Hyperborean, the fierce warrior-hunter of the vast interior forests, the
sluggish, swarthy native of the tropics, and the intelligent Mexican of
the table-land, slowly developing into civilization under the refining
influences of arts and letters,--all these indicate variety in the unity
of the American race; while the insulation of American nations, and the
general characteristics incident to peculiar physical conditions could
not fail to produce a unity in their variety.
[Sidenote: RACES OF THE PACIFIC.]
The races of the Pacific States embrace all the varieties of species
known as American under any of the classifications mentioned. Thus, in
the five divisions of Blumenbach, the Eskimos of the north would come
under the fourth division, which embraces Malays and Polynesians, and
which is distinguished by a high square skull, low forehead, short broad
nose, and projecting jaws. To his fifth class, the American, which he
subdivides into the American family and the Toltecan family, he gives a
small skull with a high apex, flat on the occiput, high cheek bones,
receding forehead, aquiline nose, large mouth, and tumid lips. Morton,
although he makes twenty-two divisions in all, classifies Americans in
the same manner. The Polar family he characterises as brown in color,
short in stature, of thick, clumsy proportions, with a short neck, large
head, flat face, small nose, and eyes disposed to obliquity. He
perceives an identity of race among all the other stocks from Mount St
Elias to Patagonia; though he designates the semi-civilized tribes of
Mexico and Peru as the Toltecan family, and the savage nations as the
Appalachian branch of the American family. Dr Prichard makes three
divisions of the tribes bordering the Pacific between Mount St Elias and
Cape St Lucas: the tribes from the borders of the Eskimos southward to
Vancouver Island constitute the first division; the tribes of Oregon and
Washington, the second; and the tribes of Upper and Lower California,
the third. Pickering assigns the limits of the American, Malay, or
Toltecan family to California and western Mexico. He is of the opinion
that they crossed from southeastern Asia by way of the islands of the
Pacific, and landed upon this continent south of San Francisco, there
being no traces of them north of this point; while the Mongolians found
their way from northeastern Asia across Bering Strait. The Californians,
therefore, he calls Malays; and the inhabitants of Vancouver Island,
British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon, he classifies as Mongolians.
Californians, in the eyes of this traveler, differ from their northern
neighbors in complexion and physiognomy. The only physiological test
that Mr Pickering was able to apply in order to distinguish the
Polynesian in San Francisco from the native Californian, was that the
hair of the former was wavy, while that of the latter was straight. Both
have more hair than the Oregonian. The skin of the Malay of the
Polynesian Islands, and that of the Californian are alike, soft and very
dark. Three other analogous characteristics were discovered by Mr
Pickering. Both have an open countenance, one wife, and no tomahawk! On
the other hand, the Mongolian from Asia, and the Oregonian are of a
lighter complexion, and exhibit the same general resemblances that are
seen in the American and Asiatic Eskimos.
In general the Toltecan family may be described as of good stature, well
proportioned, rather above medium size, of a light copper color; as
having long black obliquely pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy
black hair, thin beard, prominent cheek bones, thick lips, large
aquiline nose, and retreating forehead. A gentle expression about the
mouth is blended with severity and melancholy in the upper portion of
the face. They are brave, cruel in war, sanguinary in religion, and
revengeful. They are intelligent; possess minds well adapted to the
pursuit of knowledge; and, at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards,
were well advanced in history, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy.
They constructed aqueducts, extracted metals, carved images in gold,
silver, and copper; they could spin, weave, and dye; they could
accurately cut precious stones; they cultivated corn and cotton; built
large cities, constructing their buildings of stone and lime; made roads
and erected stupendous tumuli.
Certain ethnological zones have been observed by some, stretching across
the continent in various latitudes, broken somewhat by intersecting
continental elevations, but following for the most part isothermal lines
which, on coming from the east, bend northward as the softer air of the
Pacific is entered. Thus the Eskimos nearly surround the pole. Next come
the Tinneh, stretching across the continent from the east, somewhat
irregularly, but their course marked generally by thermic lines, bending
northward after crossing the Rocky Mountains, their southern boundary,
touching the Pacific, about the fifty-fifth parallel. The Algonkin
family border on the Tinneh, commencing at the mouth of the St Lawrence
River, and extending westward to the Rocky Mountains. Natural causes
alone prevent the extension of these belts round the entire earth.
Indeed, both philologists and physiologists trace lines of affinity
across the Pacific, from island to island, from one continent to the
other; one line, as we have seen, crossing Bering Strait, another
following the Aleutian Archipelago, and a third striking the coast south
of San Francisco Bay.
[Sidenote: SAVAGE HUMANITY.]
It is common for those unaccustomed to look below the surface of things,
to regard Indians as scarcely within the category of humanity.
Especially is this the case when we, maddened by some treacherous
outrage, some diabolic act of cruelty, hastily pronounce them
incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of vipers, the
extermination of which is a righteous act. All of which may be true;
but, judged by this standard, has not every nation on earth incurred the
death penalty? Human nature is in no wise changed by culture. The
European is but a white-washed savage. Civilized venom is no less
virulent than savage venom. It ill becomes the full grown man to scoff
at the ineffectual attempts of the little child, and to attempt the cure
of its faults by killing it. No more is it a mark of benevolent wisdom
in those favored by a superior intelligence, with the written records
of the past from which to draw experience and learn how best to shape
their course for the future, to cry down the untaught man of the
wilderness, deny him a place in this world or the next, denounce him as
a scourge, an outlaw, and seize upon every light pretext to assist him
off the stage from which his doom is so rapidly removing him. We view
man in his primitive state from a wrong stand-point at the outset. In
place of regarding savages as of one common humanity with ourselves, and
the ancestors perhaps of peoples higher in the scale of being, and more
intellectual than any the world has yet seen, we place them among the
common enemies of mankind, and regard them more in the light of wild
animals than of wild men.
And let not him who seeks a deeper insight into the mysteries of
humanity despise beginnings, things crude and small. The difference
between the cultured and the primitive man lies chiefly in the fact that
one has a few centuries the start of the other in the race of progress.
Before condemning the barbarian, let us first examine his code of
ethics. Let us draw our light from his light, reason after his fashion;
see in the sky, the earth, the sea, the same fantastic imagery that
plays upon his fancy, and adapt our sense of right and wrong to his
social surroundings. Just as human nature is able to appreciate divine
nature only as divine nature accords with human nature; so the
intuitions of lower orders of beings can be comprehended only by
bringing into play our lower faculties. Nor can we any more clearly
appreciate the conceptions of beings below us than of those above us.
The thoughts, reasonings, and instincts of an animal or insect are as
much a mystery to the human intellect as are the lofty contemplations of
an archangel.
[Sidenote: PACIFICATION OF TIERRA FIRME.]
Three hundred and thirty-six years were occupied in the
discovery of the western border of North America. From the
time when, in 1501, the adventurous notary of Triana,
Rodrigo de Bastidas, approached the Isthmus of Darien, in
search of gold and pearls, till the year 1837, when Messrs
Dease and Simpson, by order of the Hudson's Bay Company,
completed the survey of the northern extremity, which
bounds the Arctic Ocean, the intervening territory was
discovered at intervals, and under widely different
circumstances. During that time, under various immediate
incentives, but with the broad principle of avarice
underlying all, such parts of this territory as were
conceived to be of sufficient value were seized, and the
inhabitants made a prey to the rapacity of the invaders.
Thus the purpose of the worthy notary Bastidas, the first
Spaniard who visited the continent of North America, was
pacific barter with the Indians; and his kind treatment was
rewarded by a successful traffic. Next came Columbus, from
the opposite direction, sailing southward along the coast
of Honduras on his fourth voyage, in 1502. His was the
nobler object of discovery. He was striving to get through
or round this _tierra firme_ which, standing between
himself and his theory, persistently barred his progress
westward. He had no time for barter, nor any inclination to
plant settlements; he was looking for a strait or passage
through or round these outer confines to the more opulent
regions of India. But, unsuccessful in his laudable effort,
he at length yielded to the clamorous cupidity of his crew.
He permitted his brother, the Adelantado, to land and take
possession of the country for the king of Spain, and, in
the year following, to attempt a settlement at Veragua.
[Sidenote: FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.]
In 1506-8, Juan de Solis with Pinzon continued the search
of Columbus, along the coast of Yucatan and Mexico, for a
passage through to the southern ocean. The disastrous
adventures of Alonzo de Ojeda, Diego de Nicuesa, and Juan
de la Cosa, on the Isthmus of Darien, between the years
1507 and 1511, brought into more intimate contact the steel
weapons of the chivalrous hidalgos with the naked bodies of
the savages. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, after a toilsome
journey across the Isthmus in 1513, was rewarded by the
first view of the Pacific Ocean, of which he took
possession for the king of Spain on the twenty-fifth of
September. The white sails of Córdova Grijalva, and Garay,
descried by the natives of Yucatan and Mexico in 1517-19,
were quickly followed by Cortés and his keen-scented band
of adventurers, who, received by the unsuspecting natives
as gods, would have been dismissed by them as fiends had
not the invasion culminated in the conquest of Mexico.
During the years 1522-24, Cortés made expeditions to
Tehuantepec, Panuco, and Central America; Gil Gonzales and
Cristobal de Olid invaded Nicaragua and Honduras. Nuño de
Guzman in 1530, with a large force, took possession of the
entire northern country from the city of Mexico to the
northern boundary of Sinaloa; and Cabeza de Vaca crossed
the continent from Texas to Sinaloa in the years 1528-36.
Journeys to the north were made by Cortés, Ulloa, Coronado,
Mendoza, and Cabrillo between the years 1536 and 1542.
Hundreds of Roman Catholic missionaries, ready to lay down
their lives in their earnest anxiety for the souls of the
Indians, spread out into the wilderness in every direction.
During the latter part of the sixteenth century had
place,--the expedition of Francisco de Ibarra to Sinaloa in
1556, the campaign of Hernando de Bazan against the Indians
of Sinaloa in 1570, the adventures of Oxenham in Darien in
1575, the voyage round the world of Sir Francis Drake,
touching upon the Northwest Coast in 1579; the expedition
of Antonio de Espejo to New Mexico in 1583; Francisco de
Gali's return from Macao to Mexico, by way of the Northwest
Coast, in 1584; the voyage of Maldonado to the imaginary
Straits of Anian in 1588; the expedition of Castaño de Sosa
to New Mexico in 1590; the voyage of Juan de Fuca to the
Straits of Anian in 1592; the wreck of the 'San Agustin'
upon the Northwest Coast in 1595; the voyage of Sebastian
Vizcaino towards California in 1596; the discoveries of
Juan de Oñate in New Mexico in 1599, and many others.
Intercourse with the natives was extended during the
seventeenth century by the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino
from Mexico to California in 1602; by the expedition of
Francisco de Ortega to Lower California in 1631; by the
journey of Thomas Gage from Mexico to Guatemala in 1638; by
the voyage round the world of William Dampier in 1679; by
the reckless adventures of the Buccaneers from 1680 to
1690; by the expedition of Isidor de Otondo into Lower
California in 1683; by the expedition of Father Kino to
Sonora and Arizona in 1683; by the expeditions of Kino,
Kappus, Mange, Bernal, Carrasco, Salvatierra, and others to
Sonora and Arizona in 1694-9; and by the occupation of
Lower California by the Jesuits, Salvatierra, Ugarte, Kino,
and Piccolo, from 1697 to 1701. Voyages of circumnavigation
were made by Dampier in 1703-4; by Rogers in 1708-11; by
Shelvocke in 1719-22, and by Anson in 1740-4. Frondac made
a voyage from China to California in 1709.
The first voyage through Bering Strait is supposed to have
been made by Semun Deschneff and his companions in the year
1648, and purports to have explored the Asiatic coast from
the river Kolyma to the south of the river Anadir, thus
proving the separation of the continents of Asia and
America. In 1711, a Russian Cossack, named Popoff, was sent
from the fort on the Anadir river to subdue the rebellious
Tschuktschi of Tschuktschi Noss, a point of land on the
Asiatic coast near to the American continent. He there
received from the natives the first intelligence of the
proximity of the continent of America and the character of
the inhabitants; an account of which will be given in
another place. In 1741, Vitus Bering and Alexei Tschirikoff
sailed in company, from Petropaulovski, for the opposite
coast of America. They parted company during a storm, the
latter reaching the coast in latitude fifty-six, and the
former landing at Cape St Elias in latitude sixty degrees
north. The earliest information concerning the Aleutian
Islanders was obtained by the Russians in the year 1745,
when Michael Nevodtsikoff sailed from the Kamtchatka river
in pursuit of furs. A Russian commercial company, called
the Promyschleniki, was formed, and other hunting and
trading voyages followed. Lasareff visited six islands of
the Andreanovski group in 1761; and the year following was
made the discovery of the Alaskan Peninsula, supposed to be
an island until after the survey of the coast by Captain
Cook. Drusinin made a hunting expedition to Unalaska and
the Fox Islands in 1763; and, during the same year, Stephen
Glottoff visited the island of Kadiak. Korovin, Solovieff,
Synd, Otseredin, Krenitzen, and other Russian fur-hunters
spent the years 1762-5 among the Aleutian Islands,
capturing sea-otters, seals, and foxes, and exchanging,
with the natives, beads and iron utensils, for furs.
[Sidenote: OCCUPATION OF CALIFORNIA.]
A grand missionary movement, growing out of the religious
rivalries of the two great orders of the Catholic Church,
led to the original occupation of Upper California by
Spaniards. The work of Christianizing Lower California was
inaugurated by the Jesuits, under Fathers Salvatierra and
Kino, in 1697. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico
in 1767, their missions were turned over to the
Franciscans. This so roused the zeal of the Dominicans that
they immediately appealed to Spain, and in 1769 obtained an
edict, giving them a due share in the missions of Lower
California. The Franciscans, thinking it better to carry
their efforts into new fields than to contend for
predominance at home, generously offered to cede the whole
of Lower California to the Dominicans, and themselves
retire to the wild and distant regions of Upper California.
This being agreed upon, two expeditions were organized to
proceed northward simultaneously, one by water and the
other by land. In January, 1769, the ship 'San Carlos,'
commanded by Vicente Vila, was dispatched for San Diego,
followed by the 'San Antonio,' under Juan Perez, and the
'San José,' which was unfortunately lost. The land
expedition was separated into two divisions; the first
under Rivera y Moncada departed from Mexico in March, and
arrived at San Diego in May; the second under Gaspar de
Portolá and Father Junípero Serra reached San Diego in
July, 1769. Portolá with his companions immediately set out
by land for the Bay of Monterey; but, unwittingly passing
it by, they continued northward until barred in their
progress by the magnificent Bay of San Francisco. Unable to
find the harbor of Monterey, they returned to San Diego in
January, 1770. In April, Portolá made a second and more
successful attempt, and arrived at Monterey in May.
Meanwhile Perez and Junípero Serra accomplished the voyage
by sea, sailing in the 'San Carlos.' In 1772, Pedro Fages
and Juan Crespi proceeded from Monterey to explore the Bay
of San Francisco. They were followed by Rivera y Moncada in
1774, and Palou and Ezeta in 1775; and in 1776, Moraga
founded the Mission of Dolores. In 1775, Bodega y Quadra
voyaged up the Californian coast to the fifty-eighth
parallel. In 1776, Dominguez and Escalante made an
expedition from Santa Fé to Monterey. Menonville journeyed
to Oajaca in New Spain in 1777. In 1778, Captain Cook, in
his third voyage round the world, touched along the Coast
from Cape Flattery to Norton Sound; and in 1779, Bodega y
Quadra, Maurelle, and Arteaga voyaged up the western coast
to Mount St Elias. During the years 1785-8, voyages of
circumnavigation were made by Dixon and Portlock, and by La
Pérouse, all touching upon the Northwest Coast.
French Canadian traders were the first to penetrate the
northern interior west of Hudson Bay. Their most distant
station was on the Saskatchewan River, two thousand miles
from civilization, in the heart of an unknown wilderness
inhabited by savage men and beasts. These _coureurs des
bois_ or wood-rangers, as they were called, were admirably
adapted, by their disposition and superior address, to
conciliate the Indians and form settlements among them.
Unrestrained, however, by control, they committed excesses
which the French government could check only by
prohibiting, under penalty of death, any but its authorized
agents from trading within its territories. British
merchants at New York soon entered into competition with
the fur princes of Montreal. But, in 1670, a more
formidable opposition arose in the organization of the
Hudson's Bay Company, by Prince Rupert and other noblemen,
under a charter of Charles II. which granted exclusive
right to all the territory drained by rivers flowing into
Hudson Bay. Notwithstanding constant feuds with the French
merchants regarding territorial limits, the company
prospered from the beginning, paying annual dividends of
twenty-five and fifty per cent. after many times increasing
the capital stock. In 1676, the Canadians formed the
_Compagnie du Nord_, in order the more successfully to
resist encroachment. Upon the loss of Canada by the French
in 1762, hostilities thickened between the companies, and
the traffic for a time fell off. In 1784, the famous
Northwest Company was formed by Canadian merchants, and the
management entrusted to the Frobisher brothers and Simon
M'Tavish. The head-quarters of the company were at
Montreal, but annual meetings were held, with lordly state,
at Fort William, on the shore of Lake Superior. The company
consisted of twenty-three partners, and employed over two
thousand clerks and servants. It exercised an almost feudal
sway over a wide savage domain, and maintained a formidable
competition with the Hudson's Bay Company, with which they
were for two years in actual war. In 1813, they purchased,
from the partners of John Jacob Astor, the settlement of
Astoria on the Columbia River. In 1821, they united with
the Hudson's Bay Company; and the charter covering the
entire region occupied by both was renewed by act of
Parliament. In 1762, some merchants of New Orleans
organized a company which was commissioned by D'Abadie,
director-general of Louisiana, under the name of Pierre
Ligueste Laclède, Antoine Maxan, and Company. Their first
post occupied the spot upon which the city of St Louis is
now situated; and, under the auspices of the brothers
Chouteau, they penetrated northwestward beyond the Rocky
Mountains. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company was formed at
St Louis, consisting of the Chouteaus and others; and an
expedition under Major Henry was sent across the Rocky
Mountains, which established the first post on the Columbia
River. Between the years 1825 and 1830, the Rocky Mountain
Fur Company of St Louis extended their operations over
California and Oregon, but at a loss of the lives of nearly
one half of their employés. John Jacob Astor embarked in
the fur trade at New York in 1784, purchasing at that time
in Montreal. In 1808, he obtained a charter for the
American Fur Company, which was, in 1811, merged into the
Southwest Company. In 1809, Mr Astor conceived the project
of establishing a transcontinental line of posts. His
purpose was to concentrate the fur trade of the United
States, and establish uninterrupted communication between
the Pacific and the Atlantic. He made proposals of
association to the Northwest Company, which were not only
rejected, but an attempt was made by that association to
anticipate Mr Astor in his operations, by making a
settlement at the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1810, the
Pacific Fur Company was founded by Mr Astor, and an
expedition dispatched overland by way of St Louis and the
Missouri River. At the same time a vessel was sent round
Cape Horn to the mouth of the Columbia; but, their
adventure in that quarter proving unsuccessful, the
company was dissolved, and the operations of Mr Astor were
thereafter confined to the territory east of the Rocky
Mountains.
[Sidenote: THE GREAT NORTHWEST.]
Samuel Hearne, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company, was
the first European to reach the Arctic Ocean through the
interior of the continent. He descended Coppermine River to
its mouth in the year 1771. The Upper Misinipi River was
first visited by Joseph Frobisher in 1775. Three years
later, one Peter Pond penetrated to within thirty miles of
Athabasca Lake, and established a trading post at that
point. Four canoe-loads of merchandise were exchanged by
him for more fine furs than his canoes could carry. Other
adventurous traders soon followed; but not long afterwards
the inevitable broils which always attended the early
intercourse of Europeans and Indians, rose to such a height
that, but for the appearance of that terrible scourge, the
small-pox, the traders would have been extirpated. The
ravages of this dire disease continued to depopulate the
country until 1782, when traders again appeared among the
Knisteneaux and Tinneh. The most northern division of the
Northwest Company was at that time the Athabascan Lake
region, where Alexander Mackenzie was the managing partner.
His winter residence was at Fort Chipewyan, on Athabasca
Lake. The Indians who traded at his establishment informed
him of the existence of a large river flowing to the
westward from Slave Lake. Thinking thereby to reach the
Pacific Ocean, Mr Mackenzie, in the year 1789, set out upon
an expedition to the west; and, descending the noble stream
which bears his name, found himself, contrary to his
expectations, upon the shores of the Arctic Sea. In 1793,
he made a journey to the Pacific, ascending Peace River,
and reaching the coast in latitude about fifty-two. The
first expedition organized by the British government for
the purpose of surveying the northern coast, was sent out
under Lieutenants Franklin and Parry in 1819. During the
year following, Franklin descended Coppermine River, and
subsequently, in 1825, he made a journey down the
Mackenzie. In 1808, D. W. Harmon, a partner in the
Northwest Company, crossed the Rocky Mountains, at about
the fifty-sixth parallel, to Fraser and Stuart Lakes. The
accounts of the natives given by these travelers and their
companions are essentially the same, and later voyagers
have failed to throw much additional light upon the
subject. John Meares, in 1788, visited the Straits of Fuca,
Nootka Sound, and Cook Inlet; and, during the same year,
two ships, sent out by Boston merchants, under Robert Gray
and John Kendrick, entered Nootka Sound. Estevan Martinez
and Gonzalo Haro, sent from Mexico to look after the
interest of Spain in these regions, explored Prince William
Sound, and visited Kadiak. During the same year, the
Russians established a trading post at Copper River. In
1789, Joseph Billings visited the Aleutian Islands, and the
Boston vessels explored the Eastern coast of Queen
Charlotte Island. In 1790, Salvador Fidalgo was sent by the
Mexican government to Nootka; and Monaldo explored the
Straits of Juan de Fuca. In 1791, four ships belonging to
Boston merchants, two Spanish ships, one French and several
Russian vessels touched upon the Northwest Coast. The
Spanish vessels were under the command of Alejandro
Malespina; Etienne Marchand was the commander of the French
ship. The 'Sutil y Mexicana' entered Nootka Sound in 1792;
and during the same year, Vancouver commenced his
explorations along the coast above Cape Flattery. In
1803-4, Baron Von Humboldt was making his searching
investigations in Mexico; while the captive New Englander,
Jewett, was dancing attendance to Maquina, king of the
Nootkas. Lewis and Clark traversed the continent in 1805.
In 1806, a Mr Fraser set out from Canada, and crossed the
Rocky Mountains near the headwaters of the river which
bears his name. He descended Fraser River to the lake which
he also called after himself. There he built a fort and
opened trade with the natives. Kotzebue visited the coast
in 1816; and the Russian expedition under Kramchenko,
Wasilieff, and Etolin, in 1822. Captain Morrel explored the
Californian coast from San Diego to San Francisco in 1825;
Captains Beechey and Lütke, the Northwest Coast in 1826;
and Sir Edward Belcher in 1837. J. K. Townsend made an
excursion west of the Rocky Mountains in 1834. In 1837,
Dease and Simpson made an open boat voyage from the
Mackenzie River, westward to Point Barrow, the farthest
point made by Beechey from the opposite direction, thus
reaching the _Ultima Thule_ of northwestern discovery. Sir
George Simpson crossed the continent in 1841, Fremont in
1843, and Paul Kane in 1845. Kushevaroff visited the coast
in 1838, Laplace in 1839, Commodore Wilkes in 1841, and
Captain Kellett in 1849. Following the discovery of gold,
the country was deluged by adventurers. In 1853-4,
commenced the series of explorations for a Pacific railway.
The necessities of the natives were examined, and remnants
of disappearing nations were collected upon reservations
under government agents. The interior of Alaska was first
penetrated by the employés of the Russian-American Fur
Company. Malakoff ascended the Yukon in 1838; and, in 1842,
Derabin established a fort upon that river. In 1849, W. H.
Hooper made a boat expedition from Kotzebue Sound to the
Mackenzie River; and, in 1866, William H. Dall and
Frederick Whymper ascended the Yukon.
I have here given a few only of the original sources whence
my information is derived concerning the Indians. A
multitude of minor voyages and travels have been performed
during the past three and a half centuries, and accounts
published by early residents among the natives, the bare
enumeration of which I fear would prove wearisome to the
reader. Enough, however, has been given to show the
immediate causes which led to the discovery and occupation
of the several parts of this western coast. The Spanish
cavaliers craved from the Indians of the South their lands
and their gold. The Spanish missionaries demanded from the
Indians of Northern Mexico and California, faith. The
French, English, Canadian, and American fur companies
sought from the Indians of Oregon and New Caledonia,
peltries. The Russians compelled the natives of the
Aleutian Islands to hunt sea-animals. The filthy
raw-flesh-eating Eskimos, having nothing wherewith to tempt
the cupidity of the superior race, retain their primitive
purity.
[Sidenote: CUPIDITY AND ZEAL.]
We observe then three original incentives urging on
civilized white men to overspread the domain of the Indian.
The first was that thirst for gold, which characterized the
fiery hidalgos from Spain in their conquests, and to
obtain which no cruelty was too severe nor any sacrifice of
human life too great; as though of all the gifts vouchsafed
to man, material or divine, one only was worth possessing.
The second, following closely in the footsteps of the
first, and oftentimes constituting a part of it, was
religious enthusiasm; a zealous interest in the souls of
the natives and the form in which they worshiped. The
third, which occupied the attention of other and more
northern Europeans, grew out of a covetous desire for the
wild man's clothing; to secure to themselves the peltries
of the great hyperborean regions of America. From the south
of Europe the Spaniards landed in tropical North America,
and exterminated the natives. From the north of Europe the
French, English, and Russians crossed over to the northern
part of America; and, with a kinder and more refined
cruelty, no less effectually succeeded in sweeping them
from the face of the earth by the introduction of the
poisonous elements of a debased cultivation.
Fortunately for the Indians of the north, it was contrary
to the interests of white people to kill them in order to
obtain the skins of their animals; for, with a few
trinkets, they could procure what otherwise would require
long and severe labor to obtain. The policy, therefore, of
the great fur-trading companies has been to cherish the
Indians as their best hunters, to live at peace with them,
to heal their ancient feuds, and to withhold from them
intoxicating liquors. The condition of their women, who
were considered by the natives as little better than
beasts, has been changed by their inter-social relations
with the servants of the trading companies; and their more
barbarous practices discontinued. It was the almost
universal custom of the employés of the Hudson's Bay
Company to unite to themselves native women; thus, by means
of this relationship, the condition of the women has been
raised, while the men manifest a kinder feeling towards the
white race who thus in a measure become one with them.
The efforts of early missionaries to this region were not
crowned with that success which attended the Spaniards in
their spiritual warfare upon the southern nations, from the
fact that no attention was paid to the temporal necessities
of the natives. It has long since been demonstrated
impossible to reach the heart of a savage through abstract
ideas of morality and elevation of character. A religion,
in order to find favor in his eyes, must first meet some of
his material requirements. If it is good, it will clothe
him better and feed him better, for this to him is the
chiefest good in life. Intermixtures of civilized with
savage peoples are sure to result in the total
disappearance of refinement on the one side, or in the
extinction of the barbaric race on the other. The downward
path is always the easiest. Of all the millions of native
Americans who have perished under the withering influences
of European civilization, there is not a single instance on
record, of a tribe or nation having been reclaimed,
ecclesiastically or otherwise, by artifice and argument.
Individual savages have been educated with a fair degree of
success. But, with a degree of certainty far greater, no
sooner is the white man freed from the social restraint of
civilized companionship, than he immediately tends towards
barbarism; and not infrequently becomes so fascinated with
his new life as to prefer it to any other. Social
development is inherent: superinduced culture is a
failure. Left alone, the nations of America might have
unfolded into as bright a civilization as that of Europe.
They were already well advanced, and still rapidly
advancing towards it, when they were so mercilessly
stricken down. But for a stranger to re-create the heart or
head of a red man, it were easier to change the color of
his skin.
[Illustration: NATIVE RACES OF THE PACIFIC STATES
HYPERBOREAN GROUP]