* * * * *
On May 7th, 1900, a caravan of about seventy Mongolian and Amdo Lamas
left the Amdo monastery of Goumboum for Lhassa. I had joined it as
a simple pilgrim. We rode and carried our belongings on about two
hundred horses and mules obtained in Amdo, and lived in seventeen
tents. After a journey of twenty-two days across the uninhabited North
Tibetan table-land, we pitched camp on the banks of the San-chou, on
the northern side of the Boumza Ridge. Here we, for the first time, met
with inhabitants of Central Tibet. Our road was, in fact, blocked by
the first of a series of military posts maintained to stop the advance
of foreigners and to notify the Government of their presence. It was
near here that the great Russian explorer, P. M. Przhevalsky, was
compelled to turn back upon his third journey into Central Asia. The
soldiers of the post at once came to our camp and, observing that ours
was an ordinary pilgrim caravan, resumed their usual occupations, which
were mainly barter on a small scale and keeping a sharp look-out for
any unconsidered trifles which were not tied down.
After four short marches we reached the Nak-chou monastery. Here
reside the two governors of the local nomadic tribes--one, called
the "Khanbo," being a priest, and the other, called the "Nansal,"
being a layman. They rule the natives, collect taxes, control the
post-stations, and investigate suspicious travellers. I fell into
the latter class, thanks to the head of our caravan, who reported
that there were Bouriats among the Mongolians. Although it had been
recently decided that Bouriats were to be admitted into the country,
the "Khanbo" squeezed five "lans" of silver out of me, which sum
removed me from the category of suspects and opened the road to Lhassa,
where we arrived on August 16th, after a journey of three months from
Goumboum.
[Illustration: LHASSA FROM THE NORTH.
_From a Photo._]
Lhassa, or Lhadàn as it is sometimes called, means the "land of the
gods," or "full of gods." It was founded in the seventh century A.D.
by the Khan Srontszan-Gambo, who, it is related, had among his wives a
Nepaulese and a Chinese princess, and they brought with them statues
of Buddha Sakya Muni. For these statues temples were built in Lhassa,
and the Khan settled on the hill where now stands the palace of the
Dalai-Lama--the supreme ruler of Tibet both in spiritual and worldly
affairs. The city is situated in a broad plain, bordered on one side by
the Wi-chou and on the other by the high mountains on its right bank.
Not counting Bodalà, the residence of the Dalai-Lama, it is almost
circular in form, with a diameter of about one English mile. However,
numerous parks to the south and west, the proximity of Bodalà and two
other palaces, have caused its girth to be stated as about twenty-five
miles. As a matter of fact, the circular road around the city is not
more than eight miles long. The devout are in the habit of making the
circuit, prostrating themselves continually. A zealous pilgrim can
complete the journey in two days, making three thousand prostrations a
day. They travel, in fact, on their stomachs, drawing up their legs as
far as possible, and pushing themselves forward a body's length at a
time, standing erect, however, between the movements and falling flat
again. Sometimes the pilgrims protect their hands with boards, though
these are not the most fervent devotees. Thus they traverse not only
the circuit of the city, but often pass three times and even seven
times round it. The last feat takes about a fortnight, and requires
forty-two thousand prostrations!
The Tibetans are very fond of parks and forests, and their capital
presents a beautiful appearance from a distance, particularly in spring
and autumn, when the golden roofs of the two principal temples and
the white walls of many-storied houses gleam and glisten among the
tree-tops. The enchantment of the view from afar disappears abruptly
when one enters the crooked and extremely narrow streets, which during
the rainy season are transformed into muddy pools, in which one sees
here and there the corpse of a yak or other pack animal.
The plain in which the city lies is subject to inundations both from
the river and from mountain streams. Dykes and canals have been
constructed both inside and outside the city for protection from
overflows. The houses of the common people are built of stone plates or
of unbaked bricks, one-storied usually, except in the cities, where two
and three storied houses prevail. The window openings are either bare
or are protected merely with muslin or calico in summer, and with paper
in winter. Fire-places are provided only in the kitchen, and are heated
only for the preparation of food.
In the centre of the city stands the temple in which the great statue
of Buddha is placed. This temple is a rectangular structure about one
hundred and forty feet square. It is three stories high and has four
gilded roofs in Chinese style, with gates and a door opening to the
west. The temple contains a number of gloomy chambers lighted with
candles, in all of which there are various statues of Buddhas. The
chief object of veneration is placed beneath a costly baldachin in
the middle room. It is the great statue of Buddha Sakya Muni, just
mentioned. It is of bronze, and is distinguished from ordinary images
of the Indian sage by its ornaments of hammered gold on head and
breast, encrusted with precious stones, mainly turquoises. The face of
the statue is decorated with burnished gold, put on in the form of a
powder. Golden lamps fed with animal fat, placed on long, bench-like
tables, burn before it continually. These lamps are the gifts of
worshippers.
[Illustration: THE ANCIENT PALACE OF THE TIBETAN KINGS.
_From a Photo._]
Almost equal honour is bestowed upon two other statues in the same
temple, that of Avalokiteshvar, who is supposed to be reincarnated in
the Dalai-Lamas, and the statue of Bal-Lhamo, the patroness of women.
Libations of barley-wine, called the "golden drink," are constantly
being poured out before this statue and barley grains are liberally
strewn on the ground, supplying inexhaustible food to the multitude
of mice which thrive here undisturbed, as they are accounted sacred.
They have comfortable nests in the drapery of the statue. The bodies of
these mice, when accidentally killed, are regarded as very useful to
ladies who are expecting babies, and are exported thousands of miles to
Mongolia and Amdo. However, mice in other houses in Lhassa do not share
their privileged position, being, as in other countries, the prey of
cats.
The ancient palace of the Tibetan kings, shown in the photograph given
above, is carefully preserved as a monument of great interest in the
history of the city. It was the residence of the last King of Tibet,
before the Dalai-Lama received the temporal as well as the spiritual
power. It is the only building in Lhassa which is not allowed to be
white-washed.
Above all the buildings of the city rises Bodalà, the palace of the
Dalai-Lama, about a thousand yards to the west, and built on a rocky
eminence. Although commenced earlier, it was rebuilt and extended,
with the addition of the central part, called the "red palace," during
the lifetime, or shortly after the death, of the celebrated fifth
Dalai-Lama, Agvan Lovsan-chzhiamtso. The palace was evidently built
mainly for purposes of defence, being, in fact, the survivor of those
ancient castles with whose ruins Tibet is richly strewn, and whose sad
fate was largely the work of this very Bodalà.
The palace is about fourteen hundred feet long and nine to ten stories
high. The front and sides are surrounded by a wall, while the rear
is protected by the mountain. In the construction of this palace the
Tibetans exhausted all their architectural skill, and it contains much
of the wealth and all that Tibet possesses of artistic value, notably
the golden epitaph of the fifth Dalai-Lama. The valuables and the
Dalai-Lama's apartments are in the central part of the palace, which is
called the "red palace," but is really painted brown. In other parts
of the palace live various officials, employés, and followers of the
Dalai-Lama, including a chapter of five hundred monks. Among the duties
of the latter are the recital of prayers for the happiness and long
life of the Dalai-Lama.
The mint, the courts of justice, and the prison are situated in a
courtyard under the hillside, and a little farther on is the only
medical school in Tibet, the "Manba Datsan." It has sixty teachers,
supported by the Dalai-Lama. Westward and lower down the hill from the
palace and the medical school are the temples of Chinese Buddhists,
while two other palaces, one of which is the summer palace of the
Dalai-Lama, are situated only a little farther. Lhassa itself contains
two faculties for instruction in the mystical cults, embracing together
twelve hundred men.
[Illustration: MOUNT MAR-BO-RI, AND BODALÀ, THE PALACE OF THE
DALAI-LAMA.
_From a Photo._]
Lhassa is a city of women. The entire population, excluding priests,
can scarcely exceed ten thousand persons, and at least two-thirds
of these are women. The city might seem more populous owing to the
proximity of two great monasteries and to the great ingress, at
particular times, of the rural inhabitants and of pilgrims from
Lamaitic countries. It is the most important commercial centre of the
country, being the intermediary between India and Western Tibet and
between China and Eastern Tibet. The market is situated around the
great temple, and the lower floors of houses, as well as all free
spaces on the streets and public squares, are occupied by shops and
booths. The clerks in the shops, excepting those kept by Kashmir and
Nepaul merchants, are nearly all women.
Not only Lhassa, but Tibet itself can be described as the land of
women and women's rights. This is due to the vast number of celibate
priests. The results of this institution to a large part of the female
population are complete independence both in business and in personal
conduct. In family life both polygamy and polyandry are met with. The
marriage of several brothers with one wife, or of several sisters with
one husband, is regarded as the ideal condition.
In no country in the world, perhaps, do women play a greater part in
business than in Tibet. I can recall no occupation that is carried on
in the country in which women are not actively engaged, and they often
conduct great undertakings quite independently of men.
The choice of a new Dalai-Lama is put into practice in the following
picturesque manner: The names of three candidates, determined upon in
a previously agreed manner, are written on separate tickets and then
put into a golden urn. The urn is set in front of the great statue of
Buddha, and religious services designed to disclose the identity of the
"reincarnate"[1] are held by deputies from the monasteries. The urn is
then taken to Bodalà and set down before a small board inscribed with
the name of the Emperor, and in the presence of the highest officials,
and of deputies from the principal monasteries, the Manchurian
Amban--the representative of the Emperor--removes one of the tickets
by means of a pair of chop-sticks. The choice so made is confirmed by
an Imperial rescript, and the happy, or unhappy, boy is transferred to
the palace. From this moment he receives the veneration and the honours
due to his station. From his earliest years he is taught reading and
writing by a special master selected from among the most illustrious
Lamas. After this he is given a purely theological education. For
purposes of practical disputation all the theological faculties of the
principal monasteries send one of their members. Upon the completion
of the prescribed course of study he receives the highest theological
degree in the same manner as other Lamas do, but naturally makes
a more lavish distribution of money to the monasteries. As a matter
of course his generosity is rewarded by a correspondingly careful
selection of questions on the part of the examiners.
[Footnote 1: The "reincarnates" are persons in whom the souls of former
saints are supposed to have become reincarnated.]
[Illustration: BODALÀ FROM THE NORTH-WEST.
_From a Photo._]
The present Dalai-Lama has now, at the age of twenty-one or twenty-two,
attained his majority. Since 1806 there have been five new Dalai-Lamas.
Six or seven years ago the present holder of the title entered upon
a struggle with his regent, the most illustrious of the Tibetan
"reincarnates," and issued from it victorious, thereby escaping the
fate of his four predecessors, who died comparatively young, most of
them having been put to death by their regents, or the rivals of the
latter. The present Dalai-Lama accused his regent of having performed
conjurations against his life, confiscated the regent's large estate,
and placed him under strict domiciliary arrest. The regent was found
dead one fine morning. The Dalai-Lama is evidently an energetic and
well-intentioned man. One of his first acts after seizing the reins of
authority was the abolition of the death penalty.
The supreme administration is in the hands of a council under the
presidency of the Dalai-Lama, known as the "Devashoun." The four
principal members are appointed by the Chinese Emperor. Justice is
sold, and in general all Government business is carried on by means
of bribery. Criminal inquiries are pursued by means of whipping and
other tortures, the most cruel of which is probably cauterization
with blazing sealing-wax. The penalties are flogging, imprisonment,
exile into slavery, blinding, amputation of the fingers, and perpetual
fetters or stocks.
[Illustration: BODALÀ FROM THE NORTH.
_From a Photo._]
Four thousand soldiers are maintained at the cost of the State. Their
armament consists of swords, muzzle-loading firearms, and bows and
arrows. A helmet decorated with feathers is worn and a small shield
is carried, and some wear a cuirass also. The discipline is poor. The
soldiers live in their villages, and assemble only periodically for
drill in archery and in the use of firearms. The army is divided into
cavalry and infantry. The Central Tibetan is averse to war and military
service. One often sees a soldier on the way to the drill-ground
placidly spinning wool or sewing on a boot-sole, or perhaps employing
the time which would otherwise be wasted in telling a rosary or turning
a prayer-cylinder. The nomadic clans of Eastern Tibet, who are prone to
raiding their peaceful neighbours, strive as a rule to avoid bloodshed,
employing intimidation oftener than force. The slightest determined
opposition sends them back home.
The Tibetans have lately been taking a more and more pronounced fancy
for English goods, and Indian rupees have begun to compete with the
native coin. Among the articles exported to India are yak tails,
sheep's wool, borax, salt, silver and gold, yaks, and horses and asses
from Western China.
Both men and women wear local cloth in various colours. The clothing
of the poor is usually white, because white is the cheapest. Soldiers
wear dark blue, the well-to-do classes prefer red, and the princes and
higher officials are privileged to wear yellow. The people are vain and
fond of display. They wear jewellery of gold, silver, corals, diamonds,
rubies, pearls, turquoises, and other stones.
[Illustration: A NEAR VIEW OF THE DALAI-LAMA'S PALACE.
_From a Photo._]
The principal article of food is flour of roasted barley. It is mixed
with tea or barley-wine. The most common vegetable is the radish. The
favourite dish of all classes is a porridge of barley-flour mixed with
finely-chopped radishes. The best variety of this porridge is prepared
with a bouillon of pounded bones, which can be had only by the rich.
Tibetans love raw or underdone meat. Yak-meat, mutton, and pork are
more highly esteemed than beef. The flesh of asses and horses is not
eaten. Fish is eaten by the poor, fowl not at all, chickens being kept
only for the sake of eggs. Butter is used principally as fuel for holy
lamps. Sour milk, treated in a special way, is highly esteemed as a
drink and is the common poetic symbol of pure white. Both men and
women drink great quantities of barley-wine, which is but slightly
intoxicating and is very cheap. The men smoke leaf tobacco in pipes,
the monks crush it into snuff. Tobacco is dear, and it is usually mixed
for smoking with leaves of another plant.
The Tibetan is very impressionable and superstitious, and he goes to
the Lamas, or oracles, after every event in his life and demands the
explanation of it. In case of sickness he puts more faith in a grain
of barley blessed by a Lama than in medicine; or he prefers, if able,
to send for a Lama to read whole litanies in his presence. However, he
is also disposed to be merry, and proves it by singing and dancing on
holidays and during carousals.
The Tibetan's requirements are limited. The local coin was worth ten
cents during my stay in Tibet. Nevertheless, one of these coins is the
highest wage known, that of a Lama for a whole day's prayers. The best
spinner in the rural districts receives seven cents a day; the ordinary
labourer, whether man or woman, two or three cents. Domestic servants
scarcely ever get any money, receiving only food and clothing.
Beggary thrives in Lhassa, this being the sole recourse of criminals
who have been blinded, or have lost their hands, or been bound to
perpetual fetters or stocks. In fact, begging is regarded with no
shame, even when practised by the comparatively well-to-do, especially
priests.
[Illustration: The Phoenix and the Carpet.