Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
Palta--The Banana and other Fruits.
Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is
situated in 12 deg. 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77 deg. 8' 30'' west longitude
from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of
Geography it is often marked 76 deg. 50'. Humboldt makes it 77 deg. 5' 5''; and
Malaspina 77 deg. 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70 deg. 37' west of Cadiz.
The latitude is very generally fixed at 12 deg. 2' 3'' south. The height
above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the
_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154
metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5
Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives
the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between
Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _La
Legua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza de
Lima_, 184-4/5.
The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the
height of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172.2
Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.
The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San
Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737,
by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exact
measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English
feet.
The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from
December to March, is 25 deg. C. The medium temperature during the cold
season, from April to November, 17.5 deg. C. Highest rise of the hygrometer,
21.5 deg..
The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from
the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the
prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance
of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with
eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The
prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very
common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those
regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form
atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole
population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of
these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by
the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the
hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are
oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature
of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and
exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.
Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from
Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are
the following:--
December 20 to 27, maximum 31.8 deg. C.; minimum, 25.9 deg. C.
December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26.0 deg. C.; at 2 P.M., 32.7 deg. C.;
at 10 at night, 27.3 deg. C.
January 1, at 2 P.M., 33.1 deg. C., maximum of the day.
January 18, at 2 P.M., maximum 34.2 deg. C.
A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an
average of 5.7 deg. C. of heat in favor of Miraflores.
The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and
after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless
contributes to cool the atmosphere.
The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During six
months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist,
overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The
transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost
imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;
it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In
April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after,
the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to
many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to
damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are
very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but
distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called
_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as
certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times
from _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually
attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some
years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon
paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions.
In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the
neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very
imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon.
I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader
some idea of the mortality of Lima.
The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800.
In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841,
the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites,
and 88 by people of color.
DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-
Diseases. Men. Women. Children. Total.
Dysentery 171 105 59 335
Fevers, chiefly intermittent 57 88 71 216
Typhus 14 7 24 45
Pulmonary Consumption 87 110 11 208
Inflammation of the Lungs 78 75 26 179
Dropsy, for the most part a
consequence of intermittent fevers 33 32 7 72
Hooping-cough 36 36
Small Pox 3 1 4
Sudden death 23 13 1 37
Shot 3 3
Various Diseases 271 228 610 1,109
--- --- --- -----
740 658 846 2,244
The number of births were:--
Boys. Girls. Total.
In marriage 410 412 822
Not in marriage 432 428 860
--- --- -----
842 840 1,682
The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so
is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above
interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and
degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the
colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of
the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out
of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full
four-fifths are Mulattos.
The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of
serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of
ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of
births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are
annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to
endeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I may
observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
punishable crime of producing abortion.
Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a
state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or
disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce
hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of
the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating
power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its
attack.[37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.
Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city
has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may
be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of
October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives
reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a
century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have
visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586,
1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course
of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation.
The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other
times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The
subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the
rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They
usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few
cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one
occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the
earth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in
partitions when an old house is consumed by fire.
Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and
they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical
shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the
4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the
old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an
immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump
of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a
violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was
thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river,
Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for
a considerable length of way.
I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes.
According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very
destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of
concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the
word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an
oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to
that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the
shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship
when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe
it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The
irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very
slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings,
and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other
kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely.
Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the
magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on
earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I
made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found,
in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On
one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2.4 lines lower
than it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also on
the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a
remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations
the atmosphere was entirely tranquil.
Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of
an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast,
who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been
seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746,
there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out of
the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
particularly remarked.
Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is to
them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a
feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if
an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the
whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself,
have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely
be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by
those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the
dangers of an earthquake.
I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as
all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader
need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the
day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven
o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard,
and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was
so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more
than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the
destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had
scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed
over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five
thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish
corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over
the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern
of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the
same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number,
were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not
been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.[38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos,
mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder
was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first
observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but
there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle
writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous.
The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to
acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and
northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt
fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may,
nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the
mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is
made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the
undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a
direction towards the south or the north.
Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits
of a few square miles.
The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very
different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a
stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly
overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and
Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling
movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled
round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
their legs as for support and to secure themselves against
apprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from their
saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and
prayed to heaven for mercy.
The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes
remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent
commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several
years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province
of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left
fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would
produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca.
All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced
by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields
of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two
the crops have perished.
The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are
involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are
connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than
ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly
independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is
certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the
mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious
earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687
stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption
of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous
districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco,
Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent
period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi,
Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter
from an eye-witness I received the following account of it.
"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward,
and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption.
The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the
whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any
motion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and
from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were
always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise
resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the
distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks
were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st
to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the
vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They
continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not
been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village."
The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from
Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual
phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any
local connection between the earthquake and the volcano.
On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression.
The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the
impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of
the earth under the feet,--altogether make a formidable demand on the
weakness of human nature.
Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us to
comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind
of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of
the terrestrial strata." And further on he says--"The earthquake appears
to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears
possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is
directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant
of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions
of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his
apartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the north
of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits
with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear
with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto
considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming
convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his
wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted
to seek safety in flight.
In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened
by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) on
such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given
from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the
church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers.
Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive
that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the
extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a
river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;
they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The
valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of
Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E.
to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama,
where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down
to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by
the Rimac.[39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of which
has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and
shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of
Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San
Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the
south-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights of
Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During
winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season
sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly
between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower
part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on,
no considerable damage occurs.
Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving
moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima.
The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however,
come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league from
Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in
the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the
Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is
distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the
insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the
unfortunate Cacique Don Jose Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn
determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy
was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the
numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which
have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole
of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of
Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two
hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for
it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did
not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable
sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the
water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the
enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with
alum. The offender remained undiscovered.
The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators
resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who
were to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), in
which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the
cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set
fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up
the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken
place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre
all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
when it was of course frustrated.
The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is
practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds
even the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thus
effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the
fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of
water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following
day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takes
place early every morning.
As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole
coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to
them hereafter.
COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate
vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts,
particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province
Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca,
a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown
cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the
bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in
this kind of cotton.
The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations where
there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural
produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates
lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit
of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the
Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which
height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however,
do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of
the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000
feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitan
cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has
more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the
Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than
the West India canes, which were previously cultivated.
The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and
laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through
wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_
or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large
estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a
steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but
it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane
juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for
making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly
prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has
been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further
simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar.
After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called
alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity
of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;
only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their
weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country
is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile.
Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most
successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the
fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the
warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are
distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form
and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast
are--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddish
brown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large,
heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similar
to the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain,
and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chiefly
planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks
eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them
I counted seventy-five grains in a single row.
Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance
of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves
on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of
ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called
_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soaked
in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
_Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes,
after which the husks are easily stripped off.
As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced
there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering
into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention
that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which,
judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the
dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize
which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and
settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should
consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been
brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of
this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for,
that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis,
unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof.
Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast
have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat
more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in
Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not
thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of
from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of
some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the
arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is
sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I
have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without
exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century.
Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate
and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and
watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe
that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and
Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to
cultivate it on a more favorable soil.[40] The best potatoe grows about
twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta.
This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when
bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papa
amarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it
fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada
of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored.
The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L.), not improperly called sweet
potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes,
the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_.
These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the
height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow.
The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it
is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the
eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive
kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by
being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In
many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.
The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables of
Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and
about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet
long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but
the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown
color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very
agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and
tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in
water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when
laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy.
In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the
yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a
kind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not good
after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even
during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black
stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color.
Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten.
To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick
part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth.
In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually
allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth
new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become
slightly woody. The Indians in the Montana de Vitoc sent as a present to
their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet
was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the
boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above
the level of the sea.
Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on the
coast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds.
All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them
perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the
Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_
are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. They
are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very
agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous.
Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must
mention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warm
districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found only
on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of
the pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c._), which are
sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the
consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of
the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is
used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking
degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that
the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity,
has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji,
steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the
space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain
intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have
frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing
the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this
luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the
eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater
height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea.
Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_,
is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for
cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet
its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea.
On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but
during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R.) then supplies its place as
fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant
during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it
decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the
beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cut
four times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times;
and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of
rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields
are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the
sixth year clover is again raised.
The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the
coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That
the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are
used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
olives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are
allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly
pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process
they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces
of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent
accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by
which means they remain plump and green.
The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is also
cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which
is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street
lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines
employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is
imported from England or Italy.
The Pinoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R.) is cultivated only about
Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it
grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted,
has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated
between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its
effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision
is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some
time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and
retains its extraordinary property for years.
The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently
in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the
most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast
quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys.
Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called
_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor.
Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the
climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally
speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits
and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees
would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of
vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have
sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to
the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects.
All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions
of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c., grow in incredible
abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest
perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement
of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and
March, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine.
The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other
_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white.
They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most
delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may
pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond
a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not
easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked.
Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly
brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The
mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its
fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the
birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine
has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of
Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but for
size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any
other part of the world.
Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more
northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the
delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the
Chirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a
master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any
fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor.
In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an
orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very
imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it
grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes
pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem.
Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often
has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very
ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough.
Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a
number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The
Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by
having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found
with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of
this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine
fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as
to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all
fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
is of a pale-green color.
The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gaert.) is a fruit of the pear form, and
dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick.
The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel
resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent
and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first
yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not
agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate
becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter
on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies
_beurre vegetale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and
sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make
very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small
dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some
of these trees more than sixty feet high.
The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvian
plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the
greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the
tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions,
where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit
lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to
Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are
cultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introduced
from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches
long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one
over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather
mealy. The Limenos prefer this to any other species of the platano, and
they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_
are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_,
but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight
and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one
from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem
spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of
the _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and
aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they
maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes
immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have
shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the
Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy
on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how
unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down
one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy.
My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately
in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should never
return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all
arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my
companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again.
Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and
finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an
_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different
nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains
its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with
the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.
The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from six
to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind
is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than
that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as
agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo,
and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which
grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the
_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five
heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell
long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is
white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when
roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.
When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the
base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as
the natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy,
shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it
may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are
yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for
they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay
while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the
_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately
lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts.
Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are the
period usually required for its complete development.
The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit
trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively,
for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In
northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in
a variety of ways.
Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The
market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the
Montana de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before
they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of
sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the
Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the
Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the
communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are
brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large,
succulent, and very sweet.
The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of an
apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather
thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous
dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles
the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush,
and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the
Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys.
The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is
covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is
easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the
tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is
not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be
cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause
inflammation when they get into the fingers.
The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopis
dulcis_, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod
from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are
embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white
as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet,
and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limenos
on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay.
The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of
Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is
round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored
fruit with its kernel.
The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the
valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is
of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and
thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped
granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima
it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and,
when the fruit is ripe, larvae are found in it.
The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields.
The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground.
The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both
ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long
rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and
well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow.
By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed
to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the
stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its
injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very
indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
brings on fits of illness.
The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogaea_), is produced in the
northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet
long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they
are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are
eaten with sugar.
The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns
it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a
cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The
capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
odor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with other
odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in
drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms.
The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_,
R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright
yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits
an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in
making the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between the
fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an
acid and a stringent taste.
The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or
cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern
provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little
care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the
coast of Peru.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses
are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food
for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th
January, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of San
Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th
November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.]
[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage
in Schiller's William Tell:--
"'s ist heut Simons und Judae
Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben."
"'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,
And the lake rages for its sacrifice."
]
[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, to
prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the
ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the
neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said
that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were
banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the
name of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, which
is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and
philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.]
[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the
Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru,
the potatoe is called _Acsu_.]