OF INK.
To make ink, cut for yourself wood of the thorn-trees in April or May,
before they produce flowers or leaves, and collecting them in small
bundles, allow them to lie in the shade for two, three, or four weeks,
until they are somewhat dry. Then have wooden mallets, with which you
beat these thorns upon another piece of hardwood, until you peel off the
bark everywhere, put which immediately into a barrelful of water. When
you have filled two, or three, or four, or five barrels with bark and
water, allow them so to stand for eight days, until the waters imbibe all
the sap of the bark. Afterwards put this water into a very clean pan, or
into a cauldron, and fire being placed under it, boil it; from time to
time, also, throw into the pan some of this bark, so that whatever sap
may remain in it may be boiled out. When you have cooked it a little,
throw it out, and again put in more; which done, boil down the remaining
water unto a third part, and then pouring it out of this pan, put it into
one smaller, and cook it until it grows black and begins to thicken, add
one third part of pure wine, and putting it into two or three new pots,
cook it until you see a sort of skin show itself on the surface; then
taking these pots from the fire, place them in the sun until the black
ink purifies itself from the red dregs. Afterwards take small bags of
parchment carefully sewn, and bladders, and pouring in the pure ink,
suspend them in the sun until all is quite dry; and when dry, take from
it as much as you wish, and temper it with wine over the fire, and,
adding a little vitriol, write. But, if it should happen through
negligence that your ink be not black enough, take a fragment of the
thickness of a finger, and putting it into the fire, allow it to glow,
and throw it directly into the ink.
The next collection of "Secreta," in point of importance and probably
antiquity, is the "Mappæ Clavicula," or "little key to drawing," a
manuscript treatise on the preparation of pigments, and on various
processes of the decorative arts practised during the Middle Ages, in the
possession of Sir Thomas Phillipps, of Middle Hill.[109] The proprietor of
the volume, Mr. Hendrie, Sir Charles Eastlake, and (last, not least) Mr.
Albert Way, agree in considering it highly probable that it may be an
English collection, probably of about the reign of Henry II. Like the
"Schedula" of Theophilus, it presents a very miscellaneous series of
recipes, and tends to prove, what is very generally believed by the
learned, that the "Masters of Arts" of old were frequently skilled, not in
special departments of production, such as the modern division-of-labour
system has created, but in multifarious avocations, such as we should not
now readily recognize as likely to be practised by any single individual.
These collections remarkably illustrate the class of knowledge likely to
have been possessed by such apparently versatile geniuses as St. Dunstan,
St. Eloi, Bernward of Hildesheim, Tutilo the monk of St. Gall, and many
others. The author of the "Mappæ Clavicula," in a few lines of poetical
introduction to his teachings, defines the first necessity for painters to
be, a knowledge of the manufacture of colours, then a command over the
various modes of mixing them, then dexterity in using and heightening them
in different kinds of work; and, ultimately, he commends to their attention
a variety of information for the advancement of art generally, derived from
the writings of many learned men.--"Sicut liber iste docebit." Thus under
two hundred and nine heads, but with some tautology, he proceeds to treat,
as Sir Thomas Phillipps observes, not only of the composition of colours,
but "of a variety of other subjects, in a concise and simple manner, and
generally very intelligibly; as for instance, architecture, mensuration of
altitudes, the art of war, &c." Among the recipes, in addition to those
referring to pigments, are many relating to illuminating. The following,
for instance, is curious as defining clearly what were the best and most
important tints for illumination:--
_Of different Colours._
"These colours are clear and full-bodied for vellum:--Azorium (azure),
Vermiculum (vermilion), Sanguis Draconis (dragon's blood), Carum (yellow
ochre), Minium (red lead), Folium (madder purple), Auripigmentum
(orpiment), Viride Græcum (acetate of copper), Gravetum Indicum (indigo),
Brunum (brown), Crocus (yellow), Minium Rubeum vel Album (red or white
lead), Nigrum Optimum ex carbone vitis (the best black made from
carbonized vine twigs); all these colours are mixed with white of egg."
The mixture of colours appears to have been reduced to a perfect system,
each hue having others specially adapted and used, for heightening and
lowering the pure tint; thus the author gives directions which are likely
to be scarcely less useful to the illuminator of the present day than they
were to those of old.
_Of Mixtures._
"If, therefore, you should desire to know the natures and mixtures of
these [the above given] colours, and which are antagonistic to each
other, lend your ear diligently.
"Mix azure with white lead, lower with indigo, heighten with white lead.
Pure vermilion you may lower with brown or with dragon's blood, and
heighten with orpiment. Mix vermilion with white lead, and make the
colour which is called _Rosa_, lower it with vermilion, heighten it with
white lead. Item, you may make a colour with dragon's blood and orpiment,
which you may lower with brown, and heighten with orpiment. Yellow ochre
you may lower with brown, and heighten with red lead (query, with white).
Item, you may make Rosam[110] of yellow ochre and white lead, deepen with
yellow ochre, heighten with white lead. Reddish purple (folium) may be
lowered with brown, and heightened with white lead. Item, mix folium with
white lead, lower with folium, and heighten with white lead. Orpiment may
be lowered with vermilion, but cannot be heightened, because it stains
all other colours."
_Of Tempering._
"Greek green you will temper with acid, deepen with black, and heighten
with white, made from stag's horn (ivory black). Mix green with white
lead, deepen with pure green, and heighten with white lead. Greenish
blue, deepen with green, heighten with white lead. Yellow, deepen with
vermilion, heighten with white lead. Indigo, deepen with black, heighten
with azure. Item, mix indigo with white, deepen with azure, heighten with
white lead. Brown, deepen with black, heighten with red lead. Item, make
of brown and white lead a drab (Rosam), lower with brown, heighten with
white lead. Item, mix yellow with white lead, lower with yellow, heighten
with white lead. Lower red lead with brown, heighten with white lead.
Item, red lead with brown, deepen with black, heighten with red lead.
Item, you may make flesh-colour of red lead and white, lower with
vermilion, heighten with white lead."
_Which Colours are Antagonistic._
"If you wish to know in what manner colours are antagonistic, this is it.
Orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic) does not agree with purple (folio), nor
with green (acetate of copper), nor with red lead, nor white lead. Green
does not agree with purple.[111]
"If you wish to make grounds, make a fine rose-colour of vermilion and
white. Item, make a ground of purple mixed with chalk. Item, make a
ground of green mixed with vinegar. Item, make a ground of the same
green, and when it shall have become dry, cover it with size ('caule').
"If you wish to write in gold, take powder of gold and moisten it with
size, made from the very same parchment on which you have to write; and
with the gold and size near to the fire; and, when the writing shall be
dry, burnish with a very smooth stone, or with the tooth of a wild boar.
Item, if then you should wish to make a robe or a picture, you may apply
gold to the parchment, as I have above directed, and shade with ink or
with indigo, and heighten with orpiment."
The above are the principal passages in the "Mappæ Clavicula," which supply
deficiencies in most other books of Secreta; and I have translated them at
length, both on account of the accuracy with which I have found the
directions followed in ancient illuminated manuscripts, and because I
believed that a knowledge of this ancient scale of colours might greatly
facilitate accurate copying from old examples. I need scarcely say, that as
the art of painting improved in Italy and the Netherlands, the
illuminator's palette became enriched with several new and very brilliant
colours;--such as the ultramarines and carmines (exceedingly scarce in
early manuscripts) which make the books produced at Rome and in Northern
Italy, during the 16th and 17th centuries, glow with a vivacity never
previously attained. Every improvement made in one country was, however,
speedily, communicated through these very art-treatises to other countries,
and thus we find lakes and carmines freely used in England during the 15th
century.[112] Ultramarine, indeed, forms the special subject of an essay by
a Norman, comprised among the Le Bègue MSS. (already referred to), under
the following title, which proves its novelty in Western Europe, at the
beginning of the 15th century:--
"Anno 1411, Johannes de ... [illegible] Normannus de _Azurro novo_, lapidis
lazulli ultramarini."
The next collection of Secreta in importance, and probably in date to the
"Mappæ Clavicula," is that of a Frenchman, Peter de St. Audemar. "With this
treatise," observes Sir Charles Eastlake, "may be classed a similar one in
the British Museum, written in the 14th century," but treating of a
somewhat earlier practice in art. The identity of the colours for, and
practice of, painters on wall and panel, and illuminators on vellum, is
proved by the instructions to both being almost invariably given in the
same books. Thus, the volume last mentioned commences--"Incipit tractatus
de coloribus Illuminatorum _seu_ Pictorum"--as though there existed no
practical distinction between the two. Another manuscript, of later date,
also in the Le Bègue collection, exhibits, in its title even, a curious
picture of the industry with which the Art of Illumination was studied in
the principal countries of Europe,--introducing the student to a scribe,
actually keeping a school at Milan. Thus, "Liber Johannis Acherius, A.D.
1398. Ut accessit a Jacobo Cona, Flamingo pictore:--Capitula de coloribus
ad illuminandum libros ab eodem Archerio sive Alcherio, ut accessit ab
Antonio de compendio illuminatore librorum in Parisiis et a Magistro
Alberto Pozotto perfectissimo in omnibus modis scribendi, Mediolani scholas
tenente."
Here we have, in a few lines, evidence of the concurrence of no less,
probably, than four distinct nationalities to make up one set of
instructions. However illuminated manuscripts may differ in style from each
other, according to the countries in which they may have been produced, the
technical processes, from the commencement of the 15th century, scarcely
differed at all, probably through the general spread of these "handbooks of
the Middle Ages."
From the 14th century onwards, the treatises, or rather probably composite
transcripts from earlier treatises, multiply greatly; so far, however, as I
have been able to make out from the able analysis made by Sir C. Eastlake,
Mr. Hendrie, and Mrs. Merrifield, of many, they contain little more
information than is conveyed in the extracts already given. Some curious
details, however, may be gathered as to the London practice in the 15th
century, which may interest the reader. A manuscript, written in German, as
is believed at that date, is preserved in the public library at Strasburg,
which distinctly proves that the colours for illuminating were commonly
preserved by steeping small pieces of linen in the tinted extracts,
sometimes mixed with alkaline solutions. The process is minutely described
in this MS.; the dyes so prepared are there called "tüchlein varwen,"
literally "clothlet colours." The following passage from another
compendium, a Venetian MS., gives the result in few words:--"When the
aforesaid pieces of cloth are dry, put them in a book of cotton paper, and
keep the book under your pillow, that it may take no damp; and when you
wish to use the colours, cut off a small portion [of the cloth], and place
it in a shell with a little water, the evening before. In the morning the
tint will be ready, the colour being extracted from the linen." This
practice is alluded to by Cennini, when he says:--"You can shade with
colours, and by means of small pieces of cloth, according to the process of
the illuminators."
The German compiler, speaking of the preparation of a blue colour in this
mode, says, "If you wish to make a beautiful clothlet blue colour according
to the London practice," &c. After describing the method of preparing it,
he adds:--"These [pieces of cloth] may be preserved fresh and brilliant,
without any change in their tints, for twenty years; and this colour, in
Paris and in London, is called [blue] for missals, and here in this country
clothlet blue; it is a beautiful and valuable colour."
"The place denominated _Lampten_, mentioned together with _Paris_, can be
no other than London."[113]
As pursuing the subject of ancient processes further than I have now done,
would scarcely he profitable to the student, I proceed to the second
division of this part of my subject, and accordingly take up _the modern
processes_. In offering the following details on this subject, however, to
the amateur's attention, I would not for one moment let it be supposed that
a knowledge of them alone will be sufficient to make him an efficient
illuminator. Fortunately many very excellent artists have of late devoted
themselves to giving instruction in the practical manipulation of the art,
and amateurs cannot do better than place themselves at once in
communication with masters, whose addresses may be obtained at the shops of
the principal artists' colourmen. There will still be, no doubt, in
different parts of the country, many desirous of illuminating, and yet
unable to obtain the benefit of seeing a practised hand work before them,
or even to pick up information as to the _modus operandi_. To such, at
least, the following observations may prove useful.[114]
The two great sections into which all the processes by which illumination
of any kind may be executed, divide themselves, are--1st, those in which
water and glutinous substances soluble in water form the vehicles for
applying the pigments, and causing them to adhere to the surfaces on which
they may be applied; and 2ndly, those in which oil or spirit, and resins,
or other substances which combine readily with such fluids, are made to
perform corresponding functions. The pigments, reduced to an impalpable
powder, are the same in both classes of processes, which are commonly known
as watercolour-painting and oil-painting. That which was of old the
artist's greatest stumbling-block--the manufacture and preparation of his
pigments--need now no longer occasion him the slightest embarrassment; for
every colour with which his palette could be enriched is to be bought,
ready prepared, of the principal artists' colourmen. In like manner every
other essential for his use is now freely at his command; and all that is
required on his part is knowledge how to employ the materials which others
most dexterously and carefully place at his disposal.
In commencing the collection of that information which I am now
endeavouring to communicate, I felt it my duty to enter into correspondence
with all those manufacturers whose products I had at different times
personally tested; and I accordingly addressed myself to the following,
whose materials, with insignificant exceptions, I have invariably found
satisfactory, both in nature and quality.
R. ACKERMAN, 191, Regent-street, W.
L. BARBE, 60, Quadrant, Regent-street, W.
J. BARNARD, 339, Oxford-street, W.
Messrs. BRODIE & MIDDLETON, 79, Long-acre, W.C.
H. MILLER, 56, Long-acre, W.C.
J. NEWMAN, 24, Soho-square, W.
Messrs. REEVES & SONS, 113, Cheapside, E.C.
Messrs. ROBERSON, 99, Long-acre, W.C.
Messrs. ROWNEY & CO., 51, Rathbone-place, W.
Messrs. SHERBORNE & TILLYER, 321, Oxford-street, W.
Messrs. WINSOR & NEWTON, 38, Rathbone-place, W.
From each of the above-mentioned firms I have obtained valuable
information, and from several, excellent samples of their products. I am
glad, therefore, to take the present opportunity of expressing my
obligations to them. From Messrs. Winsor & Newton, especially, I have
received the kindest and most intelligent co-operation; and I am happy to
be the channel of making public the results of a series of experiments, on
the combinations of colours and the use of various materials for
illuminating purposes, suggested by me, and made with great tact and
judgment by Mr. W. H. Winsor. Messrs. Winsor & Newton and Mr. Barnard have,
up to the present time, done most to smooth away the difficulties which
beset the illuminator. Messrs. Newman, Messrs. Rowney & Co., Messrs. Reeves
& Sons, and Mr. Barbe, have also recently contributed valuable improvements
or special adaptations.[115]
The colours best suited for illuminating I believe to be as follows:--
B Lemon Yellow }
A Gamboge } Yellow.
A Cadmium Yellow }
D Mars Yellow }
B Rose Madder }
A Crimson Lake }
C Carmine } Red.
C Orange Vermilion }
A Vermilion }
A Cobalt }
A French Blue } Blue.
D Smalt }
D Mars Orange } Orange.
B Burnt Sienna }
C Burnt Carmine } Purple.
D Indian Purple }
A Emerald Green } Green.
C Green Oxide of Chromium }
B Vandyke Brown Brown.
A Lampblack Black.
A Chinese White White.
These colours are selected from the list of water-colours made at the
present day (upwards of eighty), and will, I think, be found to be all that
can well be required for illuminating. The whole number is by no means
indispensable, and I have therefore marked by different letters of the
alphabet,--1st, A, those without which it would be useless to commence
work; 2ndly, B, those which should first be added; 3rdly, C, those which
are required for very great brilliancy in certain effects; and, 4thly, D,
those which may be regarded as luxuries in the art. The C are really
important; the D are much less so. Messrs. Winsor & Newton have arranged
them into four different lists, which are placed in boxes (complete with
colours and materials for working in water-colours), of the respective
retail values of £1. 1_s._, £1. 11_s._ 6_d._, £2. 2_s._, and £3. 3_s._
Boxes corresponding with, or slightly varying from these, in selection of
colours and materials, may be obtained from other artists' colourmen.
I now proceed to notice these colours _seriatim_, in reference to their
tints, both when used alone and when mixed with other colours.
YELLOWS.
_Lemon Yellow._--A vivid high-toned yellow, semi-opaque, is extremely
telling upon gold. Mixed with cadmium yellow it furnishes a range of
brilliant warm yellows. It mixes well with gamboge, orange vermilion,
cobalt, emerald green, and oxide of chromium, and with any of these
produces clean and useful tints.
_Gamboge._--A bright transparent yellow of light tone; works freely, and
is very useful for glazing purposes. In combination with lemon yellow it
affords a range of clean tints. When mixed with a little Mars yellow it
produces a clear, warm, transparent tone of colour.
_Cadmium Yellow._--A rich glowing yellow, powerful in tint, and
semi-transparent. This is a most effective colour for illuminating. When
judiciously toned with white, it furnishes a series of useful shades.
Mixed with lemon yellow it produces a range of clean vivid tints. It does
not, however, make good greens--they are dingy. Mixed with carmine, or
glazed with it, it gives a series of strong luminous shades.
_Mars Yellow._--A semi-transparent warm yellow, of slightly russet tone,
but clean and bright in tint. Useful where a quiet yellow is required;
mixes well with gamboge; does not make good greens.
REDS.
_Rose Madder._--A light transparent pink colour of extremely pure tone.
It is delicate in tint, but very effective, on account of its purity.
Mixed with cobalt, it affords clean, warm, and cold purples. The addition
of a little carmine materially heightens the tone of this colour, though
at the same time it somewhat impairs its purity.
_Crimson Lake._--A rich crimson colour, clean and transparent; washes and
mixes well. More generally useful than carmine, though wanting the
intense depth and brilliancy of the latter colour.
_Carmine._--A deep-toned luminous crimson, much stronger than crimson
lake; is clean and transparent. The brilliancy of this powerful colour
can be increased, by using it over a ground of gamboge.
_Orange Vermilion._--A high-toned opaque red, of pure and brilliant hue,
standing in relation to ordinary vermilion as carmine to crimson lake. It
is extremely effective, and answers admirably where vivid opaque red is
required; it works, washes, and mixes well. Its admixture with cadmium
results in a fine range of warm luminous tints. When mixed with lemon
yellow, it furnishes a series of extremely clean and pure tints; when
toned with white, the shades are clear and effective. This is a most
useful colour.
_Vermilion._--A dense, deep-toned red, powerful in colour, and opaque. It
is not so pure in tone as orange vermilion, and is of most service when
used alone; it can, however, be thinned with white and with yellows.
BLUES.
_Cobalt Blue._--A light-toned blue, clean and pure in tint, and
semi-transparent. This is the lightest blue used in illuminating, and by
the addition of white can he "paled" to any extent, the tints keeping
clear and good. Mixed with lemon yellow, it makes a clean useful green.
Its admixture with gamboge is not so satisfactory, and the green produced
by its combination with Mars yellow is dirty and useless. With rose
madder it produces middling, warm and cold purples (_i.e._, marones, and
lilacs or violets); with crimson lake, strong and effective ones; with
carmine, ditto. A series of quiet neutral tints can be produced by its
admixture with orange vermilion. The tints in question are clean and
good, and might occasionally be useful.
_French Blue._--A deep rich blue, nearly transparent; is the best
substitute for genuine ultramarine. The greens it makes with lemon
yellow, gamboge, cadmium, and Mars yellow, are not very effective or
useful. The violets and marones it forms with rose madder are granulous
and unsatisfactory; with carmine they are somewhat better; but those
formed with crimson lake are very good.
_Smalt._--A brilliant, full-toned blue; deep in tone, and nearly
transparent; luminous and very effective when used alone. It is
granulous, and does not wash or mix well. The greens it makes are not
particularly useful.
ORANGES.
_Mars Orange._--A brilliant orange of very pure tone, transparent and
lighter in colour than burnt sienna; and is not so coarse or staring. An
effective and useful colour.
_Burnt Sienna._--A deep rich orange, transparent and effective; works
well and mixes freely.
PURPLES.
_Indian Purple._--A rich deep-toned violet, or cold purple colour; most
effective when used alone. Can be lighted with French blue or cobalt, and
the tints will be found useful.
_Burnt Carmine._--A rich deep-toned marone or warm purple colour;
transparent and brilliant; luminous and effective when used alone; mixed
with orange vermilion, it produces a strong rich colour, and a quiet
fleshy one when mixed with cadmium yellow.
GREENS.
_Emerald Green._--An extremely vivid and high-toned green, opaque. No
combination of blue and yellow will match this colour, which is
indispensable in illuminating. It can be "paled" with white, and the
tints thus produced are pure and clean. The tints afforded by its
admixture with lemon-yellow are also clear and effective.
_Green Oxide of Chromium._--A very rich deep green, opaque, but
effective. The tone of this green renders it extremely useful in
illuminating; mixed with emerald green, it furnishes a series of rich
semi-transparent tints. Mixed with lemon-yellow, it gives quiet, useful
shades of green; and when this combination is brightened with emerald
green, the shades are luminous and effective.
BROWN.
_Vandyke Brown._--A deep, rich, transparent, brown, luminous and clear in
tint; works, washes, and mixes well. The best of all the browns for
illuminating.
BLACK.
_Lampblack._--The most dense and deep of all the blacks, free from any
shade of brown or grey.
WHITE.
_Chinese White._--A preparation of oxide of zinc, permanent, and the
white best adapted for illuminating. It is not only useful _per se_, but
is indispensable for toning or reducing other colours.
In making the list of the colours just described, I have assumed as a _sine
quâ non_ that the colours used in illuminating should be permanent. All
those enumerated are so (in water-colours), with the exception of carmine
and crimson lake; and these, though theoretically not permanent, are yet
found in practice to be _very_ lasting, especially when not too much
exposed to the light. It is a curious fact, that crimson lake, though a
weaker colour than carmine, is yet more permanent, in consequence of its
different base, and that it will better stand exposure to light.
I here take the opportunity of warning amateurs, allured by their evident
brilliancy, against the use, in illumination, of the following five
colours, viz.--pure scarlet, red lead, chrome yellow, deep chrome, and
orange chrome. None of these are permanent; the first-named being fugitive,
and the others in time turning black; but this is the less to be regretted,
as there are permanent colours answering equally well for illumination. Of
course, these are less fugitive in books, which are generally protected
from the action of light and air, than they would be in pictures.
The preceding remarks on pigments apply, with no difference worth noting,
to colours prepared either for oil or for water-colour; which may therefore
be laid on, by varying the vehicle for their proper application, to the
surfaces of any of those materials which have been specified in the Second
Part of this Essay, as available for different kinds of illumination. I now
proceed to notice the special processes requisite in each case, commencing
with those which may be best employed for vellum. This substance consists
of calf-skin, carefully cleansed and scraped, and repeatedly washed in
diluted sulphuric acid. The surface is rubbed down with fine pumice-stone
to a smooth face, and in that condition it is fit for working upon. It is
sold, prepared for use, at all the principal shops. If it has not been
previously strained, or if many tints are likely to be floated over the
surface, it will be well to strain it down upon a strainer or board before
attempting to draw upon it. This may be done by damping the vellum, and
then either gluing or nailing its edges down. When dry, it will be found to
lie perfectly flat and smooth. It may be well, then, to wash it over with a
dilute preparation of ox gall, to overcome any possible greasiness, and
prepare it to receive colour freely. Mr. Barnard, and, I believe, other
artists' colourmen, supply vellum mounted in block-books, similar to those
made up of drawing-paper for sketching on; and by providing himself with
one of those, the amateur may avoid the trouble of having to mount his own
vellum.
As it is by no means easy to remove pencil-marks from vellum (and indeed it
is never wise to attempt it, for the black-lead unites with the animal fat,
which can never be entirely got out of the material, and rubs under the
action of Indian-rubber or bread into a greasy smudge), it is always well
to set out the design in the first instance upon drawing-paper. The best
mode for good work is to complete the outline on drawing-paper, and then to
trace it carefully with a hard pencil on a piece of tracing-paper, about
one inch larger each way than the entire surface of the vellum; then cut
out, the exact size of the vellum, a piece of tracing or tissue paper,
rubbed evenly over with powdered red chalk.[116] Lay the tracing down
(pencilled side upwards) in its right place upon the vellum, and fasten
down one edge with pins, gum, or mouth-glue. Then slip the transfer-paper,
with the chalked side downwards, between the vellum and the tracing until
it exactly covers the former--touching the back of the transfer-paper with
two or three drops of gum on its margin. Then lay the tracing over, and
fasten down another of its edges. The gum drops will prevent the
transfer-paper slipping away from the tracing-paper, when the drawing-board
or strainer is placed upon a sloping desk or easel. Taking care to keep a
piece of stout card or pasteboard under the hand, go over all the lines of
the tracing with a blunted etching-point, or very hard pencil cut sharp.
This having been done, on removing both the tracing and the transfer-paper,
it will be found that a clear red outline has been conveyed to the surface
of the vellum. At this stage of the work, as nothing dirties more readily
than this material, it will be well to fasten over the surface a clean
sheet of paper with a flap cut in it, by raising up and folding back
portions of which, the artist may get to the part of the surface upon which
he may desire to work without exposing any of the rest. As the effect of
the writing on the page gives as it were the key-note for the general
effect of the illuminated ornaments, it will be well to complete the former
before proceeding to the latter.[117]
If the lines of the writing fixed upon are fine and delicate, they will
look best, and work most freely with Indian ink; but if they are bold and
solid, involving some extent of black surface, they will present a better
appearance if wrought in lampblack; the principal difference between the
two being that Indian ink is finer, and, if good, always retains a slight
gloss, while lampblack gives a fuller tint, and dries off quite mat, or
with a dead surface, corresponding with that of most other body-colour
tints used in illuminating. Great care must be taken to keep the writing
evenly spaced, upright, and perfectly neat, as it is almost impossible to
erase without spoiling the vellum, and as no beauty of ornament will redeem
an untidy text. If a portion of the writing is to be in red, it should be
in pure vermilion; and if in gold, it should be highly burnished, as will
be hereafter directed. The writing being satisfactorily completed, the
artist may proceed to lay in his ground tints, generally mixing them with
more or less white to give them body and solidity. Colours prepared with
water are best adapted for illumination on vellum; and those known as
_moist_ colours are to be preferred for this work, as they give out a
greater volume of colour, and possess more tenacity or power of adhering to
the surface of the material on which they are used than the dry colours. Of
moist colours there are two descriptions, viz., solid and liquid; and of
these I give the preference to the former, as some colours, such as lemon
yellow and smalt, will not keep well in tubes; added to which, there is
waste in using them in this form where only small quantities are required,
as the colour cannot be replaced in the tube when once squeezed out. The
tube colours possess, however, the valuable property of being always clean
when a bit of pure colour is required. The solid moist colours are apt to
get dirtied in rapid working, and occasionally mislead an eye which is not
quick at detecting a lowered tint. Mr. Barbe's body-colours, which are of
very good quality, are prepared in powder, combined with a glutinous
substance, on moistening which with water, the tints are fit for
application. Messrs. Winsor & Newton's body-colours are also very
excellent. Flatness of tint is best secured by using the first colour well
mixed with body, and put on boldly; this forms the brightest tint; then
shade with pure transparent colour, and finish off with the high lights.
Very useful models, both on a small scale for book illumination, and on an
enlarged one for wall decoration, are now prepared by several of the
artists' colour-men, for teaching amateurs the different modes of shading,
&c. They consist of outline plates partially coloured by hand. The beginner
will find it a very useful exercise to complete a few of these before
trying his hand upon more original works upon vellum. The greatest care
must be taken to have every implement perfectly clean. Experience alone can
teach the artist the value of what are called glazing or transparent
colours, such as the lakes, carmine, madders, gamboge, &c. Some tints may
be used either as glazing colours, or as body-tints, according to their
preparation, and according to the degree of thickness with which they are
applied. As a general principle, all shades should be painted in
transparent colour, all lights in opaque. Reflected lights may often be
best given by scumbling thin body-colour over transparent shade. In order
to prepare the tints for these operations, it may be well to use a little
of Newman's or Miller's preparations with them. The less tints are
retouched after the first application, the more clear and brilliant they
are likely to remain. Above all things never let the paint-brush go near
the mouth, and never attempt to correct or retouch a tint while it is in
process of drying, as doing so will infallibly make it look streaky and
muddy. In all these processes of manipulation, however, practice, good
example, and good tuition, must teach what the minutest directions would
fail to satisfactorily convey. The principal colours having been applied,
the next difficulty will be to heighten them with gold and silver. Any
large surfaces of gilding it will be well to apply previously to commencing
colouring, and as much as possible intended for burnishing.
The principal metallic preparations used in illumination may be enumerated
as follows:--gold leaf, gold paper, shell gold, saucer gold, gold paint,
silver leaf, shell silver, and shell aluminium. Of these, the leaves,
paper, and paint, are of English, and the shells and saucers of French
manufacture. Occasionally gold and silver powder and German-metal leaf are
employed, though too rarely to make them important enough to claim general
notice.
The first-mentioned preparation of gold--gold-leaf--is the pure metal
beaten into very thin leaves, generally 3-1/8 inches, 3¼ inches, or 3-3/8
inches square; but for illuminating purposes it should be still
smaller--say 2½ inches square, as it is easier to handle than a larger
size. For the same reason it is better to have the leaf double as thick as
it is usually beaten. Gold leaf is sold in "books," each of which contains
twenty-five gold "leaves," and for ordinary and general purposes, it is by
far the best and most useful metallic preparation; but the difficulty of
handling and laying it on deters amateurs from employing it, and it is
difficult in writing to furnish a practical description of the _modus
operandi_. The following is the usual mode:--
"Carefully open the book of gold, and if in so doing you disturb the leaf,
gently blow it down flat again. If a whole leaf be required, take a rounded
'tip,' and quietly so place it on the leaf that the top of the tip be close
to the edge of the leaf. In so doing, the sides of the tip will be brought
down upon the side edges of the leaf, which then can be securely taken up
and placed where required. If a small piece of gold leaf only be wanted,
cautiously take up a leaf from the book by passing a 'gilder's knife'
underneath, and place it on a 'gilders cushion;'[118] lay it flat with the
knife, with which then cut the piece of the size required. If when you have
laid gold leaf down with the tip it be wrinkly, blow it down flat."
The "gilder's tip" spoken of in the above extract is a very thin camel-hair
brush, and for unskilled hands a semicircular tip is to be preferred to one
of the ordinary form; as with it a leaf of gold may be firmly laid hold of,
balanced, adjusted, and placed, without needing any particular knack. For
long narrow pieces of gold, the ordinary gilder's tip is probably the best.
Gold paper consists of leaves of gold placed upon thin paper, a sheet of
which, measuring about 19 inches by 12¾ inches, requires one book of gold.
The mat or dead gold is most frequently used in illumination; but, when
required, the bright or burnished gold can be procured. Gold paper is
usually plain at the back, and when used, is required to be gummed on to
the work; but it is far better to have it prepared on the back with a
mixture of clear glue, sugar, &c., which can be laid on evenly and thickly,
and yet is very strong. Paper thus prepared needs only to have a wet flat
camel-hair brush passed over the back; it can then be laid down, and will
adhere very firmly. In laying down gold paper, it is well to place a piece
of white glazed paper on its face, then firmly to pass over it the edge of
a flat rule or burnisher, in order to press down all inequalities and
render the surface perfectly smooth.
Shell gold is gold powder mixed up and placed in mussel-shells for use. It
is removed from the shell by the application of water, like moist colours,
and is adapted for small work and fine lines, in which latter case a quill
or reed pen will be found useful. When the work is dry, the gold can be
brightened with a burnisher. Saucer gold only differs from shell gold in
being placed in china saucers instead of shells.
Gold paint is a preparation of bronze in imitation of gold, and is usually
sold in two bottles, one of powder and the other of liquid; which two
ingredients, when mixed together, form the "paint," the use of which I do
not recommend, as in course of time it turns black. The same objection
unfortunately applies more or less, also, to the preparations of silver,
which, however, are still occasionally used in illumination.
Silver leaf is made in the same manner as gold leaf, and the remarks made
in reference to that are generally applicable to silver leaf.
Shell silver is not really silver, but an amalgam of tin and mercury
prepared and placed in mussel-shells, and used with water in the same way
as gold shells.
Shell aluminium is a preparation of aluminium placed in mussel-shells for
use, and is warranted to keep its colour without tarnishing. _If_ this be
the case, it will form a valuable addition to the list of materials for
illumination, as it will be the only white metal known that can be depended
upon for not tarnishing. The preparation is at present a comparatively new
one, but bids fair to be very serviceable.
Water-mat gold size is a preparation for laying down gold leaf, _i.e._,
causing it to adhere to a given surface. The mode of using it is as
follows:--Take a small brush saturated with water, and thoroughly charge it
with the size. With the brush so charged, trace out the required form or
pattern, and upon this lay the gold leaf, pressing it lightly down with
cotton-wool. When all is dry, gently rub off the superfluous gold with
cotton-wool.
"Burnish gold size" is a preparation for laying down the gold leaf that is
intended afterwards to be burnished (_i.e._, polished with a tooth or agate
burnisher). That prepared by Messrs. Winsor & Newton may be used as
follows:--Place the bottle in warm water to dissolve its contents, which,
however, must not be allowed to get hot, but merely be made liquid. Stir up
the preparation with a hogs-hair brush, which then thoroughly charge with
the mixture; with it trace out the pattern required to be burnished, then
let the work dry. When quite dry, let the surface of the pattern be wetted
with clean cold water, and on it (while damp) place the gold leaf. Let all
get perfectly dry, and then burnish as required. When a very bright surface
is wanted, two coats of the size should be used; the second being put on
after the first is dry.
The "raising preparation" made by the same firm, is adapted for raising the
surface of the work, so as to obtain relief, and is particularly required
for imitating rich MSS. of the 14th and 15th centuries. It is used as
follows:--Place the bottle in hot water, and when its contents are
dissolved, stir it well up with a small hogs-hair brush, then fully charge
it, draw out the form intended to be raised, and deposit the "raising" on
the surface. If the height thus attained be not sufficient, wait till the
preparation is dry, and go over it again, and so on until you gain the
height you require, when it must be allowed to become quite hard; then go
over it with the water-mat gold-size, and while this is wet put on the
gold; press gently down with cotton-wool, and when dry brush off the
superfluous gold with cotton-wool; when putting on the "raising," take care
to keep the surface level, unless it may be required to be hollowed or
indented.
Mr. Barnard has also prepared a gold size and raising preparation, adapted
for laying gold on vellum or paper, which answers well both for mat and
burnish gilding. The mode of using it is as follows:--Wash a little of the
gold size off with a brush dipped in water, using it thinly for the flat
parts of your design, and in greater body for that portion of the drawing
which you wish to appear raised; after allowing it to remain for a few
minutes, till nearly dry, apply the gold, and press it down with a piece of
cotton-wool. It must now remain untouched for about an hour, when the
superfluous gold may be removed by means of the wool, and in case of
defect, the gold size and gold must be again applied. Preparations of a
somewhat similar nature are sold by Messrs. Rowney, Newman, and other
artists' colourmen.[119]
Very pretty effects may be obtained by partial burnishing of the gold in
patterns, and dotting it over with the point of the sharp burnisher in
indentations, arranged in geometrical forms. The best manuscripts of the
Edwardian period were often highly wrought after this fashion.
When finished, it is scarcely necessary to recommend that the vellum sheet
should be either put carefully away until enough of others corresponding
with it are done to make up a volume, or should be glazed so as to protect
its surface. One dirty or greasy finger laid upon it, and the effect of
much beautiful work, which may have taken weeks to elaborate, is fatally
marred.
All the above instructions apply as well for working on paper or cardboard
as on vellum. The amateur who has once succeeded on vellum, is not likely
to take again to the humbler practice of working on the less noble
materials, which, however, will always be exceedingly useful for practising
and sketching upon. I have occasionally seen printed volumes gracefully
illustrated by hand with borders, and with elegant inventions, in the form
of head and tail pieces, insertions, &c., applicable to the subject of the
volume. Many of the works of old English authors are peculiarly suited for
this class of embellishment. How beautiful might not a Walton's "Angler" or
a Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" be made if appropriately enriched in this
style.
Tracing-paper, and the facilities it offers to those little gifted with
talents for drawing, I have already noticed. It remains, however, to
observe, that it possesses an additional practical convenience in being
ready for taking colour, either with oil, water, or varnish, as vehicles,
without the previous application of any special preparation. Hence it may
be fastened up when completed, either by pasting as ordinary paper, by
gluing, if for attachment to wood, or by paying over the back with boiled
oil and copal varnish, or with white lead ground in oil with some litharge,
and then pressing down until it may be made to lie perfectly flat and
adhere to any surface previously painted in oil-colour. Being very thin,
its edges will scarcely show at all, even if applied to the middle of a
flat panel; but, to make sure, it is always well to run a line with a full
brush of thick colour, either in oil or distemper, over the edge, extending
for one half of its width upon the tracing-paper, and for the other half
upon the surface to which it may have been applied.
Of the remaining materials on which illumination for the decoration, not of
books but of apartments, may be readily executed, canvas, stone, metal, and
wood, are generally wrought upon by the ordinary processes of oil-painting;
while plaster, especially in the form of ceilings, is more frequently
treated by means of distemper-painting. I propose, therefore, to give,
firstly, some general directions as to the setting out work, &c.,
applicable to both methods; secondly, a notice of the processes generally
required for oil-colour illumination; thirdly, a brief description of the
mode of working in distemper; and fourthly, to wind up with some
instructions as to the application of varnish which may be employed to
heighten and preserve illumination executed by either of the above methods.
The operation of setting out lines upon walls or other surfaces is by no
means easy. It involves care and judgment, a quick eye, and a very steady
hand. It is the indispensable preliminary before ornamental work or
illumination can be executed, as it can alone correctly give the forms of
panels, borders, &c., for which cartoons may have to be prepared. Lines may
be either drawn with pencil or prepared charcoal, or chalk, or else struck
by means of a chalked string. For lines which are vertical, a weight called
a plumb-bob must be attached to one end of the string. The best shape for
this is that of half an egg, as the flat side will then lie close to the
wall. Two persons are required in setting out these lines,--one working
above and the other below. The one at the top marks the points at the
distance each line is required to be from others. The string being chalked
either black or white,--according as the line has to show upon a light or
dark ground,--he holds it to one of the points, and lets fall the weighted
end, which, when quite steady, the person who is below strains tight, and
raising the string between his finger and thumb in the middle, lets it fall
back sharply on the wall. The result, if carefully executed, is a perfectly
straight and vertical line. The horizontal lines require to be drawn with a
straight-edge or ruler, and may be either set out at a true right angle to
the vertical lines geometrically by the intersection of arcs of circles, or
by a large square, or may be defined, irrespectively of mathematical
correctness, by measuring up or down from a ceiling or floor line. The
distances apart are as before measured out, but in long lines must be
marked as many times as the length of the straight-edge may require. This
being set at each end to the points marked, the line is drawn along it.
Circles and curved lines may be struck from their proper centres with large
wooden compasses, one leg carrying a pencil. Drawing lines with the brush
requires great practice. A straight-edge is placed upon the chalk lines,
with the edge next the line slightly raised, and the brush, well filled
with colour, drawn along it, just touching the wall, the pressure being
never increased, and the brush refilled whenever it is near failing; but
great care must be taken that it be not too full, as in that case it will
be apt to blotch the line, or drop the colour upon the lower portions of
the wall. Drawing lines in colour overhead upon a ceiling is even more
difficult, and is beyond the capabilities of most amateurs.
The patterns of ornament are executed either by means of stencils cut in
oiled paper, according to the method which will be next described, or else
by pounces, which are the full-sized drawings pricked along all the lines
with a needle upon a flat cushion; powdered charcoal, tied up in a cotton
bag, is then dabbed upon the paper which has been set up on the wall, or
else the back is rubbed over with drawing-charcoal and brushed well with a
flat brush, like a stove brush. In both cases the result is that the dust
passes on to the walls through the pricked holes, and forms are thus
sufficiently indicated to the painter.
Stencilling is a process by which colour is applied through interstices cut
in a prepared paper, by dabbing with a brush. The design to be stencilled
is drawn upon paper which has been soaked with linseed oil and well dried.
The pattern is then cut out with a sharp knife upon a sheet of glass, care
being taken to leave such connections as will keep the stencil together.
The next tint is then to be laid on in the same manner, and so on till the
darkest tint is done, each tint being allowed to dry before a second is
applied.
I do not purpose dwelling in detail on the preparation, or "bringing
forward," as it is called, of surfaces to receive oil-colour; since, for
such mechanical work, it will be always well to employ a good
house-painter. I may observe, however, that the first operation, where the
surface is absorbent, is to stop the suction, either by a plentiful
application of boiled oil alone, boiled oil and red lead, or size. Several
successive coats of paint should then be applied, and in order to obtain
smoothness, the surface of each should be well rubbed down. The last coat
should be mixed with turpentine, and no oil, in order to kill the gloss,
or, as it is termed, to "flat" the surface. For most decoration and
illumination, the work should be brought forward in white, as, by shining
partially through most of the pigments ultimately applied, it will greatly
add to their brilliancy. Zinc white will stand much better than white lead.
Messrs. Roberson, of Long Acre, prepare an excellent wax medium, which
dries with a perfectly dead encaustic surface, and answers admirably for
mural-painting of all kinds. I caused it to be employed for all the
decoration executed under my direction at the Sydenham Crystal Palace.
Miller's glass medium will also be found very useful to artists and
amateurs. In laying on all ground tints, great care should be taken to keep
them flat; and the less, as a general rule, tints are mixed, worked over
and over, and messed about, the brighter they will be. The principal
colours having dried, the setting out of the lettering, &c., may be
proceeded with; the following directions being duly attended to.
_The Setting-out of Letters._[120]
In regard to the proportion of Roman capital letters, it may be taken as a
general rule, that the whole of the letters, with the exception of S, J, I,
F, M, and N, are formed in squares. The top and bottom of the letters
should project the width of the thick line. The letters I and J are formed
in a vertical parallelogram, half the width of the square; the letters M
and N in a horizontal parallelogram, one third larger than the square. The
letters A, B, E, F, H, X, and Y, are either divided, or have projections
from the middle. This rule may be varied, and the division placed nearer
the top than the base of the square. Capitals in the same word should have
a space equal to half a square between them; at the beginning of a word, a
whole square, and between the divisions of a sentence two squares should be
left.
This is the general rule for the proportions of the letters; but they may
be made longer or wider, as may be deemed expedient.
The small letters are half the size of the capitals; the long lines of the
letters b, d, f, h, k, and l, are the same height as the capitals; the
tails of j, p, q, and y, descending in like proportion. The letter s is
founded on the form of two circles at a tangent to each other. These rules
are applicable to sloping as well as to upright letters. In _italic_
letters it is usual to make the capitals three times the height of the
smaller letters, and the long strokes of the small letters nearly equal to
the capitals.
The letters having been duly set out, and painted on the walls, the amateur
must next either himself encounter, or employ some experienced hand to
overcome, the technical difficulties of successfully gilding those portions
of his work he may desire to remain in gold. The following directions may
assist him; but he is not likely to succeed until practice shall have given
him considerable dexterity and confidence:--
_Gilding for Walls, &c._
The implements with which the gilder should provide himself are not
numerous, nor are they expensive, as they consist merely of a cushion of
particular form, a knife for cutting the gold-leaf, a tip for transferring
it, and a cotton ball or pad for pressing it down; these and a few brushes
are all the requisites, with the addition of an agate burnisher when
burnish gilding is desired.
The cushion is a species of palette made of wood, about 9 inches by 6
inches, having on the upper surface a covering of leather stuffed with
wool, and on the under side a loose band, through which the thumb being
passed, the cushion is kept firmly resting on the left hand. To prevent the
gold flying off (for, being extremely light, this very readily takes
place), a margin of parchment is fixed on the edge of the cushion, rising
about three inches, and enclosing it on three sides. The knife very much
resembles a palette-knife, the blade is about four inches long and half an
inch wide, perfectly straight, and cutting on one edge only.
The "tip" is the brush with which the gold-leaf is applied. It is formed by
placing a line of badger-hair between two thin pieces of cardboard, and is
generally about three inches wide. The "dabber" is merely a pinch of
cotton-wool, lightly tied up in a piece of very soft rag, or, what is
better, the thin silk called Persian. It is often used without covering,
but is then very apt to take up the uncovered gold-size, and so to soil the
leaf already laid down. Camel-hair brushes are useful for intricate parts,
and for cleaning off the superfluous gold a long-haired brush, called a
"softener," is requisite.
There should be also at hand a small stone and muller (these are also made
in glass, which is cleaner) for grinding up the oil and gold-size.
The operator, having stocked himself with the above tools, may now proceed
to lay the gold-leaf upon the work he desires to gild. There are two
methods of doing this, known in the trade as "Oil-gilding" and
"Water-gilding;" and so called from the composition of the size which
serves as a vehicle for making the gold-leaf adhere to the work.
The following is the usual process in oil-gilding:--This method costs
less and will wear much better than water-gilding, which will be
presently described; but has not its delicate appearance and finish, nor
can it be burnished or brightened up. Though the oil gold-size can always
be purchased of good quality, it may be well to describe the fat oil of
which it is principally composed.
Linseed oil, in any quantity, is exposed during the summer in the open
air, but as much away from dust as possible, for about two months, during
which time it must be often stirred, and it will become as thick as
treacle. It is a good practice to pour into the pot a quantity of water,
so that the oil may be lifted from the bottom of it, as all the
impurities of the oil sink into the water, and do not again mix when it
is stirred. When of the consistency above mentioned, the oil is separated
from the water, and being put into a bottle, is subjected to heat till it
becomes fluid again, when all remaining impurities will sink, and the
oil, being carefully poured off from the sediment, forms what is termed
"fat oil." The gilder commences by priming the work, should it not have
been painted, using for the purpose a small portion of yellow ochre and
vermilion, mixed with drying oil. When this is quite dry, a coat of the
oil gold size, compounded with the fat oil just described, japanner's
gold-size, and yellow ochre, is laid on, and when this is perfectly dry,
a second should be given, or even a third. A superior finish is produced
by going over the work, before using the size, with Dutch rushes or
fish-skin, which gives a finer surface to it. After the last coat of size
is applied, the work must be left for about a day, to set, taking care to
keep it from dust; and the proper state for receiving the gold-leaf is
known by touching the size with the finger, when it should be just
"tacky," that is adhesive, without leaving the ground on which it has
been laid.
The gilder then, taking on his left hand his cushion, transfers to it the
gold-leaves from the books in which they are purchased. This is not very
easy to a beginner, as the gold cannot be touched except by the knife.
Gilders manage it by breathing under the leaf in the direction it is
desired to send it, and flatten it on the cushion by the same gentle
blowing or breathing. It is now cut to the required shape, and applied to
the sized surfaces by means of the tip, which, if drawn across the hair
or face each time it is used, will slightly adhere to the gold. The whole
leaves are sometimes transferred from the books to the work at once; and
when there is much flat space, it facilitates the process. As the leaves
are laid on the size, they are pressed gently down with the cotton ball,
or in sunken parts with camel-hair brushes; and when perfectly dry, the
loose leaf is removed by gently brushing over the work with the softener,
when if there should be found any places ungilt, such spots are touched
with japanners' gold-size, and the leaf applied as before. The process of
oil-gilding is then complete.
Water or burnish-gilding differs from the former in the use of parchment
instead of oil size, and has received its name from being moistened with
water in rendering the size adhesive, and also from its fitness for
burnishing. Its superior beauty, however, is balanced by its being less
durable than oil-gilding, and, unlike the latter, unfit to be exposed to
damp air; it is therefore only used for indoor work or ornamentation. The
parchment size is made by boiling down slips of parchment or cuttings of
glovers' leather, till a strong jelly be formed, the proportions being
one pound of cuttings to six quarts of water, which must be boiled till
it shrinks to two quarts. While hot, the liquid should be strained
through flannel; and when cold, the jelly required will be fit for use.
The work to be gilded will require several coats of composition: the
first, or priming coat, is made of size thinned with water, and a little
whiting; with this the work is brushed over, using a thicker mixture when
there are defects which need to be stopped. Successive coats are then
laid on to the number of seven or eight, and the last, being moistened
with water, is worked over and smoothed on the plain parts with Dutch
rushes. After this is completed, a coating is laid on, composed of bol
ammoniac 1 pound, black lead 2 ounces, ground up on the stone with 2
ounces of olive oil. This is one out of many receipts; all, however, are
diluted for use with parchment size warmed up with two-thirds water, and
forming what is called water gold-size. Two coats of this should be laid
on; the part about to be burnished should then be again rubbed with a
soft cloth till quite even, and care taken that each coat be perfectly
dry before the subsequent one be laid on. The work is now moistened in
successive portions with a camel-hair brush and water, and while moist
covered with gold-leaf in precisely the same manner as described in the
directions for oil-gilding, great caution being observed in order to
avoid wetting the leaf already laid down, as a discoloration would be the
result. The work is now left for about four-and-twenty hours, when the
parts which are to be burnished may be tried in two or three places. Care
should be taken not to let the work get too dry, as in that case it would
require more burnishing, and yet not give a good result. This state is
known by its polishing slowly, and if it be too wet it will peel off; but
should the places where the trials are made all polish quickly and
evenly, the work may then be finished; for which purpose agates cut in
proper forms and set into handles, are sold at the artists'
colour-shops.[121]
The gilding satisfactorily accomplished, the artist or amateur has only to
add the finishing tints and touches to his work, and then either to leave
it alone, or to varnish it in accordance with the directions which will be
given presently. If the work has been executed on canvass, it will remain
only to apply it to the surface for which it may have been destined. This
may be done by painting that surface with thick white lead, in two or three
coats, and by also similarly painting the back of the canvass. The latter
being then pressed evenly down upon the former, while the white lead upon
both is still tacky, and, left for a few days, will be found to have
attached itself with the greatest tenacity. Scrolls and panels cut out of
zinc sheets may be painted upon just as though they were cut out of
canvass, and may be fixed in their places by nails or screws. In
illuminating on wood, pretty effects may be obtained by varnishing
partially with transparent colours, such as the lakes, umber, Prussian
blue, burnt sienna, &c., so as to allow the grain of the wood to show
through,--restricting the use of opaque colour and gilding to a few
brilliant points.
Distempering is a method of colouring walls and ceilings in which powder
colour, ground up in water, and mixed with sufficient size to fix the
colour, is used instead of paint made with oil. The most simple employment
of distemper is in whitening ceilings, but it is also very much used in
theatrical decoration and scene-painting; and rooms are sometimes so
ornamented, the process being much less expensive than oil-painting. The
foundation of all the colours is whiting, which, having been set to soak in
water and break up of itself, is (when the top water is poured off) in a
fit state for use; common double size is then added, with as much of the
colour as will make the desired tint; but as this, when dry, will be many
shades lighter than it appears when wet, trials should be made on paper,
and dried by the fire till the colour required be attained. A gentle heat
is required for melting the size. Old walls are prepared for distemper by
being scraped and cleaned, and a coat of "clearcole" given to them. This is
merely thin size and water with a little whiting: it serves to wash and
smooth the walls and stop suction. Should there be any cracks or holes, a
thick paste of size-water and whiting is laid in them with a palette-knife,
and, when dry, smoothed down with pumice-stone, and another coat of
clearcole given, when the wall is in a proper state to receive the ground
tint; for new walls one coat of clearcole is sufficient. If it is intended
to lay on lines of various colours, the wall is, previous to the laying on
of the ground tint, set out as previously described; and the appropriate
colours put on in succession, according to the design to be followed. All
the colours required should be ground up, and kept ready prepared in
galley-pots well covered over, so as to be at hand at once. The colour
should be of the consistency of thick cream, and should run from the brush
on being raised from the pot in one thread; if it run in several, it is too
thin. If too thick, add more size and water; if too thin, more whiting. The
pots used are the common red paint-pots.
VARNISHING.
Varnish is a solution of resin in oil or spirits of wine.[122]
Surfaces which are to be varnished should be of the greatest smoothness
and polish which it is possible to attain. Dark colours are best
calculated for varnishing; the lighter colours, such as sky-blue,
apple-green, rose-colour, delicate yellow, &c., will not bear varnishing
so well, and in spite of the greatest care are liable to get dirty.
The best preparation for stopping suction in absorbent surfaces, and so
rendering them fit to take varnish, is made of isinglass or parchment
size; for the darker colours it may be made of common clear glue. Four or
five coats will be necessary for the brighter colours; two or three will
be sufficient for the darker ones. Great care must be taken not to wash
up water or distemper colours in laying on the first coat, nor to lay on
a second coat before the first is perfectly dry; nor must the varnishing
be proceeded with before the last coat of size is thoroughly dry. Varnish
may be applied on surfaces brought forward in oil without any special
preparation, provided the oil has become thoroughly dry and hard.
This process serves both to enhance and preserve the beauty of the
colours, and in some degree to counteract the destructive influence of
the atmosphere and of insects.
Varnishes suitable for the work in hand, such as clear copal spirit
varnish, oil copal varnish, white hard varnish, &c., may be procured from
any one who supplies drawing materials. The varnishing itself requires
some little care. It should be performed in a place perfectly free from
dust, in a bold manner with large brushes, steadily, rapidly, and
uniformly, not returning too frequently to the same spot, more especially
when using spirit varnish, which loses its fluidity much sooner than oil
varnish. Whichever varnish is used, it should be very thin: if spirit
varnish, the room must be of a moderate temperature; for if too cold, the
varnishing is apt to be rough, white, and unequal; if too hot, it is
liable to have air-bladders, and to crumble and spoil. Oil varnishing may
be done in a room of warmer temperature. A second coat of varnish must on
no account be laid on before the first coat is quite dry. If the work is
to be polished, the spirit varnish must be applied from five to eight
times, oil varnish three or four; but if the work is not to be polished,
then four coats of the former and two of the latter will generally be
found sufficient.
When thoroughly dry, the face of the varnish may be polished with
pumice-stone, tripoly, water, and sweet oil. If it be an oil varnish,
procure some of the finest pulverized pumice-stone, and mix it with water
to about the consistence of cream; with a piece of linen rag dipped in
this mixture rub the work till all inequalities disappear, and the
surface is as smooth as glass; then dry it with a cloth, and polish once
more with tripoly and sweet oil; then dry it with a piece of soft linen,
rub it with starch reduced to a fine powder, and finish with a clean soft
linen cloth, until the varnish assumes a dazzling appearance. If it is a
spirit varnish, omit the pumice-stone, and begin with the tripoly and
water; after this use the tripoly and sweet oil, and finish as before
described for the oil varnish.
The difference is so striking between the polished and unpolished
surfaces, as to amply repay the additional trouble required in the
polishing. The polishing powders must be kept in thoroughly clean
vessels, a single grain of sand being sufficient to spoil the polish.
M. DIGBY WYATT.
37, TAVISTOCK PLACE, W.C.
_April, 1861._
FOOTNOTES.
[1] M. Gabriel Peignot, in his "Essai sur l'Histoire da Parchemin et du
Vélin," Paris, 1812, and in his paper on the same subject in "Le
Moyen Age et la Renaissance," vol. ii. Paris, 1849, produces evidence
of the use of parchment for writing upon anterior to the age of
Eumenes; and consequently limits his interpretation of Pliny's words,
"Varro membranas Pergami tradidit repertas," to an assertion of the
discovery of improved processes by which parchment was rendered more
available for writing upon than it had been previous to the accession
of Eumenes.
[2] A good representation of a scrinium and scapi, from a painting in the
"Casa Falkener," described in the "Museum of Classical Antiquities,"
vol. ii. p. 54, is given in one of the cubicula of the Pompeian Court
at Sydenham.
[3] See Gell's "Pompeiana" Appendix; and the "Memoir of the Canonico
Iorio."
[4] "Let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on
purple parchment, or, as they are commonly called, in uncial
letters,--rather ponderous loads than books,--so long as they permit
me and mine to have poor copies, and rather correct than beautiful
books."
[5] P. 113. Ingram, Cooke, & Co., London, 1853.
[6] "Universal Palæography." London, Bohn.
[7] Through the kindness of the late Mr. Dennistoun, of Dennistoun, and
Cardinal Acton, who obtained the requisite facilities for me.
[8] Tome v. pl. lxv.; tome iii. p. 29.
[9] D'Agincourt's famous mistake in attributing these miniatures to the
12th or 13th century, and Ottley's ascription of those in the Saxon
"Aratus" of the 9th century to the 2nd or 3rd, are among those slips
of the learned which prove that even great men are fallible.
[10] "Iste liber est beati Dionysii."
[11] The palimpsest Homer of the British Museum, discovered by Mr.
Cureton, is of equal importance in Grecian palæography.
[12] In the case of the "de Republicâ," they are written in the same
direction. See facsimiles in Sylvestre and Ferdinand Seré.
[13] "Iliadis Fragmenta antiquissima cum Picturis," ed. Angelo Maio.
[14] Petri Lambecii "Commentaria de Bibliotheca Vindobonensi," vol. ii.
[15] The Bible formerly belonging to Theodore Beza, now at Cambridge, and
one in the Vatican, are rival claimants to this honour.
[16] It was given to Charles I. of England, by Cyrillus Lucaris, Patriarch
of Constantinople.
[17] In his "Origin and Progress of Writing."
[18] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 97.
[19] Text to "Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments," page 4.
[20] For a full description, with references to numerous commentators, see
Westwood's "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. 49.
[21] Tome ii. article "Manuscrits," fig. 15.
[22] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 96.
[23] Dr. Kugler ("Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte," p.401), in speaking of
Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts, observes, "dass wir diese
Arbeiten als ein der ersten Zeugnisse des germanischen Kunstgeistes
in seiner Selbständigkeit, und zugleich als das Vorspiel oder als den
ersten Beginn des romanischen Kunststyles, zu betrachten haben."
[24] As represented in the plates to Salzenberg's fine work,
"Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel, vom V. bis XII.
Jahrhundert." Folio, Berlin, 1854.
[25] The whole are given in Shaw's "Illuminated Ornaments," plates 1, 2,
3, and 4.
[26] It is on this account that we have refrained from giving any
specimens of manuscripts anterior to the 6th century.
[27] "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," cap. Syriac MSS.
[28] O'Conor and others were of course earlier in the field.
[29] "Palæographia Sacra Pictoria," Book of Kells, page 1.
[30] Catalogue of the Libri collection of MSS., Introduction by M. Libri,
pages xiv. and xxvi. London, 1859.
[31] Giraldus Cambrensis, speaking probably of this very book, says, "Sin
autem ad perspicacius intuentum oculorum aciem invitaveris, et longe
penitus ad artis arcana transpenetraveris, tam delicatas et subtiles,
tam actas et arctas, tam nodosas et vinculatim colligatas, tamque
recentibus adhuc coloribus illustratas, notare poteris intricaturas,
ut vere hæc omnia angelica potius quam humana diligentia jam
asseveraveris esse composita."
[32] It is more abundantly used in Vesp. A 1, which, as we shall have
occasion to notice hereafter, is in a very mixed style.
[33] Bede expressly says, that at Augustine's synod, held at the
commencement of the 7th century, the bishops and learned men
attending it, "after a long disputation, refused to comply with the
entreaties, exhortations, or rebukes of the saint and his companions,
but preferred their own traditions before all the churches in the
world, which in Christ agree among themselves."
[34] D'Agincourt, "Painting," plates xxviii. xxix. xxx.
[35] This precious volume and its illustrations were first figured and
described by Mr. Westwood.
[36] "Life of Gregory the Great," by Johannes Diaconus, lib. ii. cap. 37.
[37] The words are, "quæ omnia illustrantur Romano habitu, figuris, et
antiquitate. Imperatoris Valentiniani tempora videntur attingere."
This mistake of the old librarian has been corrected with much care
and learning by the Baron van Tiellandt.--See his "Naspeuringen
nopens zekeren Codex Psalmorum in de Utrechtsche Boekerij berustende,
door W. H. J. Baron van Westreeinen van Tiellandt."
[38] The MS. department of the British Museum possesses some tracings from
the Utrecht Psalter, and on confronting them with the Harleian 603,
it requires a sharp eye to detect the slight differences existing
between several of the illustrations to each of the volumes. In the
Harleian volume, all the subjects have not been filled in; some are
left out altogether, spaces being reserved for them in the text, and
others are faintly traced with a leaden or silver point, preparatory
to inking in: very few artists of the present day could block in the
general forms in so peculiar a style with greater freedom or more
complete conveyance of expression, by similarly slight indications.
[39] The whole of the illuminations are given in the twenty-fourth volume
of the "Archæologia." The manuscript stands in the Bodleian
Catalogue, "Junius, No. II."
[40] Introduction to Shaw's "Illuminated Ornaments," pages 4 and 5.
[41] The following inscription, written in letters of gold on the reverse
of the fourth leaf and the bottom of the recto of the fifth,
identifies both the artist and the patron under whose auspices the
volume was executed, between the years 970 and 984, the term of
Ethelwold's occupation of the see of Winchester:--
"Presentem Biblum jussit perscribere Presul
Wintoniæ Dñs que[m] fecerat esse Patronum
Magnus _Æthelwoldus_ * * *
* * * * * *
Atque Patri magno jussit qui scribere librum hunc
Omnes cernentes biblum hunc semper rogitent hoc
Post meta carnis valeam celis in herere
Obnixe hoc rogitat Scriptor supplex _Godemann_."
[42] If the celebrated coronation book of the Anglo-Saxon kings should
turn out to have been written and illuminated in this country, it
would afford a striking illustration of this reaction. The general
opinion, however, appears to be, among the learned, that it may have
been given to Athelstan by Otho of Germany, who married his sister,
and by Matilda, Otho's mother. The arguments in favour of, and
against, the Anglo-Saxon origin of the volume would be too long to
discuss in this place. The writing is mainly Carlovingian.
[43] "Bib. Dec." vol. i. p. cxxii.
[44] It is to be regretted that the propriety of those just and learned
remarks of Muratori, in which he exhibited himself as one of the
earliest foreign scholars inclined to do justice to the ancient Irish
and British schools,--"Neque enim silenda laus Britanniæ, Scotiæ, et
Hiberniæ, quæ studio liberalium artium eo tempore antecellebant
reliquis occidentalibus regnis; et cura præsertim monachorum, qui
literarum gloriam, alibi aut languentem aut depressam, in iis
regionibus impigrè suscitarent atque tuebantur" (Murat. "Antiq.
Ital." diss. 43),--should have been impugned by the Rev. Mr.
Berington in his "Literary History of the Middle Ages," pages 180,
181.
[45] These pious monks, until probably some time after the Norman
conquest, generally worked together in an apartment capable of
containing many persons, and in which many persons did, in fact, work
together at the transcription of books. The first of these points is
implied in a curious document, which is one of the very few specimens
extant of French Visi-Gothic MS. in uncial characters, of the 8th
century. It is a short but beautiful form of consecration or
benediction, barbarously entitled "Orationem in Scripturio," and is
to the following effect: "Vouchsafe, O Lord, to bless _this
Scriptorium of thy servants and all that dwell therein_; that
whatsoever sacred writing shall be here read or written by them, they
may receive with understanding, and bring the same to good effect,
through our Lord," &c.--See Merryweather's "Bibliomania in the Middle
Ages."
[46] "Dark Ages," second edition, p. 193.
[47] Librarian of the town of Evreux.
[48] Cornemillot, Evreux, 1846.
[49] Du Sommerard, in "Les Arts du Moyen Age," has given copies of all the
illuminations, and Mr. Westwood a page of specimens.
[50] Count Bastard gives no less than six grand facsimiles from this
volume, which is one of the greatest lions of the Bibliothèque
Impériale at Paris.
[51] One of the most curious illuminations in the book, the celebrated
"fontaine mystique" of the church, is altogether antique in style and
execution.
[52] The colouring in this MS. is very elegant, being mainly restricted to
gold, purple, white, and a little very brilliant vermilion;--the
forms are principally Saxon.
[53] Described at length by Dr. Waagen, "Treasures of Art in Great
Britain," pages 104-106.
[54] Many illustrations, but unfortunately without colour, are given by
D'Agincourt, "Pittura," plates 40 to 45 inclusive.
[55] The folio Vulgate (B. M. Addl. MSS. No. 10546) purchased by the
British Museum authorities from M. Speyer Passavant, of Basle, in
1836, for £750, was considered by its late possessor to have been the
original transcript "diligently emended" by Alcuin himself, for
presentation to Charlemagne on his coronation as Emperor of Rome, in
the year 800. It is a very fine and interesting volume, but has been
referred, by more recent authorities, to the reign of Charles the
Bald. Mr. Westwood, however, considers that "it appears to have
better claims than any of the several Caroline Bibles now in
existence, to be considered as the volume so presented." Its chief
rival is the great Bible of the Fathers of Sta. Maria, in Vallicella,
at Rome. Sir Frederick Madden has entered into a minute analysis of
the claims of the Speyer Passavant volume, in a series of most
learned articles in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1836. See also
Westwood's "Palæographia Sacra," and the pamphlet, by its late
possessor, J. H. de Speyer Passavant, "Description de la Bible écrite
par Alchuine, &c." Par. 1829, pp. 112.
[56] It is singular, considering how generally Hiberno-Saxon ornament was
adopted by continental illuminators, that the peculiar Saxon
_fluttering_ outline never obtained a footing.
[57] The learned and most eloquent author of the "Poésie Chrétienne," M.
Rio (from whom it was my privilege, while yet a youthful student, to
receive many a valuable lesson), in noting this "total eclipse,"
remarks that "two rolls of parchment, one of which is preserved in
the library of the Barbarini Palace, the other in the sacristy of the
Cathedral of Pisa, are ornamented with miniatures which may serve to
give us an idea of the state into which the arts of design had fallen
in Italy in the 11th century. Those which were executed rather later,
in the manuscript of a poem on the Countess Matilda (written by a
certain 'Donizo,' in 1125), which is preserved in the Vatican,
display no trace either of chiaroscuro or of correct imitation of
form.
"The Romano-Christian school ceased from this time to exist, after
having fulfilled the whole of its mission, which had been to form the
connecting link between the primitive inspirations of Christian art
and the new schools which were destined to reap the harvest of this
rich inheritance, and turn it to good account.
"As for the Germano-Christian school, it may be compared to a
vigorous shoot severed from a dying trunk, to revive and flourish in
a better soil."
[58] The "Menologion" of the Vatican, a magnificent volume, containing no
less than 430 miniatures of remarkable interest and excellence, is
the standing illustration of this assertion. The work was engraved
and published at Urbino, in three folio volumes, in 1727, under the
auspices of three pontiffs, Clement XI., Innocent XIII., and Benedict
XIII.
[59] It would be difficult to find in the production of the best Roman age
anything nobler than several of the compositions in the Paris
"Psalter," with commentaries (Imperial Library, Gr. No. 139), a Greek
manuscript of the 10th century. One of the finest of the figures
contained in it, that of "Night," I caused to be enlarged, and
painted on the exterior of the Byzantine Court at Sydenham, as giving
a more favourable impression of Greek art than any other pictorial
representation I could meet with. A replica of this subject occurs in
the Vatican "Prophecies of Isaiah." The two may be compared from the
works of D'Agincourt and Seré. Most noteworthy also among the best of
this class of Byzantine manuscripts, are the Paris "Commentaries of
Gregory Nazianzen," the British Museum Psalter (Egerton, No. 1.139)
of early 12th century work, and the Bodleian "Codex Ebnerianus."
[60] Of this ornamental style the most remarkable specimens are the
Vatican "Acts of the Apostles," and a beautiful volume in the library
of the Duke of Hamilton. From the former, I have given some
facsimiles in "The Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages" (plate
20), in order to show the similarity of design between the gold
ground mosaics of the Greeks and early Italians, and the
embellishments of the illuminated manuscripts of the former.
[61] Ingulphus was at that very time indebted directly to the Conqueror,
his early patron, for his abbacy.
[62] See Martene Const. Canon. Reg. in "de Ant. Eccl. Ritibus," tom. iii.,
for full details.
[63] This indulgence was, after all, not very luxurious, for, as Mr.
Maitland remarks ("Dark Ages," 2nd edition, p. 406), "Many a scribe
has, I dare say, felt what Lewis, a monk of Wessobrun, in Bavaria,
records as his own experience during his sedentary and protracted
labours. In an inscription appended to a copy of Jerome's Commentary
on Daniel, among other grounds on which he claims the sympathy and
the prayers of the readers, he says,--
"'Dum scripsit friguit, et quod cum lumine solis
Scribere non potuit, perfecit lumine noctis.'"
For whilst he wrote he froze, and that which by daylight he could not
bring to perfection, he worked at again by the aid of the moonlight.
[64] In Italy the propensity for large letters was never relinquished.
[65] W. H. Blaauw, Esq.
[66] Edited by James Raine, Jun., for the Surtees Society. 8vo. Durham,
1859.
[67] The same series of rolls contain many very interesting entries; as,
for instance,--
"1393 A.D. Soluti--de 4_l._ 6_s._ 8_d._ sol. hoc anno fratri Willelmo
Ellerker pro scriptura duorum gradalium pro choro. de 40_s._ solutis
domino Ricardo de Styrton pro eluminacione dictorum duorum
gradalium--de 22_s._ 7½_d._ solutis dicto Willelmo pro pergameno
empto per ipsum Willelmum.
"A.D. 1395. Roberto Bukebinder pro ligatura unius magni gradalis pro
choro ex convencione facta 10_s._ Eidem pro IIII. pellibus pergameni
pro eadem custodiendo 20_d._ Eidem pro I. pelle cervi pro coopertura
dicti libri 3_s._ 2_d._ Fratri Willelmo Ellerker pro pergameno 4_s._
Domino Ricardo de Styrton in plenam solucionem _alumpnyng_ tryum
gradalium, 40_s._ de 3_s._ 4_d._ solutis domino Johanni Brignale pro
VIII. pellibus pergameni emptis pro magno gradali predicto."
"Domino Ricardo de Styrton pro alumpnacione magni gradalis novi in
choro, 20_s._
"A.D. 1402. In expensis in _alumpnacione_ magni gradalis in choro per
dominum Ricardum de Stretton, 20_s._"
Throughout these accounts, and others too lengthy to note, it will be
noticed that the value of the parchment, gold, colours, and current
expenses, falls not very far short of the total cost of the labour of
the illuminator.
[68] "Treasures of Art in Great Britain," vol. i. p. 160. The same
distinguished critic, who has made a special study of the illuminated
MSS. of Europe, and especially of the French (see his "Kunstwerken
und Kunstlern in Paris"), in describing some of the pictures in Queen
Mary's Psalter (unquestionably English), observes (p. 166), "Upon the
whole, I am acquainted with no miniatures, either Netherlandish,
German, or French, of this time" (the 14th century) "which can
compare in artistic value with the pictures executed by the best hand
in this manuscript."
[69] It is to be regretted that Count Bastard failed to complete more than
thirty-two plates of the splendid work he announced under the title
of "Librairie de Jean de France, Duc de Berri, frère de Charles V.,
publié en son entier pour la première fois." Paris, 1834. Fol. max.
&c.
[70] "De l'Art en Allemagne," tome ii. page 153. Paris, 1842.
[71] See casts from his bronze doors and columns in the Crystal Palace,
and his Three Gospels in the treasury of the Cathedral at Hildesheim.
In Dr. F. H. Müller's "Beiträge zur teutschen Kunst und
Geschichtskunde," very careful engravings of the plastic art of
Bernward and Willigis may be compared with facsimiles of contemporary
German illumination.
[72] The steps of the transition are also well indicated, and illustrated
by reference to special MSS. in Kugler's "Kunstgeschichte," in his
article on the "Nord., vornehml. Deutsche Malerei der Roman.
Periode."
[73] The subject is one that I am unable to find has been treated with any
great ability. The reader may, however, be referred to the following
old Spanish works on the subject:--Andres Merino de Jesu-Cristo,
"Escuela Palæographica, ó de leer Letras universas, antiguas y
modernas, desde la entrada de los Godos en España" (Madrid, 1780, in
fol. fig.);--Estev. de Terreros, "Palæographia Española, que contiene
todos los modos conocidos, que ha habido de escribir en España, desde
su principio y fundación" (Madrid, Ibarra, 1758, in 4to. fig.); and
Rodriguez-Christ., "Bibliotheca Universal de la Polygraphia Española"
(Madrid, 1738, fol. fig.).
[74] That art which is called "illumination" in Paris.
[75] "Lettere Sanese," tom. i. p. 278.
[76] The well-known passage in which Dante alludes to Oderigi occurs in
the eleventh canto of the "Paradiso," and is as follows:--
"Oh, dissi lui, non se' tu Oderisi,
L' onor d' Agubbio, e l' onor di quell' arte
Che alluminar è chiamata a Parisi?
Frate, diss' egli, più ridon le carte
Che pennelegia Franco Bolognese:
L' onor è tutto or suo, e mio in parte.
Ben non sarei stato si cortese
Mentre ch' io vissi per lo gran disio
Dell' excellentia, ove mio cor intese.
Di tal superbia qui si paga il fio."
[77] Vita di Giotto.
[78] "Storia Pittorica," vol xi. p. 13, ed. Pisa, 1815; and vol. v. pp. 8,
9, 10.
[79] Lanzi speaks of these choral books as "De' più considerabili che
abbia l'Italia."
[80] The Kensington Museum possesses two splendid leaves from a great
"Chorale," which contain miniatures completely in the manner of Fra
Angelico.
[81] The Duke of Hamilton possesses some beautiful MSS. illuminated by, or
in the manner of Memmi. Mr. Layard is the fortunate owner of one leaf
of surpassing grandeur and elevation of style.
[82] The style, if not the hand, of Taddeo Bartolo, another of the great
early masters of the Siennese school, may be distinctly traced in
several existing miniatures.
[83] "Poetry of Christian Art," p. 140.
[84] "Ornò i libri corali di figure nobillissime."--Cittadella, "Catalogo
dei Pittori e Scultori Ferraresi," vol. i. pp. 1-27.
[85] Rio. It must be a matter of delight to all lovers of true art that
that most useful society, the "Arundel," has been of late turning its
attention to the production, by means of chromo-lithography, of some
of the finest examples extant of Italian quattro and cinque-cento
illumination.
[86] A small volume, which passed from the hands of the late Mr.
Dennistoun into the collection of Lord Ashburnham, contains a series
of arabesques and miniatures of the most interesting character,
recalling in different pages, and in the highest perfection, the
varied styles of Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Lo Spagna, and
others. The Duke of Hamilton's library is extraordinarily rich in
Italian MSS.; his Grace's Dante with outline illustrations being of
great importance.
[87] _See_ Mr. Shaw's truly beautiful reproduction, in that gentleman's
"Illuminated Ornaments," &c., of a portion of Arabesque border from
this volume, containing a medallion portrait, Plate XXXV. A very
beautiful Sforza MS. has lately been transferred from the possession
of Mr. Henry Farrer to that of the Marquis D'Azeglio.
[88] That Andrea exercised a great influence upon miniature-painting may
be recognized in the works of Girolamo: a grand leaf from a folio, on
which is painted a seated allegorical figure of "Rome," in the
possession of Mr. T. Whitehead, is so noble in every way, and so
entirely in Andrea's manner, that it seems almost impossible to doubt
its being by his hand. It may, however, possibly have been executed
by his contemporary in the Mantuan school, "Giovanni dei Russi," who
in 1455 illuminated the great Bible of the house of Este, for Borso,
Duke of Modena.
[89] "Vita di Fra Giocondo e di Liberale, e d'altri Veronesi."
[90] The Celotti sale, which took place at Christie's on the 26th of May,
1825, and which included by far the most important collection of
Italian illuminations ever brought to the hammer, contained no less
than nineteen beautiful specimens extracted from the choral books of
that pope.
[91] _See_ Baglioni, "Vite dei Pittori ed Architetti fioriti in Roma, dal
1572 sino al 1642,"--Vita di Giulio Clovio.
[92] Facsimiles of the exquisite pages of this volume are given in Mr.
Noel Humphrey's work; they are perfect triumphs of chromolithographic
skill, and their production by Mr. Owen Jones formed what Germans may
hereafter call a "standpunkt" in the history of that art, of which
this volume presents no unfavourable sample.
[93] Grenville Collection.
[94] In his catalogue of the sale of the Celotti collection.
[95] The Kensington Museum possesses a beautiful specimen by this artist,
formerly in Mr. Ottley's collection. Two others of equal excellence
are treasured among other gems of art, by Mr. Ram, of Ramsfort,
Ireland. They all came from Celotti.
[96] Mr. Whitehead's small but choice collection of specimens includes one
quite worthy of the hand of Tintoretto.
[97] Mr. S. Leigh Sotheby, in his admirable "Principia typographica," Dr.
Dibdin in his "Bibliotheca Spenceriana," and the Baron de Heinecken
in his "Idée générale d'une Collection complète d'Estampes, &c.,"
give the best literary and graphic illustrations of the block books
of the middle ages.
[98] Our good fortune in possessing at the present time, and in common
use, a remarkably clear and easily intelligible set of alphabets, was
thus admirably noted in an article in the _Times_ newspaper of
December 28th, 1859:--
"Happily for us, the written symbols employed by the Romans, which
are now the chief medium of expression for all the languages of
Europe, America, Australia, and the greater part of civilized Africa,
reflect exactly the rough and stalwart energy which made Rome to
Europe what we are to the world. They have bestowed on us an alphabet
as practically effective, and as suited to the capabilities of human
vision, as any that could have been devised. This alphabet of ours is
like an Englishman's dress--plain and manageable; not very
artistically arranged, it may be, nor remarkable for copiousness or
flow of outline, but sufficiently elastic and capable of extension.
Its symbols have certainly no graceful curves like the picturesque
Persian; but, better than all flourishes, each letter has plain,
unmistakable features of its own. The vowels, which are to the rest
of the alphabet what the breath, or rather life itself, is to the
body, are assigned their legitimate position, and are formed to be
written continuously with the consonants. Lastly, though scanty in
itself, it is abundantly equipped with capital letters, stops,
italics, and every appliance for securing rapid legibility, so that
the eye can take in the subject of a page at a glance. Oriental
alphabets are the very reverse of all this. They are complex,
cumbersome, unmanageable." Much the same might have been said of many
of the mediæval ones.
[99] For excellent examples, see plates Technical Manual, Nos. 7 and 8;
and Historical Manual, Nos. 7 and 9.
[100] The best are contained in the writings of De Quincy, Owen Jones,
Winkellman, Pugin, and Sir Charles Eastlake.
[101] _See_ especially pages 24 to 28 inclusive, from which I transcribe a
few elegant and suggestive passages:--
"The student should keep," says Mr. Jewitt, "both in form and colour,
as near to Nature as possible. No fantastic design can be so elegant
as one copied and studied from Nature. What, for instance, can be
more beautiful or more appropriate for intertwining with rich
scroll-work than the convolvulus, the maurandia, the woodbine, the
tropeolum, or the passion-flower? These painted upon a rich
groundwork of diapered gold, or upon one of the beautiful grounds of
the 15th century, composed of gold and blue or green, in fine waved
or winding lines, crossing each other in every conceivable direction,
form truly elegant studies, for almost all varieties of
ornamentation. Whenever birds, insects, &c., are introduced, they
should, as a general rule, be drawn true to nature; but they may,
nevertheless, be turned and twisted into almost any position or
shape. For instance, a lizard, with its beautiful emerald-green back,
its yellow underparts, and rich brown mottlings, might be introduced
with its long tail wrapped and twisted round the stem of a plant, and
its little head, with brilliant eyes, shown just peeping out from
under one of the beautiful flowers. The ladybird, with its bright red
wings, covered with small black spots, might also be well introduced,
creeping upon a leaf or stem. Hairy caterpillars, ants, beetles,
snails, glow-worms, and even spiders, form also beautiful additions
to a design, and may be introduced in almost any form or shape.
Butterflies and moths, in their endless and beautiful variety, with
their wings of every conceivable colour and shade, and of the most
exquisite forms, are truly amongst the most beautiful and appropriate
objects which the student can have for his mind to dwell upon. But
not only these,--for occasionally a squirrel might be introduced
perched upon the scroll-work; a cat, a goat, a dog, a monkey peeping
out from behind a leaf; or, indeed, any animal, if artistically and
naturally treated, may be introduced with really good effect.
Flowers, fruits, shells, corn, &c., all add their beauties to a
design; and, indeed, there is nothing in nature, no, not one object,
but which may well be introduced into ornamental designing, and may
be so translated and poeticised as to become appropriate to any
subject."
[102] "Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake:
London, 1847.
[103] The most copious text of Heraclius is contained in the Le Bègue
collection of writers on art, brought together by Master John Le
Bègue, of Paris, in the 15th century.
[104] Sir Charles Eastlake does not place Heraclius so early as Raspe and
Mr. Hendrie do. I incline to agree with the last-named critics.
[105] The text of Heraclius is given not from the Le Bègue manuscript, but
from one less perfect, formerly at Cambridge, but now in the British
Museum, Egerton 840 A, in Raspe's work--"A Critical Essay on
Oil-painting." London, 1781.
[106] Muratori, "Antiq. Ital. Medii Ævi," p. 269.
[107] The title he himself gives to his work illustrates its comprehensive
character--"Theophili qui et Rugerus, Presbyteri et Monachi Libri
III. de diversis Artibus, seu diversarum Artium Schedula."
Translations, with excellent critical comments, have been made by the
Count de l'Escalopier into French, and by Mr. Robert Hendrie into
English. In the extracts here given I have followed the accurate text
of the last-named gentleman.
[108] I cannot take leave of this good old monk, the influence exercised by
whose writings during the whole of the Middle Ages is proved by the
numerous transcripts of them executed at different periods, still
preserved in most of the chief European libraries, without giving him
credit for a pure and liberal philanthropy worthy of imitation in all
ages. Nothing can be more dignified and noble than the words in which
he concludes the introduction to his work. After reciting the various
arts he has endeavoured to illustrate, and the sufferings and labour
through which the knowledge he desires to convey to others had been
acquired by himself, he winds up by saying:--
"When you shall have re-read this often, and have committed it to
your tenacious memory, you shall thus recompense me for this care of
instruction, that, as often as you shall successfully have made use
of my work, you pray for me for the pity of omnipotent God, who knows
that I have written these things which are here arranged, neither
through love of human approbation, nor through desire of temporal
reward, nor have I stolen anything precious or rare through envious
jealousy, nor have I kept back anything reserved for myself alone;
but, in augmentation of the honour and glory of His name, I have
consulted the progress and hastened to aid the necessities of many
men."
[109] It will be found given in extenso in the 32nd vol. of "The
Archæologia," pp. 183-244, with an elaborate letter from its
possessor.
[110] There is some confusion about this word, for it is used to denote
mixtures which would produce real rose-colour, light warm yellow, and
a perfect drab.
[111] That is, the mineral green with the vegetable madder.
[112] A beautiful example may be found in Dan Lydgate's legends of St.
Edmund and St. Fremund, MS. Harleian, 2278.
[113] "Materials for a History of Oil-painting," by Charles Lock Eastlake
(Lond. 1847), pp. 127, 128.
[114] Mr. Edwin Jewitt's little "Manual of Illuminated and Missal
Painting," Mr. Randle Harrison's, Mr. Albert Warren's, and Mr. Henry
M. Lucien's, published by Messrs. Barnard, of Oxford-street; Mr. J.
W. Bradley's, and Mr. T. G. Goodwin's, published by Messrs. Winsor &
Newton, of Rathbone Place; and Mr. Noel Humphrey's hand-book on the
same subject, have no doubt proved useful to many, and helped to
produce the quantity of good illumination now executed.
[115] For illumination in water-colour on paper, cardboard, or vellum,
Messrs. Winsor & Newton, Rowney, Barnard, Newman, and others, fit up
boxes with special selections of all requisite materials; including
all that can be wanted for the application and burnishing of gold and
other metals. Messrs. Miller's "Glass Mediums, Nos. 1 and 2," and
Newman's "Preparation for sizing albumenized papers," are exceedingly
useful for mixing with illuminating colours; giving great hardness
and body to them, and preventing them from "washing up," in working
over with glazing and other tints. I have found Mr. Barbe's powder
body-colours give remarkably solid tints, with great freedom in
working.
[116] This had better be bought ready prepared, since some experience is
requisite in so applying the red chalk as to prevent its depositing
under the weight of the hand, and yet coming off sufficiently in the
line traced by the point.
[117] The experienced illuminator will generally do his writing before he
gets in the outline of his ornament, and he will frequently dispense
with the transferring process altogether; but it would be by no means
safe for a beginner to do so.
[118] Both the cushion and tip will be described in detail under the head
of Oil-gilding.
[119] The amateur may of course prepare mordants of different degrees of
tenacity and body for his own use, by the employment, and various
combinations, of leather and parchment size, isinglass, red lead, gum
arabic, sugar, honey, glycerine, borax, plaster of Paris, bol
ammoniac, glaire, and similar substances; but his time will be more
profitably spent in improving himself in design than it could be
(nowadays) in experimenting on the "materia technica" of art.
[120] This information is principally derived from Nathaniel Whittock's
"Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide." It gives the usual
practice of "Writers to the trade," but must, of course, be modified
according to the specialities of any of the historical styles
adopted.
[121] Japanners' gilding is a branch of oil-gilding, the size or ground
being made with 1 pound of linseed oil, to which, while boiling, is
added gradually 4 ounces of gum animi in powder, the whole being
stirred until the gum is completely dissolved, and kept boiling till
the mixture is of a thick consistence, in which state it should be
strained through a thick flannel, and stored in a wide-mouthed
stoppered bottle. Vermilion is ground up with the size before it is
applied, to render it opaque; and if it does not leave the brush
freely, it should be thinned with oil of turpentine.
The gold powder may be either real gold, or what is called Dutch
metal, or imitation gold. Gold powder is produced by grinding the
leaf gold with pure honey on the stone till it is perfectly reduced
to powder, and afterwards dissolving the mixture in water till the
honey is completely removed, and for this several waters are
necessary; the water is then poured off, and the powder dried. If
this gold be mixed up with weak gum-water and spread upon
cockle-shells, it is then called shell gold, which is used in
drawings only.
The Dutch gold powder is made by reducing the Dutch leaf gold by
exactly the same process; and if well protected by varnishing, its
appearance is little inferior to the genuine metal. There is another
method of procuring gold powder, which is by precipitating grain gold
into powder by means of aqua regia, which is made by dissolving four
parts of pure spirit of nitre and one part of sal ammoniac in powder.
This process was (as has been already stated) well known to the
mediæval illuminators. In 4 ounces of this compound, ½ an ounce of
grain gold is dissolved under the action of a slight heat; a solution
of green vitriol, consisting of copperas 1 dram, water 1 ounce, being
gradually added. When the precipitation has ceased, the gold powder
must be carefully washed and dried, and will be found to be more
brilliant than that made from leaf gold. The use of japanners'
gold-size is very similar to oil-gilding, and is equally simple. If
the material to be gilded is brought to a smooth and clean face, the
size may be laid on at once without other preparation; using great
care, however, not to touch any part but what you wish to gild, as
the gold will adhere wherever there is size. Priming with a mixture
of chalk and size is sometimes used for a first coat, but not by the
best japanners, as the work is liable to chip off; no material should
therefore be japanned which cannot be made smooth. For hard or
close-grained wood, metal, leather, or paper, one or two coats of
varnish will answer all requirements; very great care being observed
that each coat of varnish be perfectly dry and hard before it is
again touched. It is a good practice to allow the work to stand a day
or two between the applications; then the japanners' gold-size may be
added, and touching with the finger as before described will indicate
the proper state for applying the gold, whether in leaf or powder.
Either may be employed; but in the case of colours being intermixed
and subsequently varnished, the powder is usually adopted; it is
easily laid on by means of a camel-hair brush, the work being set
aside to get thoroughly dry, when the superfluous metal is removed
with a soft brush. In case more size should have been prepared than
is needed, the remainder, if water be poured over it, will keep for
future use.
[122] The superiority of the Chinese and Japanese varnishing is chiefly
owing to the excellence of a particular species of resin found in
China and Japan. The varnishes made with oil are longer drying than
those made with spirits of wine, but are of greater durability. The
spirits of wine should be highly rectified: if oil is used, it should
be linseed. It is safer to purchase the varnish ready prepared than
to attempt the making of it, as the solution of resin, particularly
in oil, is somewhat dangerous.