lodges, and expected to return in four days, but had now been absent
nine. Mr. Grant was despatched, in order to find out what had become of
him.
_February 6._ My men arrived at the fort about four o'clock. Mr.
McGillis asked if I had any objection to his hoisting their flag in
compliment to ours. I made none, as I had not yet explained to him my
ideas. In making a traverse of the lake some of my men had their ears,
some their noses, and others their chins frozen.
_February 7._ Remained within doors, my limbs being still very much
swelled. Addressed a letter to Mr. McGillis on the subject of the North
West Company's trade in this quarter.
_February 8._ Took the latitude and found it to be 47 deg. 16' 13". Shot
with our rifles.
_February 9._ M. McGillis and myself paid a visit to Mr. Anderson, an
agent of Mr. Dickson, of the lower Mississippi, who resided at the west
end of the lake. Found him eligibly situated as to trade, but his houses
bad. I rode in a cariole, for one person, constructed in the following
manner: Boards planed smooth, turned up in front about two feet, coming
to a point; about two and a half feet wide behind, on which is fixed a
box covered with dressed skins painted; this box is open at the top, but
covered in front about two-thirds of the length. The horse is fastened
between the shafts. The rider wraps himself up in a buffalo robe, sits
flat down, having a cushion to lean his back against. Thus accoutred
with a fur cap, and so on, he may bid defiance to the wind and weather.
Upon our return we found that some of the Indians had already returned
from the hunting camps; also Monsieur Roussand, the gentleman supposed
to have been killed by the Indians. His arrival with Mr. Grant diffused
a general satisfaction through the fort.
_February 10._ Hoisted the American flag in the fort. Reading
"Shenstone," etc.
_February 11._ The Sweet, Buck, Burnt, and others arrived, all chiefs of
note, but the former in particular, a venerable old man. From him I
learned that the Sioux occupied this ground when, to use his own phrase,
"He was made a man and began to hunt; that they occupied it the year
that the French missionaries were killed at the river Pacagama." The
Indians flocked in.
_February 12._ Bradley and myself with Mr. McGillis' and two of his men
left Leech Lake at 10 o'clock, and arrived at the house of Red Cedar
Lake at sunset, a distance of thirty miles. My ankles were very much
swelled, and I was very lame. From the entrance of the Mississippi to
the strait is called six miles, a southwest course. Thence to the south
end, south thirty, east four miles. The bay at the entrance extends
nearly east and west six miles. About two and a half from the north side
to a large point. This, may be called the upper source of the
Mississippi, being fifteen miles above little Lake Winipie, and the
extent of canoe navigation only two leagues to some of the Hudson's Bay
waters.
MANILA IN 1842
LIEUTENANT CHARLES WILKES
[During 1838-42 Lieutenant Wilkes commanded an exploring
expedition which was the first ever despatched for scientific
research by the United States. The instructions given by
Congress to the Commander said:--"The expedition is not for
conquest, but discovery. Its objects are all peaceful; they
are to extend the empire of commerce and science; to diminish
the hazards of the ocean, and point out to future navigators
a course by which they may avoid dangers and find safety."
The narrative of the expedition was published in five volumes
in Philadelphia, 1845. The extracts which follow are from
Vol. V., chapter VIII. From 1844 to 1874 the Government of
the United States published twenty-eight volumes reciting in
detail the scientific results of the expedition.]
At daylight, on the 13th of January, 1842, we were again under way, with
a light air, and at nine o'clock reached the roadstead, where we
anchored in six fathoms of water, with good holding ground.
A number of vessels were lying in the roads, among which were several
Americans loading with hemp. There was also a large English East
Indiaman, manned by Lascars, whose noise rendered her more like a
floating Bedlam than anything else to which I can liken it.
The view of the city and country around Manila partakes both of a
Spanish and an Oriental character. The sombre and heavy-looking
churches with their awkward towers; the long lines of batteries mounted
with heavy cannon; the massive houses, with ranges of balconies; and the
light and airy cottages, elevated on posts, situated in the luxuriant
groves of tropical trees,--all excite desire to become better acquainted
with the country.
Manila is situated on an extensive plain, gradually swelling into
distant hills, beyond which, again, mountains rise in the background, to
the height of several thousand feet. The latter are apparently clothed
with vegetation to their summits. The city is in strong contrast to this
luxuriant scenery, bearing evident marks of decay, particularly in the
churches, whose steeples and tile roofs have a dilapidated look. The
site of the city does not appear to have been well chosen, it having
apparently been selected entirely for the convenience of commerce, and
the communication that the outlet of the lake affords for the batteaux
[freight boats] that transport the produce from the shores of the Laguna
de Bay to the city.
There are many arms or branches to this stream, which have been
converted into canals; and almost any part of Manila may now be reached
in a banca [small passage boat].
The canal is generally filled with coasting vessels, batteaux from the
lake, and lighters for the discharge of the vessels lying in the roads.
The bay of Manila is safe, excepting during the change of the monsoons,
when it is subject to the typhoons of the China seas, within whose
range it lies. These blow at times with much force, and cause great
damage. Foreign vessels have, however, kept this anchorage, and rode out
these storms in safety; but native as well as Spanish vessels seek at
these times the port of Cavite, about three leagues to the southwest, at
the entrance of the bay, which is perfectly secure. Here the government
dockyard is situated, and this harbour is consequently the resort of the
few gunboats and galleys that are stationed here.
The entrance to the canal or river Pasig is three hundred feet wide, and
is enclosed between two well-constructed piers, which extend for some
distance into the bay. On the end of one of these is the light-house,
and on the other a guard-house. The walls of these piers are about four
feet above ordinary high water, and include the natural channel of the
river, whose current sets out with some force, particularly when the ebb
is making in the bay.
The suburbs, or Binondo quarter, contain more inhabitants than the city
itself, and is the commercial town. They have all the stir and life
incident to a large population actively engaged in trade, and in this
respect the contrast with the city proper is great.
The city of Manila is built in the form of a large segment of a circle,
having the chord of the segment on the river: the whole is strongly
fortified with walls and ditches. The houses are substantially built
after the fashion of the mother country. Within the walls are the
governor's palace, custom-house, treasury, admiralty, several churches,
convents, and charitable institutions, a university, and the barracks
for the troops; it also contain some public squares, on one of which is
a bronze statute of Charles IV.
The city is properly deemed the court residence of these islands; and
all those attached to the government, or who wish to be considered as of
the higher circle, reside here; but foreigners are not permitted to do
so. The houses in the city are generally of stone, plastered, and white
or yellow washed on the outside. They are only two stories high, and in
consequence cover a large space, being built around a patio or
courtyard.
The ground floors are occupied as storehouses, stables, and for porters'
lodges. The second story is devoted to the dining halls and sleeping
apartments, kitchens, bath-rooms, etc. The bed-rooms have the windows
down to the floor, opening on wide balconies, with blinds or shutters.
These blinds are constructed with sliding frames, having small squares
of two inches filled in with a thin semi-transparent shell, a species of
Placuna; the fronts of some of the houses have a large number of these
small lights, where the females of the family may enjoy themselves
unperceived.
After entering the canal, we very soon found ourselves among a motley
and strange population. On landing, the attention is drawn to the vast
number of small stalls and shops with which the streets are lined on
each side, and to the crowds of people passing to and fro, all intent
upon their several occupations. The artisans in Manila are almost wholly
Chinese; and all trades are local, so that in each quarter of the
Binondo suburb the privilege of exclusive occupancy is claimed by some
particular kinds of shops. In passing up the Escolta (which is the
longest and main street in this district), the cabinet-makers, seen
busily at work in their shops, are first met with; next to these come
the tinkers and blacksmiths; then the shoemakers, clothiers,
fishmongers, haberdashers, etc. These are flanked by outdoor
occupations; and in each quarter are numerous cooks frying cakes,
stewing, etc., in movable kitchens; while here and there are to be seen
betel-nut sellers, either moving about to obtain customers, or taking a
stand in some great thoroughfare. The moving throng, composed of
carriers, waiters, messengers, etc., pass quietly and without any noise:
they are generally seen with the Chinese umbrella, painted of many
colours, screening themselves from the sun. The whole population wear
slippers, and move along with a slip-shod gait.
The Chinese are apparently far more numerous than the Malays, and the
two races differ as much in character as in appearance: one is all
activity, while the other is disposed to avoid all exertion. They
preserve their distinctive character throughout, mixing but very little
with each other, and are removed as far as possible in their civilities;
the former, from their industry and perseverance, have almost
monopolized all the lucrative employments among the lower orders,
excepting the selling of fish and betel-nut, and articles manufactured
in the provinces....
Of all her foreign possessions, the Philippines have cost Spain the
least blood and labour. The honour of their discovery belongs to
Magalhaens, whose name is associated with the straits at the southern
extremity of the American continent, but which has no memorial in these
islands. Now that the glory which he gained by being the first to
penetrate from the Atlantic to the Pacific has been in some measure
obliterated by the disuse of those straits by navigators, it would seem
due to his memory that some spot among these islands should be set apart
to commemorate the name of him who made them known to Europe. This would
be but common justice to the discoverer of a region which has been a
source of so much honour and profit to the Spanish nation, who opened
the vast expanse of the Pacific to the fleets of Europe, and who died
fighting to secure the benefits of his enterprise to his king and
country.
Few portions of the globe seem to be so much the seat of internal fires,
or to exhibit the effects of volcanic action so strongly as the
Philippines. During our visit, it was not known that any of the
volcanoes were in action; but many of them were smoking, particularly
that in the district of Albay, called Isaroc. Its latest eruption was in
the year 1839; but this did little damage compared with that of 1814,
which covered several villages, and the country for a great distance
around, with ashes. This mountain is situated to the southeast of Manila
one hundred and fifty miles, and is said to be a perfect cone, with a
crater at its apex.
It does not appear that the islands are much affected by earthquakes,
although some have occasionally occurred that have done damage to the
churches at Manila.
The coal found in the Philippines is deemed of value; it has a strong
resemblance to the bituminous coal of our own country, possesses a
bright lustre, and appears very free from all woody texture when
fractured. It is found associated with sandstone, which contains many
fossils. Lead and copper are reported as being very abundant; gypsum and
limestone occur in some districts. From this it will be seen that these
islands have everything in the mineral way to constitute them desirable
possessions.
With such mineral resources and a soil capable of producing the most
varied vegetation of the tropics, a liberal policy is all that the
country lacks. The products of the Philippine Islands consist of sugar,
coffee, hemp, indigo, rice, tortoise-shell, hides, ebony, saffron-wood,
sulphur, cotton, cordage, silk, pepper, cocoa, wax, and many other
articles. In their agricultural operations the people are industrious,
although much labour is lost by the use of defective implements. The
plow, of a very simple construction, has been adopted from the Chinese;
it has no coulter, the share is flat, and being turned partly to one
side, answers, in a certain degree the purpose of a mould-board. This
rude implement is sufficient for the rich soils, where the tillage
depends chiefly upon the harrow, in constructing which a thorny species
of bamboo is used. The harrow is formed of five or six pieces of this
material, on which the thorns are left, firmly fastened together. It
answers its purpose well, and is seldom out of order. A wrought-iron
harrow, that was introduced by the Jesuits, is used for clearing the
ground more effectually, and more particularly for the purpose of
extirpating a troublesome grass, that is known by the name of cogon (a
species of Andropogon), of which it is very difficult to rid the fields.
The bolo or long-knife, a basket, a hoe, complete the implements, and
answer all the purposes of our spades, etc.
The buffalo was used until within a few years exclusively in their
agricultural operations, and they have lately taken to the use of the
ox; but horses are never used. The buffalo, from the slowness of his
motions, and his exceeding restlessness under the heat of the climate,
is ill adapted to agricultural labour; but the natives are very partial
to them, notwithstanding they occasion them much labour and trouble in
bathing them during the great heat. This is absolutely necessary, or the
animal becomes so fretful as to be unfit for use. If it were not for
this, the buffalo would, notwithstanding his slow pace, be most
effective in agricultural operations; he requires little food, and that
of the coarsest kind; his strength surpasses that of the stoutest ox,
and he is admirably adapted for the rice or paddy fields. They are very
docile when used by the natives, and even children can manage them; but
it said they have a great antipathy to the whites and all strangers. The
usual mode of guiding them is by a small cord attached to the cartilage
of the nose. The yoke rests on the neck before the shoulders, and is of
simple construction. To this is attached whatever it may be necessary to
draw, either by traces, shafts, or other fastenings. Frequently these
animals may be seen with large bundles of bamboo lashed to them on each
side. Buffaloes are to be met with on the lake with no more than their
noses and eyes out of the water, and are not visible until they are
approached within a few feet, when they cause alarm to the passengers by
raising their large forms close to the boat. It is said that they resort
to the lake to feed on a favourite grass that grows on its bottom in
shallow water, and which they dive for. Their flesh is not eaten,
except that of the young ones, for it is tough and tasteless. The milk
is nutritious, and of a character between that of the goat and cow.
Rice is, perhaps, of their agricultural products, the article upon which
the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands most depend for food and
profit; of this they have several different varieties, which the natives
distinguish by their size and the shape of the grain: the birnambang,
lamuyo, malagequit, bontot-cabayo, dumali, quinanda, bolohan, and tangi.
The three first are aquatic, the five latter upland varieties. They each
have their peculiar uses. The dumali is the early variety; it ripens in
three months from planting, from which circumstance it derives its name;
it is raised exclusively on the uplands. Although much esteemed, it is
not extensively cultivated, as the birds and insects destroy a large
part of the crop.
The malagequit is very much prized, and used for making sweet and fancy
dishes; it becomes exceedingly glutinous, for which reason it is used in
making whitewash, which it is said to cause to become of a brilliant
white, and to withstand the weather. This variety is not, however,
believed to be wholesome. There is also a variety of this last species
which is used as food for horses, and supposed to be a remedy and
preventive against worms.
The rice grounds or fields are laid out in squares, and surrounded by
embankments, to retain the water of the rains or streams. After the
rains have fallen in sufficient quantities to saturate the ground, a
seed-bed is generally planted in one corner of the field, in which the
rice is sown broadcast, about the month of June. The heavy rains take
place in August, when the fields are ploughed, and are soon filled with
water. The young plants are about this time taken from the seed-bed,
their tops and roots trimmed, and then planted in the field by making
holes in the ground with the fingers and placing four or five sprouts in
each of them; in this tedious labor the poor women are employed, whilst
the males are lounging in their houses or in the shade of the trees.
The harvest for the aquatic rice begins in December. It is reaped with
small sickles, peculiar to the country, called yatap; to the back of
these a small stick is fastened, by which they are held, and the stalk
is forced upon it and cut. The spikes of rice are cut with this
implement, one by one. In this operation, men, women and children, all
take part.
The upland rice requires much more care and labour in its cultivation.
The land must be ploughed three or four times, and all the turf and
lumps well broken up by the harrow.
During its growth it requires to be weeded two or three times, to keep
the weeds from choking the crop. The seed is sown broadcast in May. This
kind of rice is harvested in November, and to collect the crop is still
more tedious than in the other case, for it is always gathered earlier
and never reaped, in consequence of the grain not adhering to the ear.
If it were gathered in any other way, the loss by transportation on the
backs of buffaloes and horses, without any covering to the sheaf, would
be so great as to dissipate a great portion of the crop.
After the rice is harvested, there are different modes of treating it.
Some of the proprietors take it home, where it is thrown into heaps, and
left until it is desirable to separate it from the straw, when it is
trodden out by men and women with their bare feet. For this operation
they usually receive a fifth part of the rice.
Others stack it in a wet and green state, which subjects it to heat,
from which cause the grain contracts a dark colour and an unpleasant
taste and smell. The natives, however, impute these defects to the
wetness of the season.
The crop of both the low and upland rice is usually from thirty to fifty
for one: this on old land; but on that which is newly cleared, or which
has never been cultivated, the yield is far beyond this. In some soils
of the latter description, it is said that for a chupa (seven cubic
inches) planted the yield has been a caban. The former is the
two-hundred-and-eighth part of the latter. This is not the only
advantage gained in planting rice lands, but the saving of labour is
equally great; for all that is required is to make a hole with the
fingers and place three or four grains in it. The upland rice requires
but little water, and is never irrigated.
The cultivator in the Philippine Islands is always enabled to secure
plenty of manure; for vegetation is so luxuriant that by pulling the
weeds and laying them with earth a good stock is quickly obtained with
which to cover his fields. Thus, although the growth is so rank as to
cause him labour, yet in this hot climate its decay is equally rapid,
which tends to make his labours more successful.
Among the important productions of these islands, I have mentioned hemp,
although the article called Manila hemp must not be understood to be
derived from the plant which produces the common hemp (_Canabis_), being
obtained from a species of plantain (_Musa textilis_), called in the
Philippines "abaca." This is a native of these islands, and was formerly
believed to be found only on Mindanao; but this is not the case, for it
is cultivated on the south part of Luzon and all the islands south of
it. It grows on high ground, in rich soil, and is propagated by seeds.
It resembles the other plants of the tribe of plantains, but its fruit
is much smaller, although edible. The fibre is derived from the stem,
and the plant attains the height of fifteen or twenty feet. The usual
mode of preparing the hemp is to cut off the stem near the ground,
before the time or just when the fruit is ripe. The stem is then eight
or ten feet long below the leaves, where it is again cut. The outer
coating of the herbaceous stem is then stripped off, until the fibres or
cellular parts are seen, when it undergoes the process of rotting, and
after being well dried in houses and sheds, is prepared for market by
assorting it, a task which is performed by the women and children. That
which is intended for cloth is soaked for an hour or two in weak
lime-water prepared from sea-shells, again dried, and put up in bundles.
From all the districts in which it grows, it is sent to Manila, which is
the only port whence it can legally be exported. It arrives in large
bundles, and is packed there by means of a screw-press in compact bales,
for shipping, secured by rattan, each weighing two piculs. [A picul is
about 140 pounds.]
The best Manila hemp ought to be white, dry, and of a long and fine
fibre. This is known at Manila by the name of lupis; the second quality
they call bandala.
That which is brought to the United States is principally manufactured
in or near Boston, and is the cordage known as "white rope." The cordage
manufactured at Manila is, however, very superior to the rope made with
us, although the hemp is of the inferior kind. A large quantity is also
manufactured into mats.
In the opinion of our botanist, it is not probable that the plant could
be introduced with success into our country, for in the Philippines it
is not found north of latitude 14 deg. N.
The coffee-plant is well adapted to these islands. A few plants were
introduced into the gardens of Manila about fifty years ago, since which
time it has been spread all over the island, as is supposed, by the
civet-cats, which, after swallowing the seeds, carry them to a distance
before they are voided.
The coffee of commerce is obtained here from the wild plant, and is of
an excellent quality. Upwards of three thousand five hundred piculs are
now exported, of which one-sixth goes to the United States.
The sugar-cane thrives well here. It is planted after the French
fashion, by sticking the piece diagonally into the ground. Some, finding
the cane has suffered in times of drought, have adopted other modes. It
comes to perfection in a year, and they seldom have two crops from the
same piece of land, unless the season is very favourable.