but in travelling he had various little testaments which he carried
with him, such as the set shown in the Ruskin Exhibition at Coniston
in 1900. In his bedroom, for reading on wakeful nights, he had the
"Stereotype Clarendon Press Bible, Printed by Samuel Collingwood and
Co." in six volumes, one being the Apocrypha, and this, like others,
bears marks of much use in notes and pencillings. He had more respect
for the Apocrypha than most Protestant Bible-readers. At one time
(1881) he presented several copies of this Clarendon Press edition,
bound just like his own, to a few friends whom he hoped to interest in
"St. George's work," with the inscription, "From the Master." To the
same he gave little squares of the pure gold, beaten thin, out of which
he meant to strike his "St. George's coinage," saying, "Now you have
taken St. George's money; and whether you call yourself one or no, you
are a member of my Guild. I have caught you with guile!"
It is rather curious, and characteristic of his old-fashioned ways,
that he used a bookmarker in his Bible--a dark blue ribbon, an inch
wide, sewn to a card, on which was the text, "Day by day we magnify
Thee," written and painted with a fifteenth-century style of ornament.
Quite at the end, his eyesight failed him for smaller type, and Mrs.
Severn bought him a larger-typed Bible, which he read, or had read to
him, constantly, up to his death. The only bit of his writing in it
is a note of his sadder moods, "The burden of London, Isaiah xxiv.";
I suppose he refers to the words, "Behold, the Lord maketh the earth
empty ... From the uttermost part of the earth have we heard songs,
even glory to the righteous. But I said, My leanness, my leanness,
woe unto me!..." Those who read "Fors" know how little he trusted our
imperialistic optimism.
Such a Bible-reader, one might think, would have collected something
in the way of a theological library, what are called helps to
Bible-reading. But no! he read neither commentators nor modern critics,
and I believe he had no interest in anybody's views about exegesis or
analysis. He kept by him a few volumes of reference: Smith's "Bible
Dictionary," Cruden, the "Englishman's Greek Concordance," Sharpe's
"Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures" (he knew no Hebrew), and there
were two copies of Finden's "Landscape Illustrations of the Bible,"
one for his study and one for his bedroom. But even these few were
little used; to him the plain old text was the book he studied all
through his eighty years, and knew as not many in this generation
know it. Once in his rooms at Oxford I remember getting into a
difficulty about the correct quotation of some passage. "Haven't you a
concordance?" I asked. "I'm ashamed to say I have," he said. I did not
quite understand him. "Well," he explained, "you and I oughtn't to need
Cruden!"
XIV
RUSKIN'S "ISOLA"
XIV
RUSKIN'S "ISOLA"
"I gave her that name," he said once, "because she is so
unapproachable."
When he was a very young man he saw her first in Rome. He had been
sent there for the winter because it was supposed he was going into a
consumption. He had certainly been working very hard at Oxford--not
only doing the necessary reading for honours, which need kill nobody,
but all manner of literature, art, antiquities and science into the
bargain, as his manner was; and he had taken terribly to heart the loss
of the pretty French girl, on whom his boyish affections had been set
for years. So he was in Rome as an invalid, restless and discontented;
and he didn't like Raphael, and he didn't like the other things people
ought to like. It must have been a difficult time for his parents; but
then one can't expect to bring up a genius without a certain amount of
trouble.
In a while he took a turn, and condescended to go with them to musical
services. They were energetic anti-Romanists; but they went to St.
Peter's to see the show, and to hear the singing. They thought he was
beginning to develop an interest in music. But it was just the old
story.
There was a beautiful Miss Tollemache in Rome that winter; "a fair
English girl," he says, "who was not only the admitted Queen of beauty
in the English circle of that winter in Rome, but was so, in the kind
of beauty which I had only hitherto dreamed of as possible, but never
yet seen living; statuesque severity with womanly sweetness joined. I
don't think I ever succeeded in getting nearer than within fifty yards
of her; but she was the light and solace of all the Roman winter to me,
in the mere chance glimpses of her far away, and the hope of them."
It was very like Ruskin, and it says very much for the reality of the
romantic ideal he preached, that a few glimpses of a far-away beauty,
whom he had neither the chance nor the intention of approaching, should
have made a man of him, out of a pining, love-sick boy. Open-air
sketching helped him out of his consumption, or whatever the disease
was; but the moral stimulus and reawakening of healthy imagination and
power to work were given him by this pure enthusiasm for a beautiful
face, fifty yards away.
[Illustration: LADY MOUNT TEMPLE, WHEN MRS. COWPER-TEMPLE, UNDER THE
BEECH-TREES AT A BROADLANDS CONFERENCE
FROM A PAINTING BY EDWARD CLIFFORD ABOUT 1876]
He never saw her again for about ten years, not until she was a wedded
wife. She had married a younger son of Earl Cowper and his wife,
daughter of Lord and Lady Melbourne, and by second marriage wife of
Lord Palmerston. The Hon. William Cowper was one of the most shining
examples of the type--one does not see much about it in newspapers or
histories, but private memoirs describe it in all ages, and no doubt it
exists even in this--the type of good men in great positions, men who
are in the world and very actively engaged in it, but quite unspotted.
He began life as aide-de-camp to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in
1830, and went into Parliament in 1835; he was a Lord of the Treasury
in 1845, then a Lord of the Admiralty, then President of the Board of
Health, Vice-President of the Board of Trade, Paymaster-General, Chief
Commissioner of Works, Vice-President of the Education Department of
the Privy Council, Chairman of Mr. Fawcett's Committee on the Enclosure
Acts; it was he who saved Epping Forest in 1871, and was prime mover
in the preservation of open spaces and in granting allotments to the
poor; he passed the Medical Bill in 1858, the Thames Embankment
Bill in 1862-3, and the Courts of Justice Building Bill in 1863; the
"Cowper-Temple Clause," to secure the reading of the Bible in Board
Schools, was his; he was the great reconstructor of the London Parks
and inventor of the scheme for distributing the Park flowers to
hospitals, work-houses and schools. It would be long to tell how he
made politics philanthropic and brought art into the public service.
After 45 years in Parliament he was raised to the peerage as Lord Mount
Temple, and died in 1888.
All these things are known, or knowable, to the public; but what is
more to the point, Histories of Our Own Times don't tell us: how the
lively Eton boy, always in scrapes, occasionally flogged, had according
to Gladstone's reminiscence "the stamp of purity, modesty, gentleness
upon him in a peculiar degree": how the dandy officer in the Blues
wanted to go into the Church "as a means of escaping," he wrote, "the
imminent dominion of the sins which it seemed so difficult to avoid":
how the busy M.P. and official, Palmerston's step-son and favourite,
kept through all distractions a perfectly holy and saintly life, a
sense of nearness to God and devotion to His will, that should put much
professional piety to shame.
For instance, in his diary he noted Queen Victoria's coronation, which,
of course, he had attended--he had dined with the Queen a couple of
days before--and continued, "The main object to be pursued in life is
communion with God. It is a good method of testing any way of spending
my time to ask, does it render me more ready for communion with God?"
At twenty-seven he had long known all that evangelical piety at its
best can teach; and he always kept the faith. Ten years later, his
young wife--the Miss Tollemache of Ruskin's admiration, and the Lady
Mount Temple laid in 1901 to rest by her husband's side--asked him,
at a large party at the Palmerston's, what interested him most. "Oh,
nothing," he answered, "compares in interest with communion with my
Master, and work for Him." "This," she added, in her privately printed
volume of _Memorials_, "this was the spirit of his life, through all
the blessed years I lived with him."
So after a long interval during which Ruskin had become a famous
writer, and the girl at Rome had become the true helpmate of such
a man, they met once more. It is rather curious to compare their
two separate accounts of the meeting. The lady says, referring to
the earlier part of her married life, in the 'fifties and 'sixties,
"Another great delight to us at this time was going up occasionally
to Denmark Hill for a happy day with Mr. Ruskin. It seems that, quite
unknown to myself, he had noticed me when we were in Rome together
in 1840! I was then eighteen. It was rather humiliating that when we
met again, after about ten years, he did not recognise me. We became
great friends: I was fond of his cousin Joan"--Mrs. Arthur Severn.
Ruskin's way of putting it was rather different, and the mere man
doesn't quite see where the humiliation comes in. He hated going to
parties, he says; but one evening was introduced to a lady who was "too
pretty to be looked at and yet keep one's wits about one"--that is
very characteristic of him: so he talked a little with his eyes on the
ground. "Presently, in some reference to Raphael or Michael Angelo, or
the musical glasses, the word 'Rome' occurred; and a minute afterwards,
something about Christmas in 1840. I looked up with a start; and saw
that the face was oval--fair--the hair, light brown. After a pause I
was rude enough to repeat her words, 'Christmas in 1840!--were you in
Rome then?' 'Yes,' she said, a little surprised, and now meeting my
eyes with hers, inquiringly. Another tenth of a minute passed before I
spoke again. 'Why, I lost all that winter in Rome in hunting _you_!'
It was Egeria herself! then Mrs. Cowper-Temple. She was not angry; and
became from that time forward a tutelary power, of the brightest and
happiest. Egeria always had her own way everywhere, thought that I also
should have mine, and generally got it for me."
[Illustration: (_F. Hollyer, photographer, 9 Pembroke Square, W._)
LADY MOUNT TEMPLE
FROM A CHALK DRAWING BY G. F. WATTS, R.A., 1894]
[Illustration: LADY MOUNT TEMPLE
FROM A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN 1886 BY ROSE DURRANT AND SON, TORQUAY]
By the kindness of Mrs. Arthur Severn I have by me the long series
of Ruskin's letters to Lord and Lady Mount Temple. To any one who
knew the people and circumstances touched upon, they would be most
interesting; delightfully amusing for the most part, but sometimes
intensely painful, where the fiery genius poured out his woes and
disappointments, public and private, into their kindly ears. She was
his confidant in all that unhappy love-story which ended so tragically
for his later life: she was his sympathetic adviser in much of his
work. Mr. Cowper-Temple, too, was a kindly and helpful friend. In the
early days he introduced Ruskin to Palmerston, and smoothed the way for
various plans connected with the National Gallery and public art-works,
many of which owed their promotion to Ruskin in the first instance.
I cannot trace his direct influence in the philanthropic labours of
Mr. Cowper-Temple and the politicians of his circle; but Ruskin was
personally admired and loved by many of them, and certainly had an
indirect share in much that was done for the help of the people. When
he attempted to found his Guild of St. George, Mr. Cowper-Temple was
one of the Trustees; not with great faith in the scheme, but with much
affection for the schemer.
[Illustration: LADY MOUNT TEMPLE
FROM A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN 1889 BY ROSE DURRANT AND SON, TORQUAY]
After some years of "Mr. and Mrs. Cowper" the acquaintance warmed into
a closer friendship. They became Ruskin's [Greek: "phile"], for he
always nicknamed his intimates, and often
so whimsically that his letters are quite ludicrously unprintable.
To them he was "St. C."--Saint Chrysostom, the "golden-mouthed"; and
sometimes, he liked to think, St. Christopher. When he was very ill
at Matlock in 1871 Mrs. Cowper-Temple came to nurse him, and from that
time he was her "Loving little boy," and his friends were his "Dearest
Mama" and "Dear Papa." His view of life was that he grew younger as the
years went on--and so from being "Dearest Mama" she became "Darling
Grannie," and he signed "Ever your poor, grateful little boy." It is
perhaps all very absurd; but one certainly does not understand Ruskin
without knowing this queer side of his character, part sentimental,
part grotesque, which creeps out even in his most serious writing, and
makes it so impossible to take his every word for gospel message. But
very often he wrote to her and of her as Isola--the island--"Isola
Bella" standing alone and unapproachable by all ordinary roads, and
yet open on all sides to the waifs of the waves, claiming haven and
rest in her sympathy. Here is the whole of a little note written in a
dark time in his later years: "Is there no Isola indeed, where we can
find refuge--and give it? I have never yet been so hopeless of doing
anything more in this wide-wasting and wasted earth, unless--we seize
and fortify with love--a new Atlantis. Ever your devoted St. C."
There are very few bits in the letters of general interest. Of
somebody's sketches sent for him to look at he wrote: "Alas, there's
no genius in these drawings. Genius never exists without intense
industry. Industry is not genius, but is the vital element of it."
In Bible reading--"I noticed, curiously for the first time, two most
important mistranslations. Fancy never having noticed before that
'Sufficient unto the day is its evil,' ought to be 'Let the day's evil
suffice for it.' And 'chasteneth' ought in several cases to be merely
'bringeth up, teacheth!'" Here is what he urged upon his friends in
all seriousness, and most strangely if you think who the friends were:
"You are compromising somehow between God and Satan, and therefore
don't see your way. Satan appears to you as an angel of the most
exquisite light--I can see that well enough; but how many real angels
he has got himself mixed up with I don't know. However, for the three
and fortieth time--in Ireland or England or France, or under the _Ara
coeli_ perhaps best of all, take an acre of ground, make it lovely, give
what food comes of it to people who need it--and take no rent of it
yourselves. 'But that strikes at the very foundations of Society?' It
does; and therefore, do it. For the Foundations of Society are rotten
with every imaginable plague, and must be struck at and swept away,
and others built in Christ, instead of on the back of the Leviathan of
the Northern Foam. Ever your affectionate St. C.--not the Professor."
It was to Lady Mount Temple he wrote the pretty letter telling her
to arrange her party just as if Christ were coming to dinner--it is
printed in "Fors Clavigera"--"I suppose Him to have just sent Gabriel
to tell you He's coming, but that you're not to make any alterations in
your company on His account."
Perhaps she hardly needed a Ruskin to tell her that: but she kept
the letter, and did what it bade. Those who know anything about the
Broadlands Conferences, those remarkable meetings of men and women in
all ranks and of every shade of religious belief, come together "for
the deepening of spiritual life," know what singular influence was
wielded by Lady Mount Temple, and how far-reaching that influence has
become.
Ruskin used sometimes to visit at Broadlands. One winter he spent
several weeks there, and Lady Mount Temple says in the volume already
quoted: "We found him, as always, most delightful and instructive
company; his talk full and brilliant, and his kindness increasing to
all the house, giving a halo to life. He set us all to manual work! He
himself undertook to clean out the fountain in the garden, and made
us all, from Juliet (Madame Deschamps, Lady Mount Temple's adopted
daughter) to Mr. Russell Gurney, pick up the fallen wood and make it up
into bundles of faggots for the poor!"
His friends also came to see him at Brantwood. Mrs. Arthur Severn has
a lively story of an excursion with them to the Monk Coniston Tarn, a
pretty bit of water on the hills, with a fine panorama of mountains all
round, the show-place of Coniston. It was a foggy morning, but he hoped
it would clear; and they drove up through the woods in expectation,
but it was still foggy. They got out of the carriage and walked to the
finest point of view; still the fog would not lift. Then Ruskin waved
his hand and pointed to the scene they ought to see; and in his best
eloquence, and with growing warmth described the lakelet embosomed in
its woods and moors, Helvellyn and the Pikes, Bow Fell and Wetherlam,
and the Coniston Old Man. For a moment it seemed as if the whole was
before their eyes; and then they burst out laughing. "After all," said
Lady Mount Temple, "is not this the best treat we could have?" "And to
me," said Ruskin, with his old-fashioned courtliness, "what view could
be so entirely delightful?"
INDEX
Agates, Ruskin's theory of, 173
Aix-les-Bains, 78
Alessandri, A., 103
Alexander, Mrs. and Miss Francesca, 102, 103, 146
Animals, Ruskin's love of, 74
Annecy, 74-78
Apocrypha, 210
Arnold, Sir Edwin, 32
Art-study under Ruskin, 4, 7, 111, 205
Atkinson, Mr., 136
Autographs of Ruskin, 135, 145
owned by him, 183, 189, 190
Avallon, 48-51
Barrow-in-Furness, Bishop of, 206
Barrow, Mont., 24
Bateman, the Misses, 156
Baxter, Mr., 65, 93, 97
Bell, William, J.P., 23, 24
Beever, John, 23
Miss Susanna, 70
"Bible of Amiens," 49, 51, 131
Bible-reading of Ruskin, 69, 70, 195, 202, 210, 225
"Bibliotheca Pastorum," 8
Bibliomania under Queen Anne, 206
Boating experiences of Ruskin, 16, 18, 26
Boni, Signor G., 103
Boyd, Rev. Mr., 196
Brabazon, Mr., 131
Brantwood gardens, 31, 32, 36, 43, 44
harbour, 9, 17
library, 182-190, 196-210
moor, 10, 40
woods, 32-39
Brayshay, Mr. W. Hutton, 16
Bronzino's Judith, 102
Bunney, J. W., 50, 101, 129
Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, 156
Calais, 47
Casts from natural leaves, 136
sculpture, 98
Chair, Ruskin's, 3, 4
Chalons, 48
Champagnole, 52
Chesneau, Ernest, 162
Christy Minstrels, 156
Churchill, Mrs. W. H., 17
Rev. W. H., 175
Citeaux, 51
Claribel, 156
Cluses, 66
Col de la Faucille, 59
Colouring of Ruskin's drawings, 108, 122, 125, 126
Coniston Hall, 21, 23, 24
Coniston Ruskin Exhibitions, 131, 132
Museum, 3, 10, 25, 131, 136, 174, 195, 198, 201
Cook, Mr. E. T., 130
Cooke, Mr. E., 136
Cowper-Temple, Mr. and Mrs., 216-225
Creswick, Prof. B., 159
Crystallography, 77, 176
Cunliffe, Mrs., 130
Dalby, Charles, 26
Deschamps, Madame, 226
"Deucalion," 177
Diamonds, 174-176
Digging, 9
Dijon, 51
Dog stories, 74
Dole, Mt., 59
Drawings by Ruskin, 47, 49, 50, 82, 93, 102, 121-132
Engineering, Ruskin's turn for, 43
Exhibitions of Ruskin's drawings, 130-132
Fielding, Copley, 122, 124
Fiesole and Florence, 102
Froude, J. A., 26
Gale, Miss, 24
Galena, story of Ruskin's, 173
Gardens, 31, 32, 43, 44
Geneva, 60, 81
_Geological Magazine_, Ruskin's papers, 173
Geology, Ruskin's interest in, 10, 50, 60, 66, 97, 111, 116
Globe of the stars, 10
Gold as it grows, 168
Gorge of the Ain, 52
Fier, 77
Granite of central France, 50, 51
Gregory, Dr. C. R., 198
Guinigi of Lucca, 90, 93
Gules and gul, 176
Hakon's Bible, 206-209
Halle, Charles, 155
Hand of Ruskin, 136
Handwriting, development of Ruskin's, 138-145
"Harbours of England," 16
Harding, J. D., 127, 190
Herdson, Dawson, 116
Hilliard, Laurence J., 15, 22, 26, 101, 177
Miss C., 17
Miss, 130
Hinksey, 9
History in graphic statistics, 118
"Hortus Inclusus," 23, 70, 131
Hullah, John, 156
Hunt, Alfred W., 7
Ilaria del Carretto, 89-93, 98
"Iris of the Earth," 175
Isola, 215, 225
Journals of Ruskin, 65, 123
quoted, 50, 69, 70, 73, 74, 78, 82, 85, 86, 101, 102
Jumping Jenny, 15, 23-26
Jura Mts., 52-59
Juvenile works of Ruskin, 138, 141
Keswick, intended jewel-museum 170
Kirkcudbright, Ruskin's gift of minerals, 175
Koren, Herr Kristian, 209
Lake-district boats, 21
Laon, 47, 48
Lebrun, Madame Vigee, 62
Les Rousses, 52, 55
Liberty, Ruskin on, 52
Limestone country, 51, 52
"Love's Meinie," 10, 118
Lucca, 86-101
Macdonald, Miss, 162
Manuscripts of Ruskin, 135
owned by him, 189, 198-209
Map-drawings by Ruskin, 108-118
Maps used by him, 115, 116
Maundrell, Mr., 49
Mephistopheles coachman and dog Tom, 73, 74
Minerals, Ruskin's interest in, 85, 167-178
Model of Brantwood moor, 10
Coniston fells, 116
feathers, 10
Jumping Jenny, 23, 25
South-coast boats, 26
"Modern Painters," 26, 66, 124, 126, 128, 129, 135, 144, 145
Monk-Coniston tarns, 227
Monnetier, 60
Mont Blanc, 59, 69, 70
Montreal, 50
Moorland garden, 40-44
Mornex, 60, 61
Morris, William, 118, 189
Mount Temple, Lord and Lady, 216-227
"Munera Pulveris," 60
Murray, Mr. C. F., 103
Music, compositions of Ruskin, 159-164
lessons, 151-155
preferences of Ruskin, 155, 156, 159
Nant d'Arpenaz, 69, 70, 73
Natural history, Ruskin's interest, 10 (_And see_ Geology, &c.)
Newman, Mr. H. R., 98, 102, 103
Nicknames of Ruskin and his friends, 224, 225
Norton, Prof. C. E., 69, 121, 128
"Notes on the Turner Exhibition," 108
Oil-painting, Ruskin's attempts, 122
Omar Khayyam, Ruskin on, 190
"Our Fathers Have Told Us," 51, 118
Oxford Drawing-school, 4, 7
Palmerston, Lord, 216, 223
Paris, 81
Pedigree of Ruskin, contributions to, 16, 196, 197
Pisa, 77, 86, 97, 103, 104
Plague-wind, 56, 73, 74
"Poems of John Ruskin," 123, 124, 127
"Poetry of Architecture," 124, 129, 144
"Praeterita," 51, 55, 59, 70, 82
Print-style writing, 137, 138
Prout, Samuel, 123, 190
Quercia, Jacopo della, 90
Railways, Ruskin on, 66, 78
Randal, Mr. F., 49, 103
Reading aloud, 15
"Redgauntlet," 15, 159
Reims, 48
Religion of Ruskin, 51, 69, 195, 202, 210, 226
Reservoirs at Brantwood, 43
Restoration of churches, 50
Rhone at Geneva, 60
Richmond, George, 3
"Roadside Songs of Tuscany," 102
Roberts, David, 125
Mr., 155
Robson, Mr. E. R., 103
Rooke, Mr. T. M., 103
Rowing, Ruskin on, 18
Royal Academy, Ruskin exhibit, 131
Ruskin expelled, 132
Runciman, Mr., 122
"Ruskin et la Bible" (_by_ H. J. Brunhes), 195
Ruskin, J. J., 122, 141, 142, 183, 196-198
Mrs. (John Ruskin's mother), 142, 144, 155, 187, 196, 198
Sailor ancestors of Ruskin, 16
St. Benedict, 66, 73, 81
St. Bernard of Menthon, 81
St. Bernard's birthplace, 51
St. Cergues, 55-59
St. George's Guild and work, 8, 49, 66, 73, 102, 103, 210, 223.
(_And see_ Sheffield Ruskin Museum)
St. Martin, Sallenches, 70
Saleve, 60
Sallenches, 66-73
Sea-studies of Ruskin, 16, 26
Sens, 48
Sermons reported by Ruskin, 198
"Sesame and Lilies," 49
"Seven Lamps of Architecture," 51, 127, 129
Severn, Mr. Arthur, 17, 131
Mrs. Arthur, 17, 32, 49, 66, 146, 155, 156, 176, 210, 220, 223, 227
Sheffield Ruskin Museum, 98, 101, 103, 175, 205
Shorthand notes by Ruskin, 143
Smoke-plague, 56, 74, 77
Snail (sailboat), 26, 27
"Stones of Venice," 124, 127, 128, 145
"Storm-cloud of the Nineteenth Century," 55, 69
"Studies in Both Arts," 124
Swiss statuette, 187
Swiss towns, intended history, 128
Taglioni and Ruskin, 142
Talloires, 77-81
To-day, Ruskin's motto, 77
Tollemache, Miss, 215
Translation, Ruskin's method, 8
Troyes, 48
Turin, 85
Turner and the sea, 16
Coteau scenery, 48
Pass of Faido, 127
Riviera subject, 85
Sun of Venice, 132
Ugolino's mountain, 97
Vandyck's enjoyment in painting, 85
"Verona and other Lectures," 51, 124
Verses by Ruskin, 24, 164
Vezelay, 50
Viking ship, 26
Viollet-le-Duc, 50, 183
Wakefield, Miss, 151, 156
Ward, Mr. W., 129
Wedderburn, Mr. A., K.C., 8
West, Mr. G. F., 152
Whitelands College, 175
Wine, Ruskin on, 61
Writing from maps and sketches, 112, 115, 132
Xenophon's "Economist," 8
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Superscripts are denoted by ^ eg 8^{h.}
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.
Except for those changes noted below, misspelling by the author,
inconsistent or archaic usage, has been retained. For example,
arm-chair, arm chair, armchair; boathouse, boat-house; well known,
well-known.