Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of working
them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance and
Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo
Mine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of
Peru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from
Cerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds.
Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru,
by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from
thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large
and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed
throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10 deg.
48' S. latitude and 76 deg. 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow,
encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult
winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in
irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de
Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town.
Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of
irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against
well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European
character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a
glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and
squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the
observer how many different classes of people have united together to
found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a
city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness
of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous
climate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote that
one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified
elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it
really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil
produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the
bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn
people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object.
History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian
shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the
south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river
Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from
his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de
Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect
himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on
the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes
of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the
discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a
hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the
spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore,
which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine,
which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (the
discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about
two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several
rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered
new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the
ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others
to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this
manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of
metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants.
In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One of
them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north
to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which
takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which
intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the
market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and
380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones
branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be
supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand
openings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Most
of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some
are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly
shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All
are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of
their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts
are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption
of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused
by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and
every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by
the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in which
three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I
descended into several of the mines, among others into the
_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I
had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of
the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for
steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most
instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty
chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually
falling from the damp walls.
The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One
class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without
intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--the
other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de
Pasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_.[70] This latter
class of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from the
distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an
end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one
called _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and
the other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore from
the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious.
Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which
is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state
of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes
so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself
of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night,
the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party working
for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the
_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo.
When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in
money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only
four. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages in
money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to
themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great
cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos.
Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me
how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He
fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he
pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine.
Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing
the treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of
silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem.
The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the
whole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the
_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off
the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the
laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched.
The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at
some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great
mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the
quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The
animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from
Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The
quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few
years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is
managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of
quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver,
half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the
exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from
Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of
the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars
each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars.
Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by
the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may
fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than
they would be under a better system of management.
In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which the
silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised
in the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ the
amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the
quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several
hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted,
and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the
action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed.
The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mine
proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their
_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other
hand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for their
speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest.
Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few
years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the
Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain.
The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de
Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the
_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to
be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in
Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard
value in Lima is eight dollars and a half.
It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the
yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of
silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast,
and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of
Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver
annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three
hundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784
to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year
1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen
years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above
300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The
successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended
very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of
Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine
owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very
depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of
South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has
received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation.
As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;
nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long
abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and
stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably
lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the
reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less
agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering
of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in
those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole
city in the bosom of the earth.
Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are
all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from
distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully
supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders
and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market
is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima.
The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all
to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded
for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House
rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is
exceedingly expensive.
The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human
beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated
at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old
and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is
scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its
representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the
Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and
for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two
divisions, viz., traders and miners--taking both terms in their most
comprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of
Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large
magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as
in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the
Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring
their supplies from remote places.
The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) and
Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old
Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the
mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them
dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very
few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources,
the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently
raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who
require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on
having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard
conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the
miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very
abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of
mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome
debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the
mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents.
The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the
recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a
failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of
losing the money they have advanced.
Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character
and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the
social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he
gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series
of years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantity
of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a
boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune
prompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the result
frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath
to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The
persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable.
Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have
embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues
the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year,
visionary pictures of riches yet to come.
Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an
inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the
mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that
national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest
hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner
leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to
pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is
the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos,
after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble
with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which
they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons
them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently
gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is
discernible in the mine.
The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro
de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are
expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number
of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when
there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is
more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry,
which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly
circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular.
Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire
goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca,
and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c.,
obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in
chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay
for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such
as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers
belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and
attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous
affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of
battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and
the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe
and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell
these street riots, is out of the question.
When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment
into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the
most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the
European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a
ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness,
will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and
which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an
Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two
dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,[72] where he drank
till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he
fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his
cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the
street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of
reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase
a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve
gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for
him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having
examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing
that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses
money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor
any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable
way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications,
and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all
considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of
Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them,
and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated.
Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are
nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining
districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named
province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von
Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were
discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400
bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each
other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily
worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on
the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the
silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight
admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of
metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The
chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of
very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio
de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to
bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very
ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the
quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast
abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner.
Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a
young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying
her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo
fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it
with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy
of the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had
become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took
advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government.
Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in
prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents
relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He
proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him
the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left
the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When
it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain
occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the
enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this
proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take
possession of the mine.[73]
But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its
object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his
mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends,
repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and
closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it
out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards
captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to
reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains
undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the
neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari.
Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian
mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The
owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose
friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy
consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important
affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent
the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his
illustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triple
row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short
distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the
vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was
baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the
whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she
had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in
which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most
of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective
arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122
workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and
apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised
to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not
very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.
Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru
have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small
portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact,
that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the
situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the
detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and
little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not
easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some
of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted
from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these
secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there
lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte,
two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins
of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain
further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the
cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest
intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an
attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and
the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very rich
mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she
told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she
would let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, she
assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he
was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine
of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who
expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist
him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed
to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully
accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and
he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage.
He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted
his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There,
he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately
as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following
night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the
mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had
disappeared, and the mine was never discovered.
In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate
gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in
the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and
frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day,
after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of
his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him
some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought
him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times
repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him
the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and
on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to
the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn
carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the
mountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage being
removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat
shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was
allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich
prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as
he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him
home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and
here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be
enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of
a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and
presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your
rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."
When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously
known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the
Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and
after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was
covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had
been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for
sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he
had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale,
the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when
I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed
me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and
half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the
situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the
secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found
the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more
communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully
convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually
knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a
specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want
of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not
very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried
the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered
the opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible
for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about
three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups,
which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He
assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions,
which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse
to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it
in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.
I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but
the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to
disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are
not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in
Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made
known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are
composed of many different races, and though all were united by the
Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners
and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their
descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In
proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others
are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for
they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the
discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown
into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in
captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this
story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred
to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any
directions for finding mines.
But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become
one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved
legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still
more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of
Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the
principal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet the
city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is
considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the
Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is
transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is
consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a
receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with
loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they
convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however,
no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the
stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is
sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or
Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to
resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de
Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on
the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo,
one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting
ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz,
and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the
level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces.
From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima,
the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the
Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads
by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] to
Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13,000
feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,[75] which
is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leagues
and a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to the
Laguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long and
forty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets
much more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it is
evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks
are overgrown by totora (_Malacochaete Totora_), and are inhabited by
numerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief that
this lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of
the night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture
lands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern
end of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed
with stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the
two banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the
lake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called
Reyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the
24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish
forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by Don
Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence on
the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in the
Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A few
days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from the
Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation
to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer received
from the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attack
the enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of the
Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter is
still living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of the
whole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration of
their triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the whole
province, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which the
battle was fought.
From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a
difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few
huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through
several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful
valley of Tarma.
Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially
those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads
for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,
where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and
sometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When great
boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it
is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary
traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes
himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his
sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as
Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three
travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the
principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter
for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there
is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many
of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible
turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage.
I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty
hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna
region.
On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a
Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just
beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served
the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just
sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior
of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few
hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue,
and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept
out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey.
I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply
of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs
which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;
and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he
was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making
an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked
him to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his
gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_"
The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen
during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my
way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock
moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming
impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the
white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further
on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were
busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the
following Sunday, in the nearest village.
My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and
swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as
the natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies to
travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes
sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country
it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks
beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to
disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning
rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude
around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet
above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned
with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies.
Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain
regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded
in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before
me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals
broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains
of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life
and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle
between being and annihilation.
How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna
grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the
greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how
joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the
brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of
the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured
in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were
growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had
changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A
beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself
in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist.
As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me.
Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my
view. Herds of vicunas approached me with curious gaze, and then on a
sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed
stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
passing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair in
the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;
whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported and
nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.
I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this
peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor
animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three
voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings
of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious
glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant
wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head,
whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I
cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the
menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their
banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in
this part of the Puna.
It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a
continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule
slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascent
which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began
walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied
atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never
known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and
then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My
heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A
world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;
the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from
them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see,
hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I
felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a
short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had
all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred
feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them.
In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt
sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was
now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow,
which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I
discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well
as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of
birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicunas,
which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to
extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with
a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at
length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in
various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was
marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the
remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a
welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds
now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared
dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes
stricken with _surumpe_.
Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension of
blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could
scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more
thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my
benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that
the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human
habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give
myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock.
Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous
wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat,
though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having
unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied
the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the
little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my
hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.
Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner
had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting
in my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hope
of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared,
I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated
blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of
my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery
was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his
ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. What
could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave.
The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over
this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life
around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished
of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly
wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian
robbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the
body in the cave.
I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I
kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no
very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some
timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation.
It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I
recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and
looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the
day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed
on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their
llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth
on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
incidents above described was the Cave of Lenas, in the Altos which
lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.
FOOTNOTE:
[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields an
unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines
in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state.
There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners to
Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its
ordinary amount.]
[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed
among the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wages
being paid in money.]
[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c., are vended.]
[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.]
[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above
the sea level.]
[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de
Junin.]