TURKISH GOVERNORS.
I had scarcely reached my lodging in Nikosia when the pacha came to
return my visit, accompanied by his dragoman and first secretary. He
inquired with great interest what I had been doing since we met, and
seemed much surprised on hearing that I had reached the summit of
Buffavento, he having always been given to understand that it was quite
inaccessible. In the evening I called upon him, and we talked far into
the night on the history of the past.
My kind friend had travelled far and read deeply, and in all points
of political history showed himself an excellent authority. As we sat
chatting I could not help contrasting this highly educated gentleman
with the pachas who formerly inhabited his palaces. Only 101 years ago
a most curious scene was enacted under this very roof.
In July, 1764, there came to Cyprus as governor, a necessitous and
avaricious man, named Izil Osman Aga. The first decree he issued was
to the effect that every Christian should pay him 44-1/2 piastres (10
francs); and every Mussulman 22 piastres (about 5 francs). This impost
was exactly double the usual poll-tax required from the subjects by
their governors. The begs, agas, and bishops assembled shook their
heads and declared the charge to be beyond the capacity of the people.
Izil Osman Aga replied that the money must be forthcoming, and sent out
officials in all directions to make fresh extortions. All remonstrances
were met by the remark, that if the people considered he was acting
illegally they were at liberty to report him at Constantinople.
Deputies were, therefore, sent at once to the Bosphorus. Week after
week passed but nothing was heard of these emissaries. The bishops,
after some consideration, decided to follow the delegates, but were
seized and prevented by the governor from executing their plan. In the
mean time the unfortunate citizens secretly found a powerful advocate
at Constantinople, and on October 31st an emissary from the Grand
Vizier landed in Cyprus, cited the governor to appear before him in
his palace, at Nikosia, to receive the commands of his prince. These
commands were threefold: he was to return half the poll-tax, his other
extortions were to be inquired into, and his advisers punished. Izil
Osman Aga affected to apologise, and suggested that it would be more
worthy the dignitary who had to reprimand him if he were to read his
decrees publicly in the state-chamber of his residence, before the
assembled body of his accusers. On this suggestion the Tschokodar[6]
invited begs, agas, bishops, and noble Greeks to attend. On the 5th
of November these assembled, followed by a dense crowd, who filled
the grand hall, and crowded the courts and staircases. At least
three hundred people were in the chamber, and on every countenance
commendation of the Sultan’s justice was to be read. The Tschokodar
seated himself beside the governor, on the divan, which was placed at
the upper end of the hall, drank his coffee, and after handing his
cup to an attendant, began his announcement. The first sentence was
read and the people nodded their approval, when suddenly the entire
floor gave way directly in front of the divan, and the whole crowd
fell pell-mell into the space below. Cries and shrieks filled the air.
Shaken and bruised the frightened crowd scrambled to their feet, for
the fall had not been great, and a few broken legs was all the damage
done. When the three hundred victims of this strange occurrence had
recovered themselves, they proceeded to investigate the cause of the
accident; a very simple explanation was at once discovered—all beams
and supports below the floor of the state-chamber had been sawn away,
and were ready to fall the moment a cord was pulled. Cries of rage
and vengeance resounded through the streets, and all agreed that the
governor had contemplated nothing less than the destruction of the
whole assembly; the Tschokodar also felt uneasy, for certain sharp
pains felt after drinking his coffee led him to suppose that it had
been poisoned. Under these circumstances a protocol was drawn up by the
Tschokodar, mollahs,[7] kadis, and other citizens of rank, containing
a statement concerning the accident in the state-chamber, requiring
the governor to answer for it to them. Their messenger was received
with mockery and insult: a second and a third delegate were sent, but
with the same result. The mollahs pronounced the governor an offender
against the law and the Sultan.
Scarcely was this sentence declared than the populace rushed to the
palace. The governor, however, had foreseen this. All the entrances
were closed and soldiers with guns in their hands placed at the open
windows, who shot down any men who ventured to approach as coolly as
if they had been cocks and hens. Enraged beyond endurance the people
now rushed on, and a fight ensued which raged for two hours. At last
bundles of straw and brushwood were placed against the grand entrance
and ignited. In a very short time the door gave way and the people
crowded in, killing all they found, amongst them the governor himself.
Nineteen of his attendants fell on this occasion and the rest found
safety in flight; the treasury was rifled and everything of value
secured. This done the crowd quietly returned home. In three hours time
the town looked just as usual, and the Grecian feast of St. Demetrius
was carried on next day as if nothing had occurred. Five days later
the Tschokodar returned to Constantinople, leaving perfect order and
discipline behind him.
So matters stood till the following year, when a new governor, Hafiz
Mahommed Effendi, landed; a shrewd and prudent man, who speedily
won the confidence of his people. Shortly after his arrival some of
those around him, wishing to curry favour, laid before him a list
of all those who had attacked the palace, and tried to convince him
that these should not go unpunished, if only for the sake of his own
position and dignity. After long consideration the governor at last
decided to issue an edict, announcing that he had been sent to Cyprus
for the preservation of order, and that any attempt to disturb the
same would be punished by the loss of the offenders’ heads, and that
in consideration of past events he must demand a poll-tax of fourteen
piastres from all Turks and Greeks, old men, women, and children being
excepted. After payment of this fine all was to be forgotten and
forgiven.
The Greeks were delighted to be let off so easily, but the Turks
laid their heads together and asked each other by what right the new
governor interfered with what had occurred before his time. Izil Osman
Aga had been declared an offender against the law and the Sultan,
and in executing him they had only acted as protectors of law and
justice. They therefore replied to the demand that they had only acted
as faithful servants of the Sultan in revenging themselves upon his
enemies, whilst the governor on his side responded that his dignity
would not permit of his withdrawing the edict.
On this some hundreds of the malcontents assembled in the village of
Kytherea and took possession of the mill at which corn was ground daily
for all the inhabitants of Nikosia. They also cut off the water supply
to the city. The greatest consternation prevailed, and the prudent
governor thought it best to send a deputy to Kytherea to offer to
withdraw the fine. This wise act was fully appreciated by the people,
and order and peace were once more restored. The governor, however,
felt deeply the contempt shown for his authority, and at once set
himself seriously to bring some of the higher officials to his way
of thinking. He laid in a good store of weapons and powder, and then
considering himself strong enough to maintain his authority, again
issued the edict.
The men of the city were less inclined than before to submit. On this
occasion they chose as their rallying point the famous fortress, on
the coast, called Keryneia, five leagues north of Nikosia. This castle
was inhabited by a rich and respected noble named Halil Aga, who was
as ambitious as he was resolute. His castle was soon bristling with
arms and occupied by 2000 men, who at once announced to the governor
that they purposed to do battle with him, to decide the question of
the fourteen piastres. Some days later they again cut off the mill at
Kytherea from the use of the city, and appeared before the walls of the
capital. Hafiz Mahommed Effendi thought it best to strike a decisive
blow without further delay. He therefore fell upon the attacking party,
but met with a severe and bloody repulse. The rebels followed him up
and endeavoured to storm the town. The walls and defences, however,
proved too strong for them, and Halil Aga therefore decided to blockade
the city and summon the whole island to his assistance. People flocked
to him from all parts, and such as refused to join him were treated
as enemies of their country, and their houses burnt about their ears.
Whole villages were set in flames. The unfortunate governor of Nikosia
was at his wit’s end, for the citizens were suffering severely from
famine. For the second time he was compelled to announce that he would
withdraw his claim. The desired effect was at once obtained, and the
besiegers laid down their arms, but not before the ringleaders had
bound themselves by an oath to stand by each other in case of future
necessity.
Whilst these events were taking place in Cyprus the three archbishops
of Nikosia, Baffo, and Keryneia, had privately sailed for
Constantinople, laid their complaint before the Porte, and had so far
succeeded in their mission that a new governor was to be sent out;
Soliman Effendi, a very worthy old man, was appointed for this purpose,
and he, they hoped, would prove a mere puppet in their hands. Acting
under these advisers the new governor landed at Keryneia, and sent
Halil Aga some magnificent presents, highly complimenting him on his
zeal for the public good. On this Halil Aga allowed Soliman Effendi
to land and proceed at once, without any opposition, to the capital.
A serious complication now arose with the old and new governors of
Cyprus, and the former declared he would not resign until he had
quelled the insurrection. The weak but good-natured Soliman at once
agreed to this view of the case, and put himself completely under
the advice and influence of the man he ought to have supplanted. He
sent messenger after messenger to Halil Aga with the most dazzling
proposals, and assured him that if he would come to Nikosia he should
be put in command of the cavalry. Halil Aga was, however, too wise
to put his neck in such a noose. Further steps were taken on either
side; the insurgents gradually returned to their homes, and order
was again restored. This happy state of things continued until early
in the following year, when the two governors, who could not let the
question of the fourteen piastres rest in peace, again issued an edict
commanding the immediate payment of the sum in question. Hafiz Mahommed
had now a strong party, and many in the city would willingly have paid
the fine for the murdered governor’s death sooner than aid and abet
in fresh disturbances. The mass of the inhabitants, on the contrary,
declared that the carrying out of the edict must be prevented, even at
the risk of fresh bloodshed, and made the matter a question of their
civil and religious liberty. The governor had his proper sources of
revenue, and the Sultan his import duties and tithes, but such a thing
as a fine for the death of a murdered person, could be claimed only
by the relatives of the victim, and the demand, they maintained,
was in direct opposition to the Koran. In these terms the mollahs
had condemned the action of the governors, and the janissaries, as
the ancient defenders of freedom and religion, had confirmed their
judgment. An open revolt at once took place, the citizens flew to arms
and hurried to Keryneia, and in a very short space of time Halil Aga
had 5000 men mustered under his banner. In order to obtain possession
of two out of the principal fortresses, Halil Aga suddenly appeared
before Famagusta, the famous stronghold on the opposite side of the
island, but was speedily repulsed. He now encamped before Nikosia,
and put the capital in a state of siege, announcing that he demanded,
himself, to be appointed governor of the island. Neither Mahommed nor
Soliman would agree to the proposition, and Halil Aga then informed
them that he had private commands from the Sultan, and requested they
would visit him in his camp and hear them read. This wily message met
with no response beyond such as came from the mouths of the defenders’
guns. Meanwhile disturbances arose all over the island. After many
attempts to storm the capital, and many sallies on the besieging
army from within her fortifications, Halil Aga also obtained some
cannon, and at once commenced a merciless attempt to force a passage
through the walls. Distress and alarm filled the unfortunate town.
At the earnest petition of such of the inhabitants as desired peace
the English consul came over from Larnaka and endeavoured to mediate
between the opposing parties. Halil Aga demanded on his part that a
sealed deed should be given him, offering free pardon to all who had
fought under his banner, and that all the janissaries and officials
who had joined his flag, should be reinstated in all their former
posts. Secondly, that the people of Nikosia should accept him as their
governor if he could obtain the approval of the Sultan. The besieged
governors would only give way as to the free pardon, so the fighting
continued as before. Meanwhile news of what was going on in the island
had reached the adjacent lands and seas, and foreign powers, who had
sufficient troops to carry out the undertaking began to speculate as
to the advisability of taking advantage of such a tempting opportunity
to appropriate the island. The Porte could be readily appeased, it
was supposed, by offers of gold, and plentiful doses of flattery, and
would not refuse to confirm any new government in its acts. Ibrahim
Bey was the first who arrived in Cyprus, having crossed over with his
men in two small galliots, but finding his forces too weak to attempt
anything he at once retired. Directly after this, another corsair,
Dschassar Bey, appeared upon the scene with a frigate and three small
munition vessels. Having speedily landed his men, he took possession of
the castle, near the salt works of Larnaka. Halil Aga having heard of
this new arrival marched to remonstrate with him, and his overpowering
force proved such an excellent argument that this invader also hurried
from the field. The third adventurer was Giergil Oghlu, the governor
of Karamania, situated on the opposite coast to Cyprus. On the 27th
of June he appeared before Famagusta with a few hundred men, who
overran the adjacent country, plundering and destroying with the utmost
brutality. Before the very gates of the fortress, they are said to have
speared seven Greeks and beheaded two Turks. Happily on this same day
Kyor Mahommed Pacha, of two tails, landed at Larnaka with 2000 foot
soldiers and 500 cavalry bearing orders from the Sultan to restore
peace. He requested the consuls of the various European powers to meet
him, and seems to have much astonished them all by permitting them to
sit in his presence during the discussion that ensued. Having heard
a full account of the state of things, his first step was to command
Giergil Oghlu to place himself and his troops under his standard. He
then requested the English consul to write a letter to the camp around
Nikosia, stating that the pacha commanded all to retire quietly to
their homes, promising to show justice to all, and announcing that his
mission was only intended to restore peace. On the 1st of July, shortly
after the despatch of this letter, the pacha marched towards Nikosia
with all his men and accompanied by the Karamanian troops.
Terror and consternation went before him, for report had much
exaggerated the number of his followers. Deserters streamed out of
Halil Aga’s camp until only about two hundred faithful followers were
left; with these he retired to his fortress of Keryneia. This castle,
which is situated on the coast, is backed by steep rocks, with the sea
in front, whilst the country round is so plentifully supplied with
flowers and fruit as to form a veritable paradise.
Ample means of entertainment for the garrison were provided, and they
thought themselves prepared to make an obstinate resistance. Should
the worst come to the worst they trusted to save themselves readily
by sea, as the fortress had an entrance which opened directly on the
shore, and some small ships were anchored in the haven. Message after
message was sent from the pacha, commanding Halil Aga to surrender in
the name of the Sultan, to which he replied that he was defending the
castle for that potentate. On the 28th of July, Kyor Mahommed encamped
about Keryneia, and at once commenced filling up the moats and making
breaches in the walls for the purpose of mounting the latter with their
scaling ladders. The besieged knew how to use their guns, and behaved
with so much spirit, that every attack was repulsed.
The troop ships of the pacha now arrived and opened fire on the fine
old fortress, trying it most severely. Behind them were seen Dschassar
Bey, with his frigate and two other ships; and last, though not
least, Ibrahim Bey and his three little galliots. These new arrivals
completely closed Keryneia on the sea side, and rendered escape that
way utterly hopeless. The efforts of the besieged were now prompted by
despair. The pacha was becoming uneasy at the long delay, fearing daily
that there would be a general rising against him in the island, and had
recourse to base cunning to overcome his brave antagonist.
The captain of the line ships, Meleky Bey, was desired to demand a
secret interview with Halil Aga. This meeting took place on the night
of the 14th of August, on which occasion Meleky forcibly urged that
it would be advisable for Halil Aga to come on board the ships of the
line, and trust to his friendly intervention for favourable terms.
There could be no question of safety, for was it not well known that
Turkish sailors would be hewn in pieces before they would betray a man
who had trusted to their honour? Meleky spoke with so much apparent
frankness that Halil Aga fell into the trap, and before night he had
taken shelter on one of the ships. Next day he was handed over to the
pacha, who, however, received him kindly, and offered him a tent for
his own use.
As soon as this reception was known in the castle, the garrison
surrendered at discretion. The position was at once changed. All the
women were allowed to retire with bag and baggage, but the men were
declared prisoners. Halil Aga’s officers were thrown into chains, and
he himself closely watched.
On the 19th instant, the unfortunate captive was brought before the
pacha, who received him kindly, and requested to hear from his own lips
who had been implicated in the rising. This done, the pacha changed his
tone, and angrily demanded whether Halil Aga supposed that the Sultan
intended that his fortresses should be used for seditious purposes? As
he spoke, some of his minions entered, and the unhappy victim of his
treachery was strangled on the spot.
On the 21st of August, Giergil Oghlu and his wild crew were desired
to set sail, without having been allowed to land. The pacha retired
with his prisoners, and his myrmidons at once spread over the island.
All those who had been implicated in the late revolts, and were still
free, quitted Cyprus. Many, however, were captured before they reached
the coast. Investigations into the recent events were set on foot
in Nikosia, and at its conclusion two hundred of the accused were
decapitated. Their heads, with that of Halil Aga, were salted down, and
sent to Constantinople, with a full account of what had occurred in
this island.
Kyor Mahommed was made a pacha of three tails and governor of the
pachalik of Koniah. Hafiz Mahommed had been previously desired to leave
Cyprus, and Soliman Effendi reigned in his stead. So ended a sad page
in the history of this unlucky island, which during these three years
of insurrection, had lost the flower of her Turkish population, and
seen her castles and buildings destroyed.
These ruins were never rebuilt; successive misfortunes and the
insecurity of the future prospects of the island seem to have quenched
all spirit of emulation and progress in the much-tried population, and
Cyprus appeared to have finally lost her proud place in the world’s
history.