Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The
women of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language.
Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at
the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in
his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country.
The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable
fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated
to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in
1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of
distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are
not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration
of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several
parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to
decay, and the gardens lying waste.
The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the
physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at
various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of
life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the
families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the
natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away
countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is
very inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths
has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt
that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will
presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be
checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of
the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but
over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some
instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of
life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This
favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south
latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the
Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with
numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.
In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz,
in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as
follows:--
Male. Female. Total.
1. White Creoles (being the
descendants of foreigners,
but chiefly of Spaniards) 9,423 10,170 19,593
2. Indians 2,561 2,731 5,292
3. People of Color (mixed races) 11,771 12,355 24,126
4. Slaves 2,186 3,606 4,792
5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic) 475 350 825
------ ------ ------
In all 26,416 29,212 54,628
From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is
a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628
individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.
Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of
complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole
daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of
every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with
another. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are as
distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no
difficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different
with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would
be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood.
As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves
all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of
society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the
following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations
to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some
honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary
luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by
the surrounding darkness.
The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of
Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population
of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their
features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their
hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely
old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of
sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of
active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they
have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state
archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical
organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They
shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they
are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged
to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which,
like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to
gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up
wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or
they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner
they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of
plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their
mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo de
gallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles
are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to
those staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily
lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they
are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police
enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank.
Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined
gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or
winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings
of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I
knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country.
The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly
defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of
education affords him no opportunity for the development of his
faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is
ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all
events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed
at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting
the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions
of their native country.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the
birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have
honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For
example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los
Leyes de Indias."[13] Don Miguel Nunez de Rojas, the learned Judge of
Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de
San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the
Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don
Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera,
of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says--
Su divina ingenio ha producido
En Arequipa eterna Primavera.[14]
Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles,
and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the
author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of
Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] a
Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don Mariano
Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of
natural history and antiquities.
But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities.
He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of
some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white
Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not
so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable
for intemperate drinking.
Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the
women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her
choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and
they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their
fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every
trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
are pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general not
small--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white
teeth,[16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls
gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating
grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of
gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the
Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness.
At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress
lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres,
they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending
church, joining religious processions, &c., they appear in a very
singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments
called the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds.
The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, but
is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick
stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn
very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles,
beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the
outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the
limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Saya
ajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at
church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged
to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
again stand on their feet.[17]
The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeca_, or the
_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence
downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is
made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Saya
ajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the
_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk,
black, green, blue, or cinnamon color.
The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back
of the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought over
the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a
small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left
uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of
the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
hands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds a
richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.
At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is
long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The
narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand,
is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and
elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies
closely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambric
handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the
world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening,
the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the
streets dressed in the saya.
As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is
found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a
careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the
saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.
The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous
intrigues in which the Limenas frequently engage.
A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets,
and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything
that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred,
and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of
being severely handled by the populace.
In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A
lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the
street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards
and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little
suspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was his
own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Dona Mariquita
obliges Dona Merceditas, or Dona Panchita, with the loan of her saya,
for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
husband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will
render her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a
lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest
female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked
pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the
rank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on
an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a
lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be
supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk
may be easily disguised.
It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion
mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose
symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be
induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the
disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta
grinning from ear to ear.
Most foreigners who marry Limenas stipulate that from the time of
betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The
condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the
husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence
of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily
devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly
renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with
customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted.
If we follow the Limena (the white Creole, be it understood) into the
retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother,
but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great
many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of
them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid,
one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a
little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind
his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they
please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the
indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a late
hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of
jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day
she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and
meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the
evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some
few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often
most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
work; but they never pursue these employments before company.
The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the
piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good
instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity.
Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;
but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late
years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in
proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world.
Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise
it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff,
which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the
nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.
With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have
reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they
sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamonds
were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the
purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock
jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments
at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for
perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau de
Cologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter is
a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and
flor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartments
daily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to
show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed
water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the
pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of
perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limenas should be
constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments,
or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_).
Above all things the Limenas pride themselves in the excessive smallness
of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the
hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to
display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her
intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
to a Limena than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care
is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies
avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are
usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and
are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without
difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the
expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred
dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
Limenas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I once
heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair
European; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie,
valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is
like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in
Europe, have been thought by any means large.
_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of
Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety
of things. At one moment they order _tamal_,[19] next _omitas_,[20] then
_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamorita
morada_,[21] or _frijoles coladas_,[22] &c.; and yet dinner is partaken
with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been
introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are
constantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_?
In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those
apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the
_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more
resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition
reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates.
But even this is typical of the national character,--a great outward
show and little inward worth.
At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many
of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the
festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who
happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church
celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most
extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of
the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nieves_
(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in
honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa.
Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, without
number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one born
on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular
effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using
diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_,
the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be
readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a
young lady called Dona Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a
form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for
Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman
does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own,
adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, for
example, Dona Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.
On attaining a certain age, the Limenas totally alter their habits of
life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of
compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in
too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to
piety, and become _Beatas_.[23] The Limena who thus renounces the
vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day,
confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of
penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to
whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as is
usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by
giving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place.
The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural
talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess
shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general
very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the
southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and
smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limena is sure to come
off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a
degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female
sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid,
spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country,
the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more
decided part than the men.
The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being
about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most
of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from
places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by
continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe
them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the
distinctions observable between the _Indio Costeno_ (the Coast
Indian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians in
Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit
with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants
are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and
suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but
recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an
inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are
far beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in a
degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated.
At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for
noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended
from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the
expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the
declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the
Indians have been annulled.
The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their
number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though
an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various
occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was
decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the
age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period
to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa,
for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every
person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru,
is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that
republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a
journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his
return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to
runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on
their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the
southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a
young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
negress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is
100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service
depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook
or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be
employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their
value depends wholly on health and strength.
The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is
exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the
treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts
severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires
punishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead the
dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision
of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of
the climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slaves
than any other kind of punishment.
In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more
favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country.
The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose
business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,--which
sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also
possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the
latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have
ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five
or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course
of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their
earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining
their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and
clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become
free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking
which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the
whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is
possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are
liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who
had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own
freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and
his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half
so well off if he were free.
The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are far
better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior
to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in
Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially
those who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought a
young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be
brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go
to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she
had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement
was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted
to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the
ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the
words, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, she
would strike her head against the wall until she became almost
senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she
was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that
way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most
touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything,
however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her
master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it.
When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable
than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed
themselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meet
together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of
princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could
scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered,
and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and
dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the
far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum
requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general
subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the
independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the
importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost
much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now
become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held
are situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants,
camels, palm trees, &c.
In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a
plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious
industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money.
Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are
free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and
moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many
warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them
to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of
revenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted
into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have
received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white
Creoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and
yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out
from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and
thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a
conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway,
finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities.
What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To
answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle
that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in
support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited.
Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the
same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the
countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My
opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the
aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education,
attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the
negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates
closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is
highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely
mechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach.
Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the
whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for
if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and
the apology for, their bad character.
The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general
characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and
better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed
races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they
discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and
every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing
to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in
white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their
black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle,
serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue
satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their
uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A
negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance,
possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several
thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully
heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for
this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would
have been to the fairest lady in Europe.
Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated
mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion
of the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races,
and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths
or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these
data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on
external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson
falls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and
a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white
father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar
error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;
and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation
Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear
the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may
respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same
as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were
transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white
tint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards).
In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea of
a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole
properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have
emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans.
There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.[26]
The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of
half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:--
PARENTS. CHILDREN.
White Father and Negro Mother Mulatto.
White Father and Indian Mother Mestizo.
Indian Father and Negro Mother Chino.
White Father and Mulatta Mother Cuarteron.
White Father and Mestiza Mother Creole (only distinguished from
the White, by a pale-brownish
complexion).
White Father and China Mother Chino-Blanco.
White Father and Cuarterona Mother Quintero.
White Father and Quintera Mother White.
Negro Father and Mulatta Mother Zambo-Negro.
Negro Father and Mestiza Mother Mulatto-Oscuro.
Negro Father and China Mother Zambo-Chino.
Negro Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k).
Negro Father and Cuarterona or
Quintera Mother Mulatto (rather dark).
Indian Father and Mulatta Mother Chino-Oscuro.
Indian Father and Mestiza Mother Mestizo-Claro (frequently very
beautiful).
Indian Father and China Mother Chino-Cholo.
Indian Father and Zamba Mother Zambo-Claro.
Indian Father and China-Chola
Mother Indian (with rather short
frizzy hair).
Indian Father and Cuarterona or
Quintera Mother Mestizo (rather brown).
Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother Zambo (a miserable race).
Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother Chino (of rather clear
complexion).
Mulatto Father and China Mother Chino (rather dark).
Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not
distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially
differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining
the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving
than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes
decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of
the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features
which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful
women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in
the short woolly hair.
The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting
a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less
practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way,
with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of
priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the
republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride
of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for
example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his
descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one
thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with
abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the
little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked
lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_.[27]
The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth
much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a
reason for thinking itself better than another.
In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that
the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without
any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark,
however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many
of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are
mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they
readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of
the moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves
affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the
Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their
number is less considerable than in the interior of the country,
where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those
places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much
aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than
to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always
answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly
impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark
tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women
frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to
the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but
very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and
traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos.
The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are
less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the
half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanical
employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They
are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily
exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they
indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who,
in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are
distinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_.[28] They are gifted
with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once.
With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy,
and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything
to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they
repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they
hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address
delivered at any public solemnity.
The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of
independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed
blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed.
Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians
in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their
ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical
instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the
public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos
of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they
possess all the qualifications for which the members of that
fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world.
Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though they
are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first
condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round
and broad, their features strongly marked, and their expression
impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the
negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their
hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently
making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to
dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black
eyes and pearl-white teeth.
Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is
combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are
wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing
and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but
their singing is quite uninstructed.
The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them
every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;
and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful
member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the
criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most
hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless
propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the
constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;
for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the
latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes
slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent.
Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little
longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The
men have very little beard.
The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical
formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and
attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro
nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair
is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are
deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but
brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself
for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.
Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the
Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both
physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among
whom they almost rank themselves.
The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole
of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to
South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that
struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of
the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish
families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are
people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of
gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the
Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely
subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still
somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as
the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of
hostile feeling, are now removed.
Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the
Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away
sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a
brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until,
in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their
native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive
warehouses.
The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in
Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in
jewellery and millinery.
The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the
natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of
the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co., Alsop & Co.,
Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Cruening & Co., &c. The enterprising
spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into
extensive mining speculations, which in some instances have proved
very unfortunate.
The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by
their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the
great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the
natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the
Limenos, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German.
Settlers from the other American republics have of late years
considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many
Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos,
escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge
in Lima.
Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the
Creoles, the Limenos readily form connexions with them. The ladies
generally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_.[30]
I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks
on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old
Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain
them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_;
the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives a
peculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_
over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to
harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileno (native of Madrid) prides
himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of
his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and
have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South
American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of
Peru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation.
The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they
frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual
resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very
ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the
lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible
aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of
the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously
soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is
observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru.
Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best
Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in
particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in
certain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say
_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In other
words they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_,
_cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by the
Peruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to
commit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which they
pronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) they
pronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound single
letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance,
in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. The
name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the
natives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no word
in the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant,
and the Limenos, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or
proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to
prefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools and
colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ is
adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the
students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_;
for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c.
To the Limenos the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely
difficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible to
omit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversion
of _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c., which they pronounce
_miki_, _nikil_.
The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish
language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very
bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of
the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by
transposing letters and lopping off syllables.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws.]
[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring in
Arequipa.]
[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y
sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."]
[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day
with the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_),
of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.]
[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, when
Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a
party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limenos,
disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the
town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons
proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went
forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in
the narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards had
advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began
to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose
sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
killed.]
[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of
her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to cover
or conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws her
manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an
eye uncovered.--T.]
[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of
pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.]
[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.]
[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.]
[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup.]
[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots.]
[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being the
diminutive of _Esclava_.]
[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by
W. B. Stevenson.]
[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word
_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. The
Spaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, but
also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:
thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.]
[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limenos when
speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.]
[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more
especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is
used to designate an empty babbler.]
[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably
derived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anything
incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"--and in like manner the
Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."]
[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_
(Compatriot.)]