[1] See E.F.F. Chladni, _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87.
[2] See Sonreck, "Uber die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung der
Luftsaule in offenen und gedeckten Rohren," _Pogg. Ann._, 1876, vol.
158.
[3] _The Flute_ (London, 1890), S 90-105, pp. 34-40.
[4] _Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Rohren mit offenen Enden_
(Berlin, 1896). Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No.
80.
[5] V.C. Mahillon, _Experimental Studies on the Resonance of
Trunco-Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns_, translated by F.A. Mahan
(London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, _Acoustics in Relation to Wind
Instruments_ (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die
musikalischen Instrumente, &c._ (Giessen, 1855); _idem._ "Sur le
mouvement vibratoire de l'air dans les tuyaux," _Comptes rendus_,
1855, vol. 41, &c.
[6] _Op. cit._, S 73, pp. 87-88, note 1.
[7] "Akustik der Blasinstrumente," _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig,
1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, _Zur
Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_. Inaugural
Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitat. (Berlin, 15th of March
1899), p. 9.
[8] _Lehre von der Tonempfindung_ (Braunschweig, 1877).
[9] See additions by D. J. B. to article "Flute" in Grove's
_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ (London, 1904).
[10] _Musica instrumentalis deutsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528).
[11] See also L'Artusi, _Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna_
(Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cacilia, Bd. ix. p. 99.
[12] See "Les Anciennes Flutes egyptiennes," by Victor Loret in
_Journal asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two
careful articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still
extant. See also Lauth, "Uber die agyptische Instrumente," _Sitzungs.
der philos., philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu
Munchen_ (1873).
[13] See Albert A. Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_,
iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17.
[14] Representations of flutes blown as here described have been
found in Europe. See _Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale
archeologique_ (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same
date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, _Wandgemalde_, No.
7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18;
Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, _Les Figurines_, p. 136.
[15] There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9
and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood
encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head of
a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube. This
hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The pipe is
stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern flute.
There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus in
the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in _History of
Discoveries at Halicarnassus_ (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre
has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing satyrs
playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles have been
restored, especially in the details affecting our present subject,
and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another statue
representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum. The
instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but
erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which
the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the
intervention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column
of air.
[16] Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze,
_Catalogo_ (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in
_Gallerie nazionali italiane_, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263,
L'Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, "Antike Vorlagen
byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs," in _Jahrb. d. K. Preuss.
Kunst-Sammlungen_ (Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven,
"Ein Reliquienkastchen aus Pirano," id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl.
iii.
[17] Greek MS. 510, Gregoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, _L'Epopee
byzantine a la fin du dizieme siecle_ (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i.
p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b.
written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A
cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being
uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol. 72a,
A.D. 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, "Der Bilderkreis des
griechischen Physiologus," in _Byzantinisches Archiv_ (Leipzig,
1899), Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, _Histoire de l'art byzantin_
(Paris, 1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; "Kuseyr' Amra," issued by _K.
Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv.
[18] A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes has
been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue,
sect. "Academies," St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab. 1325a).
[19] This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century,
was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in
facsimile published by the _Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
historiques d'Alsace_. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller
(Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, _Herrad von
Landsperg und ihr Werk_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1818), twelve
plates.
[20] MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in _Critical and Bibliographical Notes
on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887), p. 119.
[21] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
[22] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40.
[23] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), _Livre_ v. p. 241.
[24] Principes de la flute traversiere ou flute d'Allemagne, de la
flute a bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38.
[25] _Musicus [Greek: autodidaktos] oder der sich selbst informirende
Musicus_ (Erfurt, 1738), p. 85.
[26] Fetis, _Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique a
l'Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855_.
[27] See _Recueil de planches_, vol. iv., and article "Basse de flute
traversiere," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also _The Flute_, by R.S.
Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced
together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the
Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted
French maker Delusse.
[28] _Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen_
(Berlin, 1752).
[29] Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in
describing the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute
in D, which is considered to be typical of the family.
[30] "Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
entworfen," in the _Historisch-Kritische Beytrage zur Aufnahme der
Musik_, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor of
the flute to Frederick the Great.
[31] See Johann Georg Tromlitz, _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher
Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_ (Leipzig, 1791), 1, S 7, and _Uber
Floten mit mehrern Klappen_ (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. S 21.
[32] Antonio Lorenzoni, _Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso_
(Vicenza, 1779).
[33] See _Anweisung_, i. S 15.
[34] See _Lebenslauf_, _loc. cit._ p. 248, where Quantz states that
he invented the adjustable head for the flute.
[35] See _Anweisung_, i. SS 10-13 and iv. S 26.
[36] _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_
(Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. S 20. Compare Schilling, _Univ.-Lexikon_
(Leipzig, 1835).
[37] Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R.,
see p. 2).
[38] _Kurze Abhandlung von Flotenspielen_ (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.
[39] _Uber Floten_, &c., pp. 133 and 134.
[40] See _The Flute_, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.
[41] See op. cit. pp. 51 and 62.
[42] English patent, No. 1499.
[43] See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197.
[44] _Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico
che ha i suoni bassi del violino_ (Rome, 1797).
[45] The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by
Trexler of Vienna, who called it the "panaulon."
[46] Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
[47] Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
[48] Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775, and
called "Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the Paris
Conservatoire.
[49] See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber in
_Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation
of which is given by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 279 and 280.
[50] See _Uber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen
desselben_ (Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, _An Essay on the
Construction of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm,
published with the addition of Correspondence and other Documents_
(London, 1882).
[51] _Examen critique de la flute ordinaire comparee a la flute
Boehm_ (Paris, 1838).
[52] They existed long before, however, in the Chinese _Ty_ and the
Japanese _Fuye_.
[53] The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's _History of
the Boehm Flute_ (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating
to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
impartiality.
[54] For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments
of the Orchestra_, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is
given, and Paul Wetzger, _Die Flote_ (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24,
and Tafel iv. No. 20.
FLUX (Lat. _fluxus_, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the
English term in medicine, &c.), in metallurgy, a substance introduced in
the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to remove objectionable
impurities in the form of a slag. The substances in commonest use
are:--lime or limestone, to slag off silica and silicates, fluor-spar
for lead, calcium and barium sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica
for removing basic substances such as limestone. Other substances are
also used, but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium and
potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica; mixed with
potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable oxidizing fusion
mixture; "black flux" is a reducing flux composed of finely divided
carbon and potassium carbonate, and formed by deflagrating a mixture of
argol with 1/4 to 1/2 its weight of nitre. Borax is very frequently
employed; it melts to a clear liquid and dissolves silica and many
metallic oxides. Potassium bisulphate is useful in the preliminary
treatment of refractory aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used
in silver and gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any
metallic oxides present.
FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. _fleugan_, to
fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of many
insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see LEPIDOPTERA),
dragon-fly (q.v.), may-fly (q.v.), caddis-fly (q.v.), &c.; also
specially employed by entomologists to mean any species of the
two-winged flies, or Diptera (q.v.). In ordinary parlance _fly_ is often
used in the sense of the common house-fly (_Musca domestica_); and by
English colonists and sportsmen in South Africa in that of a species of
tsetse-fly (_Glossina_), or a tract of country ("belt") in which these
insects abound (see TSETSE-FLY).
Apart from the house-fly proper (_Musca domestica_), which in England is
the usual one, several species of flies are commonly found in houses;
e.g. the _Stomoxys calcitrans_, or stable-fly; _Pollenia rudis_, or
cluster-fly; _Muscina stabulans_, another stable-fly; _Calliphora
erythrocephala_, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly, with smaller
sorts of blue-bottle, _Phormia terraenovae_ and _Lucilia caesar_;
_Homalomyia canicularis_ and _brevis_, the small house-fly; _Scenopinus
fenestralis_, the black window-fly, &c. But _Musca domestica_ is far the
most numerous, and in many places, especially in hot weather and in hot
climates, is a regular pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau
of Entomology U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in
1900 he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different
parts of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808
were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is of the
widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard filth, so
great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially cholera and
typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent source of danger;
and various sanitary regulations have been made, or precautions
suggested, for getting rid of it. These are discussed by Mr Howard in
the paper referred to, but in brief they all amount to measures of
general hygiene, and the isolation, prompt removal, or proper
sterilization of the animal or human excrement in which these flies
breed.
FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray, being a translation
of the _Muscicapa_ of older authors, and applied by Pennant to an
extremely common English bird, the _M. grisola_ of Linnaeus. It has
since been used in a general and very vague way for a great many small
birds from all parts of the world, which have the habit of catching
flies on the wing. Ornithologists who have trusted too much to this
characteristic and to certain merely superficial correlations of
structure, especially those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill
and a gape beset by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the
title of _Muscicapidae_ an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of forms
much reduced in number by later systematists. Great advance has been
made in establishing as independent families the _Todidae_ and
_Eurylaemidae_, as well as in excluding from it various members of the
_Ampelidae_, _Cotingidae_, _Tyrannidae_, _Vireonidae_, _Mniotiltidae_,
and perhaps others, which had been placed within its limits. These steps
have left the _Muscicapidae_ a purely Old-World family of the order
_Passeres_, and the chief difficulty now seems to lie in separating it
from the _Campephagidae_ and the _Laniidae_. Only a very few of the
forms of flycatchers (which, after all the deductions above mentioned,
may be reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps 250
species) can here be even named.[1]
The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens to be the
type of the Linnaean genus _Muscicapa_--the spotted or grey flycatcher
(_M. grisola_). It is a common summer visitant to nearly the whole of
Europe, and is found throughout Great Britain, though less abundant in
Scotland than in England, as well as in many parts of Ireland, where,
however, it seems to be but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one
of the latest migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands
till the latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever and
anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap of its bill
some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot it has
quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as before. It
has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note, uttered from
time to time with a jerking gesture of the wings and tail. It makes a
neat nest, built among the small twigs which sprout from the bole of a
large tree, fixed in the branches of some plant trained against a wall,
or placed in any hole of the wall itself that may be left by the falling
of a brick or stone. The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale
greenish-blue, closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and
inconspicuous as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the
closest vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost
everybody. A second British species is the pied flycatcher (_M.
atricapilla_), a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except
in the hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to
Cumberland, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere. It is
not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed in Ireland. More
of a woodland bird than the former, the brightly-contrasted black and
white plumage of the cock, together with his agreeable song, readily
attracts attention where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all
western Europe, but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly
allied species (_M. collaris_) in which the white of the throat and
breast extends like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species
(_M. parva_), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west of
England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range, which has
received generic recognition under the name of _Erythrosterna_, and it
has several relations in Asia and particularly in India, while the
allies of the pied flycatchers (_Ficedula_ of Brisson) are chiefly of
African origin, and those of the grey or spotted flycatcher (_Muscicapa_
proper[2]) are common to the two continents.
One of the most remarkable groups of _Muscicapidae_ is that known as the
paradise flycatchers, forming the genus _Tchitrea_ of Lesson. In nearly
all the species the males are distinguished by the growth of exceedingly
long feathers in their tail, and by their putting on, for some part of
the year at least, a plumage generally white, but almost always quite
different from that worn by the females, which is of a more or less deep
chestnut or bay colour, though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy
steel-blue. They are found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical
Asia to Japan, and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than
the open country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian _T.
paradisi_; but the Chinese _T. incii_, and the Japanese _T. princeps_,
from being very commonly represented by the artists of those nations on
screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the cock of the last
named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and eyes surrounded by
bare skin of the same colour--though these are characters possessed in
some degree by all the species--seems to be the most beautiful of the
genus. _T. bourbonnensis_, which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius
and Reunion, appears to be the only species in which the outward
difference of the sexes is but slight. In _T. corvina_ of the
Seychelles, the adult male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers
are not only very long but very broad. In _T. mutata_ of Madagascar,
some of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates
over the whole body; but whether this sex is here actually dimorphic, or
whether the one dress is a passing phase of the other, is at present
undetermined. Some of the African species, of which many have been
described, seem always to retain the rufous plumage, but the long
tail-feathers serve to mark the males.
A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they exhibit,
as _Myiagra azurea_, and others as _Monarcha_ (or _Arses_) _chrysomela_
by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned to the
_Muscicapidae_ are very varied. _Sisura inquieta_ has some of the habits
of a water-wagtail (_Motacilla_), and hence has received the name of
"dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of England on its analogue; and the
many species of _Rhipidura_ or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in
various parts of the Australian Region, have manners still more
singular--turning over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as
they catch their prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority
of the _Muscicapidae_, and especially of the numerous African forms,
hardly anything is known. (A. N.)