M'SAMBARA.
_Language._--As known from a vocabulary of Krapf's, closely
akin to the Pocomo, Wakamba, Wanika, and M'Sigua.
This last sentence suggests the nature of our reasons for making
the tribes just enumerated Kaffre. The dialects of five of them are
known by specimens, collected by Krapf, and are very nearly Suaheli.
The evidence of the Kaffre origin of the Tavaiti and Wataita is less
conclusive.
_The M'Kuafi._--Are the M'Kuafi Kaffre? This question will be noticed
in p. 501.
* * * * *
It has been suggested that the import of the peculiarities in the
structure of the Kaffre languages may have been exaggerated; the effect
of such an over-valuation being to isolate the class beyond its proper
limit. The following facts are corrective to this view:--
1. The Woloff language is at least one other African tongue, which
exhibits the phænomenon of an _initial change_, a process allied to the
euphonic concord.
2. The Celtic tongues of Europe do the same.
3. Apparent instances of _prefixed_ syllables, occur in the Howssa,
Yarribean, and probably in other African languages.
Now there are many good reasons for believing that although the effect
of such and such-like processes is to give the languages in which they
occur a very remarkable _external_ appearance--an appearance which, if
we classed tongues and nations on the same principles upon which we
class minerals, _i.e._ irrespective of descent and affiliation, would
throw them into solitary and independent groups--they by no means
denote the necessity of any inordinately long period for the evolution.
All that they _do_ denote is the greater intensity of what may be
called the euphonic instinct, combined with a tendency to incorporate
elements which, elsewhere, would be kept separate.
A doctrine laid down by Mr. Hales in his Philology to the United States
Exploring Expedition, indicating a different classification from the
present, deserves notice.
That inquirer considers that the line of affinity runs west and
east, rather than north and south; so that the Kaffres of Inhambane,
Zanzibar, and Mozambique are more closely allied to those of Loango and
Angola than the Kosas, Bechuanas and Zulus of the Cape. The _published_
evidence of the proposition is certainly insufficient.
FOOTNOTES:
[174] These are not the _real_ Kaffre prefixes, being merely meant for
the sake of illustration, they are arbitrary syllables.
[175] Dr. Adamson's speech, at the Wesleyan Missionary Meeting, in
1846.--_Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vol. i. No. 4.
[176] Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. i. No. 4.
C.
HOTTENTOT ATLANTIDÆ.
The Hottentot stock has a better claim to be considered as forming a
second species of the genus _Homo_ than any other section of mankind.
It can be shown, however, that the language is no more different from
those of the world in general than they are from each other.
THE HOTTENTOT ATLANTIDÆ.
_Area._ The southern extremity of Africa. Encroached upon by
_a._ the Kaffres; _b._ the Dutch and English of the Cape.
_Divisions._ 1. The Hottentots. 2. The Saabs.
_Physical conformation._ Stature, low; limbs, slight; colour,
more brown or yellow than black (that of new-born children said
to be nearly white); cheek-bones, prominent; nasal profile,
depressed; hair, in tufts rather than equally distributed
over the head.--Thus described by Barrow: "It does not cover
the whole surface of the scalp, but grows in small tufts, at
certain distances from each other, and when clipped short, has
the appearance and feel of a hard shoe-brush, except that it
is curled and twisted into small, round lumps, about the size
of a marrow-fat pea. When suffered to grow, it hangs on the
neck in hard, twisted tassels, like a fringe."[177]--Eyes,
oblique; vision, acute; cranium, Mongoliform with wide orbits,
brakhykephalic, nasal profile extremely flat, broad at the
root; and the chin, long, forward, and thin.
Pelvis, with a _maximum_ difference in structure according
as it is male or female; that of the former being strong
and dense, that of the latter, light, and delicate. In
both cases a _minimum_ of diploe between the bony plates;
ossa ilii, vertical; sacrum, narrow; conjugate diameter,
short; neck of the thigh-bone, short, and with an oblique
direction.[178]--_Vrolik._--Oftener wedge-shaped or oblong,
than oval, round, or square.--_Weber._
Buttocks often steatomatous.[179]
_Physical condition of area._--Karroos, _i.e._ elevated
terraces and table-lands, with the soil dry, hard, clayey,
fissured, rarely moistened with rain, and chiefly productive of
the _succulent_ classes of the vegetable kingdom.
_Language._--Containing _two_ inarticulate elements, viz. _h_
(like other tongues), and a peculiar and characteristic _click_.
_Intermixture._--Dutch, the Griquas of the Orange River being a
mixed stock.
_Habits._--Pastoral and hunter state; the latter exhibiting
the lower forms of the type (_i.e._ the Saabs, or Bushmen,
once disconnected from the others, and considered as forming a
separate and more degraded class).
1.
HOTTENTOTS.
The _extinct_ sections of the Hottentot division are:--
1. Gunyeman, nearest the Cape.
2. Kokha_qua_, north of the Gunyeman.
3. Sussa_qua_, Saldanha Bay.
4. Odi_qua_.
5. Khirigri_quas_, on Elephants' River.
6. Koopmans.
7. Hessa_quas_.
8. Son_quas_, east of the Cape.
9. Dun_quas_.
10. Dama_quas_.
11. Guari_quas_.
12. Honteni_quas_.
13. Khantouers.
14. Heykoms, as far on the north-east as Natal. Now
replaced by Amakosah Kaffres.
_Extant._--1. Gona_quas_, south-east, on the Great Fish River. Probably
replaced by Amakosah Kaffres.
2. Kora_quas_ (Kora, Korana), north-east frontier, on the upper part of
the Orange River.--In the more favourable localities the Koraquas are
the tallest and best-looking men of the Hottentot stock. On the other
hand, the Koras of the Hartebeest River, who formerly possessed, but
have since lost their cattle, "exhibit the obvious process by which the
Bushmen race have been originally driven back from the pastoral state,
to that of the huntsman and robber."--_Thompson's Travels in Southern
Africa._--_Prichard_, vol. ii. p. 274.
3. Nama_quas_, separated from the Koranas by the Saabs. Occupants of
the lower part of the Orange River, _i. e._ Little Namaqualand to the
south, and Great Namaqualand to the north of its mouth.
2.
SAABS.
_Locality._--The country between the Roggeveld and the middle
portion of the Orange River; preeminently a _Karroo_.
_Habits._--Hunters.
_Language._--Wholly or nearly unintelligible to the other
Hottentots.
_Area._--Encroached upon the Koranas, who are their deadly
enemies, and continually at war with them.
Are the Dammaras Kaffre or Hottentot? This has already been asked.
On the authority of Mr. Barrow, Prichard corrects Vater and Maltebrun
for making the Dammaras Hottentot instead of Kaffre. The term, however,
is a geographical rather than an ethnological one, comprising the
tribes inhabiting those parts to the north and south of Waalvisch Bay,
which are marked in the maps as _sterile country_, and lying between
Benguela (where the languages belong to the Congo class of the Kaffre
languages), and Namaqualand, where the inhabitants are Hottentots.
Now, geographically speaking, the Dammaras fall into two divisions:
_a_,[180] the Dammaras of the Plains, or cattle Dammaras, and _b_,
the Hill Dammaras. These latter inhabit the parts to the north and
north-east of Namaqualand, and are Namaqua Hottentots. The former only
belong to the Kaffre division, and extend as far north as 17° south
latitude.
Forced downwards by the stronger tribes of the Kaffres, with their
periphery overlaid, the Hottentots probably represent a population
whose original area was extended much more towards the north--possibly
as far as the central range of mountains. Nay, more--fragments of the
stock may still, in central Africa, interrupt the Kaffre area, and form
future discoveries in ethnology.
This possible northward extension of the Hottentot area has a bearing
upon the questions connected with the population of Madagascar.
* * * * *
_Overlaying of the periphery of an ethnological area._--Let two
divisions of a certain class pass into each other by imperceptible
degrees, and let one of the _central_ portions of either class spread
itself at the expense of the parts belonging to its circumference.
The effect which follows is, that those portions of this area,
which represent the phænomena of transition, are overlaid, or
overlapped; and that instead of two populations coming into contact by
imperceptible degrees, they meet as separate classes, with as broad a
line of demarcation between their respective representatives at the
circumferences (peripheries) of their respective areas, as there was
between their central or typical portions.
North-western America illustrates this. The more southern Algonkins
have overlaid both the Algonkins of their own section, which approached
the Eskimo, and the Eskimo of the opposite section, which approached
the Algonkin. Hence the two populations meet as widely-separated, and
broadly distinguished varieties of mankind.
FOOTNOTES:
[177] Prichard, vol. ii. p. 278.
[178] Ibid. p. 332.
[179] Aliquando, apud hanc nationem, nympharum protuberantia
enormis--minime vero apud onmes--occurrit.
[180] Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. i. No. 4.
D.
NILOTIC ATLANTIDÆ.
This is a far less simple group than the last, and one which may,
probably, require the value of some of its divisions to be raised.
Besides which, it probably comprizes, if classed according to the
strict rules of ethnology, the _eastern Negroes_ of our first division.
Again, it passes into the Kaffre, Coptic, and Semitic groups by
imperceptible gradations. At the same time, as far as it goes, it is
ethnological, _i.e._ it embraces populations actually affiliated to
each other rather than populations exhibiting the common effects of
common social or climatological conditions.
NILOTIC NATIONS AND TRIBES.
_Physical conformation._--Modified Negro, in certain cases
approaching the Arab conformation.
_Area._--The water system of the Upper and Middle Nile.
_Chief divisions._--1. Gallas. 2. Agows. 3. Nubians. 4.
Bisharis(?).
As it is the southern portion of the Nilotic area, which is
conterminous with the northern Kaffre, the southern populations will be
noticed first.
THE GALLAS.
_Area._--Preeminently encroaching. From 4° to (there or
thereabouts) 16° north latitude. Irregular.
_Chief divisions._--1. Galla Proper, or Ilmorma--south and east
of Abyssinia.
2. Somauli--The parts between the Sea of Bab-el-Mandeb, the
Indian Ocean, and (there or thereabouts) 45° east latitude.
3. The Danakil, or Afer--The coast of the Red Sea from Adel to
Suakin.
_Religion._--Paganism, Mahometanism. According to Dr. Beke,
fragmentary Christianity among the Gallas.
_Habits._--Chiefly pastoral. Partially mercantile.
_Physical appearance._--Colour varying from a deep black to
a brownish-yellow. Stature, tall; bodies, spare, wiry, and
muscular; frontal profile vaulted; nose, often straight or even
arched; lips, moderate; hair, often hanging over the neck in
long twisted plaits.
It is the wilder tribes of the Ilmorma Gallas that have broken up the
kingdom, and disturbed the ethnology of Abyssinia, both in respect to
its Semitic populations, and the earlier and more aboriginal--
AGOWS.
_Divisions and localities._--1. Agows of Damot.
2. Agows of Lasta; Troglodyte Pagans.
3. Falasha--_a._ Lowlanders of Dembea. _b._ Highlanders of
Samien. _c._ Christianized Falashas (Kimmont) of the hill
country, north-east of Gondar.--_Bruce from Prichard_, vol. ii.
p. 135.
The fact that both the Galla and Agow languages pass through the
Amharic into the more typical Semitic tongues, and that the former
(over and above many undeniable points of affinity with the Coptic)
is quite as _sub_-Semitic as the Berber, is one of the many phænomena
which break down the broad line of demarcation that is so often drawn
between the Semitic and the African nations.
Again, the extent to which the Falashas exhibit a variety of customs
common to themselves and the Jews has long been recognized. It by no
means, however, follows that they are a result of Jewish influence. The
criticism that applied to the Ghás applies here. Many of the so-called
Jewish peculiarities are African as well--irrespective of intercourse,
and independent of imitation.
THE NUBIANS.
_Locality._--Valley of the Nile, Nubia, and Dongola.
_Dialects._--_a._ North Nubian, or Kensi. _b._ Middle Nubian,
or Nub. _c._ Dongolawi of Dongola.
_Synonym._--Barabbra, or Berber.
_Antiquities._--Monuments of _a._ an Ægyptian, in the Lower,
_b._ an Æthiopian type in the Upper Nubia.
_Political relations._--Subject to Ægypt.
_Intermixture._--Arab. Negro from slaves.
_Religion._--Paganism and Mahometanism.
_Habits._--Agricultural and trading.
_Physical appearance._--Eyes, deep set and sparkling; nose,
pointed; nostrils, large; mouth, wide; lips, moderate;
hair and beard, thin; body, slender; _colour, shining jet
black_.--_Denon._[181]
Hair, long, slightly crisp, not woolly. _Colour, intermediate
between the ebon-black of Sennaar Negroes, and the brown of
Ægyptians._[181]--_Costaz._
_Extract from Rüppell[181] as to the Dongolawi._--"An
attentive inquiry will enable us to distinguish amongst the
old national physiognomies, which their forefathers have
marked upon colossal statues, and the bas-reliefs of temples
and sepulchres, a long oval countenance, beautifully-curved
nose, somewhat rounded towards the top, proportionately thick
lips, but not protruding excessively, a retreating chin, scanty
beard, lively eyes, strongly frizzled but never woolly hair,
and remarkably beautiful figure, generally of middle size,
and a bronze colour, as the characteristics of the genuine
Dongolawi."
_Descent._--From the ancient Nobatæ.
The relation between the Nubian of Nubia, and the Koldagi language
of Kordofan, was first indicated by Rüppell, and has been generally
admitted.
On the other hand, the relations of the Koldagi not only to the Furians
of Darfúr, but to the more truly Negro Shilluks, &c., are equally
manifest.
From the Ægyptian, therefore, to the Eastern Negro, the transition is
through the Nubian.
BISHARI (BEJAS).
_Area._--The high country, and table-land between the Nile and
the Red Sea.
_Divisions._--1. Northern Bishari or Ababde, from the latitude
of Kosseir, north; to Deir, south.
2. Southern Bishari (=the Hadendoa, Hammadab, and other tribes)
from the Danakil, Æthiopic and portions of the Shankala area to
the Ababdes.
_Language._--With definite affinities with both the Nubian and
Coptic.
_Descent._--Probably from the ancient Blemmyes.
_Physical appearance._--Nearly that of Nubians.
_Habits._--Pastoral and wandering.
What are the M'Kuafi? This was asked in p. 493. The M'Kuafi west of
Mombaz, are conterminous with the Southern Gallas, and with the Kaffre
Wanika, &c.
From these last, however, the only known vocabulary of their language
disconnects them.
Hence they are at present unplaced; since they may be Kaffre,
Gallas, Gongas, or, finally, the representatives of a separate class
altogether. The only description is the following one of Pickering's:--
"The information respecting them was derived from young persons seen
at Zanzibar, where, according to the Arabs, slaves of this class were
formerly cheap, and much esteemed, but now bring high prices.
"A M'Kuafi girl stated, that she had been captured by the Mussai;
who killed her father and mother, and who sold her to the Chaga. She
was twenty-five days in reaching the coast. Formerly, her nation was
powerful above others, so that one woman with a stick would stop a
thousand persons from passing through the country unless a present was
first made; but her people are broken, and at present they would not
fight the M'Sigua.
"Her people do not cultivate the ground, and they eat only milk and
meat. Children, when hungry, help themselves by direct application
to the cow. Cattle are killed by piercing the spine; numbers of them
every day, until each family is supplied. The M'Kuafi have not fixed
meal times, but they eat whenever they feel inclined, inviting their
neighbours of the same village to partake with them. Each family has
its own cattle, which all go to pasture together, and outside the town
is a place to receive them at night. The men marry as many women as
they please; and each wife has a separate house. These habitations
are tents of bullock-skin, supported by poles set around. The men
decorate themselves with large beads, and their dress is made of
skin, and consists of a painted cincture full of openings and hanging
strips, and of a long cloak worn over one shoulder. Cloth, however,
now is brought by traders. The women, by way of ornament, coil brass
wire about the arm as far as the elbow. The beads and brass wire are
procured at Pemba, by selling ivory, obtained from elephants, some of
which are found dead, while others are purposely killed.
"The M'Kuafi do not bury, but they put their dead in the bush, for
the wild beasts to eat. The friends afterwards cry from ten to twenty
days, and then kill three bullocks and make a feast. The M'Kuafi have
neither prayers nor religion, but they eat and sleep. The name of their
deity is Angayai; and on some big days they take feathers and dance.
They have cows, goats, donkeys, sheep, and dogs; but neither cats, nor
horses. They take off the fleece of the sheep, and spin yarn, with
which they sew the skins together. They have gourd shells for holding
water, which are bought of the Chaga. They go out to fight with the
Mussai, frequently, sometimes every day; and they take cattle; they
fight, also, with the Wampugo, and the Wataita, but not with the Chaga.
The country of the M'Kuafi, consists of mountains and plains, and
produces some trees which supply tent-poles, but there are no fruits.
Persons while sleeping, are sometimes eaten by leopards.
"On another occasion, the same girl brought two of her companions, and
they sang together some simple and plaintive airs, such as are used
'in getting children to sleep.' Their dancing was not graceful, but
was somewhat violent and not altogether decent. Their language was
soft, and I heard terminal vowels only, the two syllables 'goonga,'
frequently recurring. I read to them some translations in the Galla;
but this proved to be a different language, and they did not recognise
a word. On being questioned on the subject, the first girl said, 'she
did not wish to return home, for her relations were all dead;' and some
tears followed the allusion to the subject. Beads being offered, she
preferred the red to the blue, according to the general taste in this
part of Africa. Of the other girls, one came from Kaputa, and the third
from Aseta.
"A fourth girl, whom I interrogated, was too young to give much
information, and she, besides, had not yet learned the Soahili
language. It appeared that she 'had been stolen by some Chaga;' that
she came from the vicinity of the Kilmungaro mountain (which is visible
from the sea), and that she understood the language of the other girls
when they were brought together.
"A highly intelligent lad, who had the lobe of one ear perforated,
stated, that the size of this opening, among the M'Kuafi, 'indicates
the rank of the individual, the king having one of very remarkable
dimensions.' With regard to his own history he stated, that, 'on the
occasion of an attack by some foreign tribe,' he, with other children,
hid themselves; but the circumstance had been observed at some distance
by some Wampugo, who came to the spot and carried them away. The towns
of the M'Kuafi are not fixed; but when the grass fails, a new one is
made in another place. The M'Kuafi ride donkeys; they eat beef and
sheep, and drink water and milk. It is customary, when a man kills a
bullock, to send a piece to the king, to give another on account of
circumcision, and then to call his friends to eat the remainder. There
are camelopards in the country; and poor people, who have no bullocks,
kill them for food, taking them in pitfalls, or sometimes with poison.
"The mode of circumcising differs from that prevailing among the
Moslim. The government likewise differs; and if one man kills another,
the price of blood is from ten to twenty bullocks.
"The M'Kuafi put on a cap of ostrich feathers when they go out to
fight. On a former occasion they beat the M'Sigua, taking all the
cattle, which they sold at Zanzibar. They fight with the Wakamba
towards sunrise; and they are so warlike that they would fight even
with their nearest relations. They sometimes go to the Monomoisy
country to fight and take property; but not into the country of the
Chaga, with whom they do not fight, unless meeting by accident. They
fight, however, with the Lupalaconga, who live on a mountain, and
speak the same language with the Chaga; and who, according to his
description, must be a Negro tribe.
"His people once went towards sunrise to fight with the Sikir-washi,
who are the nation called Galla at Zanzibar. They saw a large river
which 'came dry,' and men carrying large spears, who spoke a different
language from their own. They took all the cattle and donkeys, and the
fat-tailed sheep; but they disdained taking the horses, an animal they
had never before seen. The king of the Sikir-washi wears a large beard,
while the rest of the people shave: using for the purpose a sort of
small iron chisel; and these practices prevail equally with the M'Kuafi.
"When the lad was asked about the Mussai, he rejoined with some
emotion,--'They who break my country: he knew them well; they dwell
farther inland than the M'Kuafi.'
"He did not know how old he was, and asked, 'if any one could tell
him.' His people have no prayers: he could not speak lies. He did not
wish to return to his native-country--he had got no bullocks; he was
now a slave: no matter, he should soon die. He did not know where he
should go to after death. He had heard that God had made him, that was
all."
MUSSAI(?).
_Locality._--West of the M'Kuafi; to which tribes they are
allied. Probably M'Kuafi.
CHAGA(?).
_Locality._--South-west of the Wanika, on the upper part of the
Pungany River.
_Habits._--Circumcision. Probably M'Kuafi.
WAMPAGO(?).
_Locality._--On the Ruvu, a feeder of the Pungany, within half
a day's journey of the M'Kuafi country. Probably M'Kuafi.
M'KINDO(?).
_Locality._--Two days west of Quiloa. Probably M'Kuafi,
M'HIAO.
_Locality._--Uncertain. Most likely to the west of the M'Kindo.
Probably M'Kuafi.
The M'Hiao markings "vary in different individuals, but often consist
of raised sears or welts crossing each other, like stars. Many of the
females have the upper lip perforated."--_Pickering._
FOOTNOTES:
[181] Prichard, vol. ii. p. 174.
E.
THE AMAZIRGH ATLANTIDÆ.
The Amazirgh, a native name of one of the Cabyle tribes of Algiers, is
here used in a general sense, instead of the more usual term _Berber_;
a term which is nowhere recognized by any Amazirgh population, and
which, under a modified form, _is_ recognized by portions of the
_non_-Amazirgh Nubians.
AMAZIRGH NATIONS AND TRIBES.
_Physical conformation._--Sometimes a modification of the
Negro, sometimes of the Arab type.
_Languages._--With a vocabulary generally considered to be
peculiar, but with a grammatical structure considered to be (if
not absolutely Semitic) _sub_-Semitic.
_Distribution._--Speaking roughly, the whole north-western
quarter of Africa _plus_ a narrow strip along the Mediterranean
from about 15° east latitude to the confines of Ægypt.
_Descent._--From the ancient Gætulians, Numidians,
Mauritanians, and Cyrenæans.
_Area._--Encroached upon along the coast of the Mediterranean--
1. _In ancient times by_--_a._ Phœnicians. _b._ Greeks. _c._
Romans.
2. _In modern times by_--Mahometan Arabs.
_Physical conditions._--Occupants of--_a._ The mountain range
of Atlas. _b._ The Sahara. _c._ The Canary Isles.
_Chief Divisions._--1. Siwans, of the Oasis of Siwah, the
ancient Ammonium. 2. Cabyles, of the range of Atlas. 3.
Tuaricks, of the Sahara. 4. Guauches, of the Canary Islands.
These last either extinct or incorporated.
_Dialects as known from specimens._--1. Of Siwah. 2. Augila. 3.
Fezzan. 4. Ghadamis. 5. Algeria (numerous). 6. Morocco. 7. The
Sahara. 8. The Canaries.
_Alphabets._--1. Arabic. 2. Tuarick.
_Antiquities._--The Bilingual inscription, Carthaginian and
Berber(?) of Dugga, known as the Inscriptio Tuggensis.
The aboriginal character of the Amazirgh tribes, taken with the
likelihood of their representing the tributaries of Carthage, and
the subjects of Masinissa, Syphax, Juba, Jugurtha, and Bocchus, has
commanded the attention of scholars, and has led to important results.
That its grammatical structure is Semitic (or at least _sub_-Semitic)
has been shown by Mr. F. Newman, who has also shown that the Haussa
has Amazirgh elements. The fact, however, of its vocabulary having
fewer Semitic forms than its grammar has complicated the philology.
Nevertheless it _does_ contain numerous Semitic words; whilst its
isolation from the other tongues of Africa has been most gratuitous.
So far from such being the case, it supplies a long list of words with
miscellaneous affinities.[182]
With the Guanches of the Canaries we find the Ægyptian habit of
desiccating the bodies of the dead into mummies.
With the Tuaricks of Wadreag, Mr. Hodgson found hair so crisp and skin
so black, as to look like Negroes. There was, however, no suspicion of
Negro intermixture.
On the other band, so light-complexioned are the Amazirghs of the
ancient Mons Aurasius, that the hypothesis of an intermixture of
Vandalic blood from the subjects of Genseric has been entertained.
FOOTNOTES:
[182] Some of these have been collected by the present writer. See
Classical Museum, vol. i.
F.
ÆGYPTIAN ATLANTIDÆ.
By Ægyptian Atlantidæ are meant the _Old_ Ægyptians; the subjects of
the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies; and the modern Copts so far as they
are (what is rarely the case) of unmixed blood; the present dominant
population of Ægypt being Arab.
COPTS.
_Area._--The valley and delta of the Nile, from Essouan to the
Mediterranean.
_Physical conformation._--A. _Of the Old Ægyptians preserved as
mummies._--Hair, fine, and either waved or curly; skull, with
an upright frontal, and a moderately depressed nasal profile;
maxillary profile, moderately prognathic; teeth, much worn;
colour, undetermined. According to the testimony of ancient
writers and paintings, darker than that of the Greek, lighter
than that of the Nubian. Perhaps brown, with tinges of yellow
and red.
B. _Of the Modern Copts._--Hair, black and crisp, or curled;
cheek-bones, projecting; lips, thick; nose, somewhat depressed;
nostrils, wide; complexion, varied, from a yellowish to a dark
brown; eyes, oblique; frame, tall and fleshy; physiognomy,
heavy and inexpressive.
_Religion of the Modern Copts._--Christianity.
_Pantheon of the Ancient Ægyptians._--Osiris, Isis, Anubis,
Horus, Typhon, Phtha, Neith, &c.
_Language._--Coptic in three dialects. 1. The Memphitic, 2.
Sahitic. 3. Bashmuric.
_Alphabets._--1. Hieroglyphic, of unknown, 2. Coptic, of Greek
origin.
The researches of Benfey and others, have shown the extent to which the
Ægyptian language, those of Morton (in the Crania Ægyptiaca) the extent
to which the Ægyptian osteology is Semitic; indeed this side of the
question has gained quite as much admission as the evidence justifies.
The determination of what may be called the other aspect of the
Ægyptian language has been attempted with less success.
Klaproth compared it with the Caucasian languages: the evidence of
Herodotus as to the Ægyptian origin of the Colchians indicating this
relation.
The Chevalier Bunsen has connected it with the Indo-European; the early
development of Ægyptian civilization dicating this.
The real affinities are those which its geographical situation
indicates, _viz._ with the Berber, Nubian, and Galla tongues, and
through them with the African languages altogether,[183] Negro and
non-Negro.
FOOTNOTES:
[183] A short list of the words common to the Coptic and the African
tongues at large, may be found in the author's Report on Ethnographical
Philology.--_Transactions of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science_, 1847, p. 223.
G.
SEMITIC ATLANTIDÆ.
No error is greater than to imagine that connection with the Semitic is
synonymous with separation from the African stock, a remark which leads
us from the Copts to--
THE SEMITIC TRIBES AND NATIONS.
_Area._--Abyssinia, Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia,
parts of Kurdistan.
_Physical conformation._--Light-complexioned Atlantidæ, with
dolikhokephalic capacious crania, straight or prominent nasal
and orthognathic maxillary profiles. Referable to three types.
1. The Arab. 2. The Jew. 3. The Kaldani.
_Influence on the History of the World._--Preeminently
moral--spiritually as well as intellectually. In the case of
the Arabs, material as well.
_Religion._--Preeminently monotheistic for the later part of
their history. For the earlier part, Paganism.
_Social and civilizational development._--Early, influential,
and probably as much self-developed as that of either the
Ægyptians or the Hellenic Iapetidæ.
_Alphabet._--With the exception of the Æthiopic, written from
right to left. The earliest in the world.
_Divisions._--More or less artificial.--Syrians, Assyrians,
Babylonians, Phœnicians, Beni Terah, Arabs, Æthiopians,
Solymi(?), Cappadocians(?), Elamites(?), Cyprians(?),
Philistines(?), Canaanites(?).
SYRIANS.
_Area._--Syria, Cœlosyria, part of Mesopotamia, the northern
and eastern frontier being undetermined.
_Divisions._--1. Syrians of Syria, either extinct or
incorporate.
2. Syrians of Mesopotamia, ditto.
3. Syrians of Kurdistan or Kaldani.
_Physical appearance of the Kaldani._--Mountaineers, with fair
complexions, grey eyes, and reddish beard.
_Religion of_--_a._ The ancient Syrians, chiefly Nestorian
Christianity. _b._ Of the Kaldani, the same.
_Pantheon of the Pagan Syrians._--Thammuz, Rimmon, &c.
_Languages._--1. Syriac of Syria. 2. Chaldee of Mesopotamia. 3.
Kaldani of Kurdistan.
The Syrian influence as an element of civilization has, probably, been
undervalued. It was through the Syriac that two contiguous nations
received much of their knowledge of what was to be learned from
Greece, the Armenian and the Arabian; the latter, whose civilizational
influence has been proportionately over-rated, being in many cases
translators of Syriac translations rather than students of the original
Greek.
More important still was the propagandism of the Nestorian Christians
in the direction of Central and Eastern Asia. Without hazarding an
opinion as to the extent to which their teaching may be the real
epoch of the civilization of the Chinese, the fact of the Uzbek Turk
alphabet, itself the prototype of the Manchu, being Syrian, is a
pregnant one. The alphabet of Palmyra is the alphabet of the wall of
China.
ASSYRIANS.
_Area._--Assyria, east of the Tigris.
_Language._--Known to be Semitic from the remains of it in the
Arrow-headed inscriptions of Nimrúd, Khorsabad, &c., deciphered
by Major Rawlinson.
_Original Pagan Pantheon._--Nisroc (Assarac), Belti, Bar, Ani,
Dagon, Bel, Nebo, &c.
BABYLONIANS.
So far as they were Semitic what applies to the Assyrians applies to
the Babylonians also; the differences between them being matters of
history and archæology rather than strict ethnology.
Among the first if not first builders of cities, among the first if
not the first organizers of empires, the inhabitants of both the Lower
Tigris and the Lower Euphrates, were one of the earliest influences
in civilization, much in the way of Art; more, however, in the way of
politics and commerce than either intellectually or morally. It is
not, however, for the sake of enlarging upon these points that the
notice of the Babylonians detains us.
Gesenius has given reasons for considering the Chaldees to have been
other than a _Semitic_ population: thus either disconnecting the
Babylonians from them, or else both from the Phœnicians and Hebrews.
Without giving an opinion on the fact, I satisfy myself with indicating
its bearings.
The Chaldees (Khasdim), if not Semitic, were either Persian Kurds
or Armenians, from the highlands of the Upper Tigris; and if so,
their language was Iranian, their religion Fire-worship, and their
affiliation with the Iapetidæ.
As far as we may venture to distribute the outward exponents of
civilizational development amongst the Semitic nations, the first
application of weights and measures seems to have been Babylonian, just
as the paramount achievement of alphabetic writing is apparently the
work of the--
PHŒNICIANS.
_Divisions._--_a._ Of Phœnicia (Tyre and Sidon). _b._ Africa
(Carthaginian), _c._ Spain.
_Language._--Closely akin to both the Syriac and the Hebrew.
Known only from inscriptions, and two scenes in the Pœnulus of
Plautus.
BENI TERAH (SONS OF TERAH).
I can think of no better collective name for that portion of the
Semitic nations which comprises not only the Jews, but those other
tribes which, allied in blood, though separated by belief, are
necessary to be noticed in order to give the more important Hebrew
nation its due position, than the one at the head of this section;
Terah, the father of Abraham, being the _eponymus_.
AMMONITES (BENI AMMON).
_Habits._--Agricultural.
_Locality._--East of the Israelites, on the north. Conterminous
with, and closely allied to--
THE MOABITES (BENI MOAB).
_Habits._---Pastoral.
_Locality._--East of the Israelites on the south.
_Chief deity._--Chemosh.
The Moabites and Ammonites were, probably, transitional between the
Hebrews and the Syrians; the next families being transitional between
the Hebrews and the Arabs.
ISHMAELITES (BENI ISHMAEL.)
_Locality._--Probably migratory tribes on the frontier of the
Desert.
EDOMITES.
_Area._--From the Dead to the Red Sea.
_Habits._--Partly pastoral, partly commercial and industrial.
BENI ISRAEL (HEBREWS, THE TWELVE TRIBES).
_Area._--Palestine.
_Divisions._--1. Samaritans (The Ten Tribes). 2. Jews (the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin).
SAMARITANS.
_Divisions._--1. Samaritans Proper. 2. Galileans.
_Canonical books._--The Pentateuch.
_Alphabet._--A nearer approach to the Phœnician than the
Jewish, and probably an older form.
_Æra._--National existence terminated A.D. 721. Since then
either extinct or incorporated. Equivocal remains in the
neighbourhood of Nablous.
JEWS.
_Æra._--National existence terminated, A.D. 89. Since then
dispersed, but not incorporated.
_Physical Conformation._--Differing from that of the Arab in
_a._ greater massiveness of frame; _b._ thicker lips; _c._ nose
more frequently aquiline; _d._ cranium of greater capacity.
_Intellectual culture._--Preeminently early, and preeminently
continuous, _i.e._ from the time of the Prophets to that of the
Rabbinical writers of the Middle Ages, and from these to the
present moment; in the latter case the medium generally being
languages other than the Hebrew, _i.e._ those of the respective
countries of the different writers.
_Moral influence._--1. As manifested by Jewish writers of
modern Europe, identified with that of the literature of the
particular country which produced it.
2. As manifested by the Rabbinical writers anterior to the
revival of literature, and subsequent to the dispersion,
limited, or nearly limited, to the Semitic nations.
3. As manifested in the evolution of monotheistic creeds
co-extensive with _a._ Judaism Proper. _b._ Christianity. _c._
Mahometanism.
ARABS.
_Physical conformation._--Face, oval; forehead, vaulted;
nose, straight or aquiline; lips, thin, even when thick not
projecting; hair, wavy or curled; complexion, various shades of
brown; limbs, spare.
With the Arab of Africa, the colour is sometimes nearly black,
the frame more massive, and limbs more fleshy than in the
Peninsula.
_Religion._--Originally Sabæanism; since the Hejirah,
Mahometanism.
_Alphabets._--1. That of the Koran, based on the Cufic forms of
the Syriac 2. That of the Himyarite inscriptions, akin to the
Æthiopic.
_Languages._--1. Arabic Proper.--A. Ancient--of the Koran. B.
Modern--of _a._ The greater part of the Arabian peninsula. _b._
Syria. _c._ Ægypt. _d._ Western Africa.
2. Himyaritic Arab.--_a._ Ancient--of the Himyaritic
Inscriptions. _b._ Modern=the Ekhili.
_Intellectual culture._--Later in origin than that of either
the Jews or Syrians. Less continuous than that of the former.
_Moral influence._--1. As manifested by the non-religious
portion of the Arabic literature, considerable in amount and
diffused in area.
2. As manifested in the propagation of a creed, co-extensive
with Mahometanism--the religion of many sections of the
Mongolidæ and Atlantidæ, but of none of the Iapetidæ.
The remarks upon the extent to which Syria has been one of the
intellectual influences of the world, anticipated the notice that would
otherwise have been required for Arabia.
The love of learning which appreciated, and the zeal which diffused
the valuable sections of Greek science and philosophy have taken the
garb of the power of originating; the extent to which this latter was
the case, even in the departments most generally admitted to have been
developed by Arabian cultivation, being by no means ascertained.
In the way of minute ethnology, the spread of the Arabs has engendered
numerous complications; though the facts of a nation speaking the
Arabic language, and exhibiting an Arabic physiognomy are _primâ
facie_ evidence of Arab extraction, they are anything but conclusive.
Thus, the extent to which the old Ægyptian stock may still survive
in Ægypt has been indicated in the notice of the Copts, although
the Coptic language has ceased to be spoken. Here, however, as the
physical appearance bore a marked difference, the recognition of a Copt
population was safe.
Perhaps the same might have been done in Syria, where there is special
testimony to the two separate ranges of Lebanon and the Amanus
retaining remnants of the original Syrian. I do not, however, know
the evidence on which the statements rest; indeed, in order to be
conclusive, it would require to be of a very peculiar kind.
_Physical form_ would not be likely to supply any evidence at all,
since no one can say how an Arab naturalized in Syria would differ from
an absolute Syrian.
_Language_, too, if only used as the language of religion, would be
inconclusive; since the Syriac being the tongue of the Nestorian
Christians, might be retained by even an Arab population, if previously
Christianized.
Again, the same intermixture which a certain amount of the Arab
stock has undergone in combining with Coptic, Syriac, and other
imperfectly-incorporated populations, occurs in the history of the
primitive, ante-Mahometan religion of Arabia. Without, at present,
being enabled to separate the Mahometan, Christian, and other elements
from the anomalous creeds of the Yezids, as described by Layard; of
the Mendajaha, of Chesney; and, perhaps, of the Druses, as well, it is
nearly certain that Sabæanism is the oldest element in them all. The
ground, however, here is full of ethnological problems.
The immigrant Arabs of Africa may be viewed under four aspects:--
1. _In respect to their geographical distribution._--_a._ Of Ægypt.
_b._ Nubia. _c._ Dongola. _d._ Mauritania. _e._ The Northern and Middle
Sahara. _f._ The Southern Sahara.
2. _In respect to their origin._--_a._ Arabs direct from Arabia. _b._
Arabs from tribes already occupants of Africa.
3. _In respect to their habits._--_a._ Beduins, or wandering, pastoral,
or predatory Arabs. _b._ Settled agricultural Arabs.
4. _In respect to the purity or intermixture of blood._--From what I
collect from Prichard, purity of blood is the rule rather than the
exception; the chief Africans by which it is crossed being those of the
Tuarick division of the Amazirgh. The Southern Sahara, to the north of
the Niger and the Sahara, and the ethnological frontier of the Woloff,
Mandingo, Fulah, Sungai, and Howssa Negroes form the great area of the
Arab and Tuarick intermixture.
ÆTHIOPIANS.
_Area._--Abyssinia.
_Physical condition of area._--An elevated table-land, or
system of terraces--disconnected from the other portions of the
Semitic area by the Red Sea (geographically), and by the Nubian
and Ægyptian areas (ethnologically).
_Division, Languages, and Religion._--1. Tigré, of the province
of Tigré, speaking a language generally admitted to be derived
from the Gheez or ancient Æthiopic. Christians.
2. Amharic Æthiopians of South-western Abyssinia, speaking
a language not generally admitted to be derived from the
Gheez, but still so like the Tigré as most probably to be so
descended. Christians.
3. The Gafat Æthiopians, Pagans, nearly displaced by the
Gallas, but whose language is considered to be allied to the
Amharic.
_Alphabet of the Christian Æthiopians._--Written from left to
right, not (like the Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic) from right
to left. Closely allied to the Himyaritic Arabian of the
inscriptions.
_Antiquities._--Chiefly of the ancient Gheez capital, Axum.
The ethnology of the Semitic Abyssinians has the following
complications.
1. The Gheez language is too closely allied to the Arabic and Hebrew
to lead to the belief that it is aboriginal, _i. e_. other than of
comparatively recent introduction.
2. The Amharic, on the other hand, and, _à fortiori_, the Gafat, have
too many African elements to lead to the belief that the _first_
Semitic immigration was that which introduced the Tigré.
The hypothesis, which would reconcile these discrepancies, would be--
That the Gafat represented a _primary_, the Tigré a _secondary_
migration; and this is much the same view which was taken concerning
the relations between the island of Sumatra and the Peninsula of
Malacca. It is also one which arises from the circumstance of the
Isthmus of Suez being only one of the passages from Asia to Africa--the
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb being the second.
Hence, the present classification is provisional, since if we admit
the Gafat to be primarily Semitic, the Tigré to represent a secondary
influx of population, and the Amharic to be fundamentally the same as
the Gafat, only containing a greater admixture of the Gheez, we have a
class into which other sections of the Abyssinian populations should
be admitted; _e.g._ the Agows, truly considered by Dr. Beke to be the
aborigines of Æthiopic Africa.
In order to exhibit in full the elements of the ethnology of the
Semitic class, notice must be taken of--
1. _The Hittites, Hivites_, &c.--The earlier inhabitants of Palestine,
Canaanitish idolaters, geographically, but not genealogically, Semitic.
2. _The Philistines._--Uncircumcised idolaters, of which a portion
remained unconquered at and beyond the date of the Jewish Captivity.
Language, probably unintelligible to the Hebrews; on the other hand,
they seem to have been closely related to the Phœnicians--facts not
easily reconciled.
3. _Solymi._--Cilicians. The question involved in the Semitic character
of the Solymi, is the difficult question as to the _north-western_
frontier of the Semitic area.
4. _Elamites._--These have the same import with the Solymi, _mutatis
mutandis_, _i.e._ in the consideration of the _south-eastern_ Semitic
frontier.
5. _Cyprians._--Almost certainly Semitic; probably Phœnician.
6. _Cappadocians._--Stated by Strabo to have been _white Syrians_.
Throughout the whole of the present volume the complex question of
_descent_, or the relation between the people of antiquity and the
modern populations of the same area is only _indicated_. Truly a part
of ethnology, it is the one most liable to extreme differences of
opinion, as well as the one which involves the most subtle and minute
criticism.
* * * * *
THE MALAGASI.
_Locality._--Madagascar.
_Physical Conformation._--Generally speaking, African rather
than Amphinesian; in some cases Amphinesian rather than African.
_Language._--Amphinesian rather than African.
_Religion._--Feticism.
_Name of one of the Malagasi Deities._--Vintana. Compare this
with the Australian _Wandong_.
The Malagasi have already been enumerated amongst the Oceanic
Mongolidæ. Why were they, then, only mentioned by name, and why do they
now find a place at the end of the Atlantidæ? The reason lies in the
antagonism between the evidence of their language and the evidence of
their physical conformation; the first pointing exclusively towards
Malacca, the latter partly towards Malacca and partly towards the
opposite coast of Africa. The phænomenon of intermixture is, in this
ease, so likely, that the doctrine that the Malagasi are Africans
speaking a Malay language, or, at least, that there is a strong
African intermixture, almost forces itself upon the investigator.
There is nothing, however, in what has hitherto been noticed
which induces me to admit any African element at all; since after
considerable reflection and hesitation I have come to the conclusion
that the differences in physical form, as described by many excellent
observers, are not greater than those which occur within the pale of
the Amphinesian populations themselves.
On the other hand it is difficult to imagine that the first human pair
who set foot in Madagascar, were from beyond India rather than from
the coasts of Mozambique, or Zanzibar. To which must be added the
tradition--perhaps we may say the existence--of the _Vazimbers_.
Drury writes that in his time the interior of the island was inhabited
by undersized Negroes, called _Verzimbers_.
Of these--as living occupants--no trace now remains. Instead thereof,
the Hovas of the Vazimber localities pay a superstitious reverence to
certain upright stones, the _graves of the Vazimbers_.
This, in my mind, points towards Africa as the birth place of the
Madagascar aborigines; and considering the degree to which the extent
of their extermination is evidence of physical inferiority, combined
with what has been said concerning the original northward extension
of the Hottentots, it is, on the whole, more probable that such
aborigines--provided they really existed at all--were of the stock
of the Koranas, or Gonaquas, rather than of the Koosas or Bechuanas,
_i.e._ Hottentot rather than Kaffre.
* * * * *
Are all the alphabets, that have ever been used, referable to one
single prototype, as their ultimate original, or has the process of
analysing a language into its elementary articulations, and expressing
these by symbols, been gone through more than once? The answer to this
is, partially a measure of the intellectual influence of the Semitic
nations. Great would be that influence, even if only the Greeks and
Romans had adopted the alphabet of the Phœnicians. How much greater if
the world at large had done so.
The doctrine of a single prototype is the most probable. For the
present alphabets of Europe the investigation is plain enough--indeed
they are all so undeniably of either Greek or Roman origin, that doubt
upon the matter is out of the question.
For others, however, the affiliation is less clear; and lest the extent
to which many of them differ from each other, as well as from their
assumed original, be over-valued, the following principles of criticism
are suggested.
1. That considering the undeniable differences in form, order, number,
and direction of writing between alphabets so undeniably connected as
(say) the Hebrew, and (say) the English, no objections to the doctrine
of a common origin is to be taken from mere points of dissimilarity in
any of the above-named characters.
2. That, considering the probability that such alphabets as the
Hieroglyphic and Arrow-headed are just as likely to be artificial
derivations from some simpler ones--either in way of cypher alphabets,
or in way that the illuminated letters of the Middle Ages differ from
common manuscript--no arguments in favour of their antiquity are to be
drawn from their undoubted peculiarity of structure.
3. That an alphabet, however much it may differ from others in the
arrangement of the lines and points which form its letters, is not
to be considered original if it has been framed within the literary
period, and with a knowledge of previous ones--the idea of the
analysis of a sentence into words, and of words into elementary
articulations, being the really great achievement in the invention of
an alphabet, and this, in such cases, not being original.
4. That the question of the affiliation or originality of alphabets be
considered not only with a view to the particular alphabet, but with
a due recognition of the fact that, taking the world at large, the
derivation of one alphabet from another, rather than the repetition
of the very remarkable process of the analysis of words, and the
symbolization of their articulate elements, is the _rule_, and that the
_apparent_ instances of the reverse are the exceptions.
With these, as preliminaries, we may enumerate the alphabets which most
put on the garb of original inventions, and most appear to invalidate
the doctrine that _alphabetic writing was but once, and once for all,
invented_.
1. 2. _The hieroglyphic and arrow-headed[184] modes of
writing_--Subject to Rule 2.
[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
3. _The Runes of the Gothic nations._--Deficient in proof of antiquity,
not remarkably unlike the older Greek characters, and not originating
in either an age or country where alphabets that might serve as models
were inaccessible.
[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
4. _The Irish Ogham._--Shown to be of a very limited antiquity--_See
two papers of Professor C. Graves on the subject._
5. 6. _Georgian and Armenian._--Not generally considered to be
derivations from the Syriac, only from the differences of their
characters; a ground of separation subject to the application of Rule 1.
7. _The alphabets of Southern India._--Subject to Rule 1;
8. _The alphabets of Northern India._--Subject to Rule 1; except so far
as they rest upon the two following assumptions:--1st, That portions of
the Hindu literature (the Vedas) are of an antiquity so remote as to be
previous to either the invention or the diffusion of the first Semitic
alphabet. 2d, That an Indian alphabet of equal antiquity, was necessary
to embody them.
Admitting the latter of these two assumptions, I agree with those who
doubt the first; and so far from inferring the existence of an ancient
alphabet from the Vedaic writings, am inclined to infer a recent date
for the Vedaic writings from the absence of an undeniably old and
original alphabet.
9. _The original alphabets of the Malays of Sumatra, Celebes, the
Philippines_, &c.--Subject to Rules 1 and 4.
10. _The Tuarick alphabet of Oudney and Richardson._--So deficient in
signs of antiquity as to come under Rule 3.[185]
11. 12. _The[186]Cherokee and Vei Alphabets._--Manifestly subject to
Rule 3.
[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
14. _The Chinese and its derivatives._--It is chiefly on the strength
of Rule 4, taken along with the general unsatisfactory character of the
evidence as to the antiquity of the Chinese civilization, that I allow
no greater claims to originality to this than to any of the preceding
alphabets.
Upon the whole, it may safely be said that no known alphabet, except
the Semitic, has any very strong claims to be considered as an original
and independent invention, by any one who admits the validity of the
four foregoing rules, and recognizes the full difficulty and complexity
of the notation of sounds addressed to the ear, by lines and points
addressed to the eye.
* * * * *
_The accumulation of climatologic influences, and the angle of the line
of migration._--Other conditions being equal, why do two tribes under
the same degree of latitude differ? _e.g._ Why are not all tribes under
the equator like the Negro of the Niger, and _vice versâ_?
Without venturing upon the enumeration of _all_ the elements of
this difference, I will indicate _one_, assuming only that the
climatological influences of a certain degree of latitude have _some_
effect, and that _some_ effect must be the result of the force in
question. I call it _the accumulation of climatologic influences_.
Let a certain locality under a given degree of latitude (say the
west-coast of Africa, under the equator) be peopled by a line of
population migrating from Denmark, under one supposition, and from
Bombay, under another, the line of migration being, for convenience
sake, supposed to be a straight one.
From Denmark, such a line, at its junction with the point in question
(say the mouth of the Gaboon River), would form with the equinoctial
line, and with each intermediate degree of latitude, a right one.
From Denmark, the angle would be, a very acute one.
Now, just as the angle formed by the line of latitude and the line of
migration is acute, the approach made by a moving population towards
any particular point under that line (of latitude) is gradual, and in
proportion as such an approach is gradual, the number of generations
over which a condition of climate, like that of the final point,
has been acting is increased; and in this way its influences become
_accumulated_.
Thus, assuming Bombay to be the original cradle of our species--
The Gaboon Negro is the descendant of ancestors who, before they
reached their present abode, had moved in a line lying almost wholly
within the tropics; whereas--
The American of Quito, is the descendant of ancestors who passed
through the tropics by the shortest cut (_i. e._ at nearly a right
angle with the equator), themselves descended from progenitors upon
whom the influences of the several North-American, Arctic, and Siberian
climates had been at work.
In the latter case how great have been the changes and how rapid
the transitions from the conditions of one latitude to another; how
different, too, the effects upon a series of generations moving along
a line a thousand miles long, from north to south, from those upon a
stream of population propagated along an equal distance east and west.
The former takes them through half the latitudes of the world. The
latter keeps them within a single zone--Arctic, Equatorial, or
temperate, as the case may be, the climatologic influences seconding,
instead of counteracting those of blood, and that in a ratio
progressing geometrically.
FOOTNOTES:
[184] For the meaning of this, see the note at the end of the volume.
[185] For the powers of this alphabet, see the note at the end of the
volume.
[186] For the meaning of this, see the note at the end of the volume.
IAPETIDÆ.
DIVISIONS.
A.--OCCIDENTAL IAPETIDÆ.
B.--INDO-GERMANIC IAPETIDÆ.
This is the section of our species which is the best known, and
which has been the earliest described. Preeminently lying within the
department of the historian and archæologist, the natural historical
questions connected with it, are those of the _minute_ rather than the
systematic ethnographist.
Thus--the information, which would be so valuable in Africa or America,
as to the _general_ relations of a particular population, is useless
here. All such facts are known; and in dealing with areas like Britain,
or Italy, we ask--not to what great primary class the Englishman or
the Italian belongs, but the subtler questions as to the _differentiæ_
of their mental and physical characteristics, or the amount of foreign
intermixture which in one case traverses the original Saxon, and in
the other the primitive Roman stock--each stock itself being a complex
product.
Ethnology of this sort has its proper exposition in a series of
monographs, rather than in a work like the present.
So thoroughly are the Iapetidæ, populations who have encroached upon
the frontiers of others rather than admitted encroachments on their
own, that, with the exception of the Arab dominion in Spain, which has
_not_, and the Turk and Majiar in Rumelia and Hungary, which _have_
lasted till our own times, there is no instance of their permanent
displacement by either Mongolidæ or Atlantidæ of any sort.
Within their own pale, the Celts were the encroaching family of the
oldest, the Romans of the next oldest, and the Anglo-Saxons and
Slavonians of the recent periods of history.
A.
OCCIDENTAL IAPETIDÆ.
_Languages._--Separated from the common mother-tongue
subsequent to the evolution of the persons of verbs, but
anterior to the evolution of the cases of nouns. Evidently
agglutinate.
Here, as with the Atlantidæ, we begin with an extreme, rather than a
transitional division of the stock.
CELTS (KELTS).
_Name._--Either native, Ligurian, or Iberian. In its limited
sense confined to the southern Gauls. Possibly to some of the
Iberians as well. At present, a _general_ term comprizing
populations very different from the original Keltæ (Κέλται).
And adopted by the Greeks rather than the Romans.
_Present area._--Brittany, Wales, the Highlands of Scotland,
the Isle of Man, Ireland.--In Brittany it is doubtful whether
the Keltic occupancy represent original distribution or
immigration.
_Original area._--_a._ _Undoubted._--The _present_ the
Scottish Low-lands, England, Gaul north of the Loire (there or
thereabouts), and parts of Switzerland.
_b._ _Probable._--Parts of Baden, and Bavaria, Northern Italy.
In this latter case it is doubtful whether the Keltic occupancy
represent original distribution or immigration.
_c._ _Accredited_ (either in way of original distribution or
migration).--The Tyrol (Taurisci), Illyria (Scordisci), Asia
Minor (the Galatians), Spain (the Celt-Iberians), Jutland
(Cimbri).
_Frontier._--Preeminently receding; the encroaching populations
being (1st) Roman, (2nd) Gothic.
_Conterminous with_--_a._ in the original area; Iberians,
Italians, German Goths. _b._ in the present; English Goths, and
French.
_Chief divisions._--1. Kelts of Gaul, falling into, _a._ The
proper Celtæ. _b._ The Belgæ. Extinct(?) or incorporate.
2. British Kelts, falling into, _a._ The Cambrians. _b._ The
Picts. The latter either extinct or incorporate.
3. Gaels. _a._ Scotch Gaels. _b._ Irish Gaels. _c._ Manxmen, or
Gaelic Kelts of the Isle of Man.
4. The Cisalpine Kelts of Northern Italy.
5. The Ligurians(?) extended from the Etruscan to the Iberian
frontier.
_Sub-divisions (more or less artificial) of the Cambrian
Kelts._--_a._ Cumbrians of the kingdom of Strath-Clyde. _b._
Cymry of North Wales. _c._ Cymry of South Wales. _d._ Cornish
Kelts.
_Philological Classification of the known Keltic languages._--
Keltic Stock.
|
-----------------------------------------
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Cambrian (British) Branch. Gaelic Branch.
| |
------------------------------- ------------------------------------
| | | |
Welsh. Cornish. Armorican. Scotch Gaelic. Irish Gaelic. Manx.
_Descent._--From the ancient tribes of Ireland, Scotland,
England, Gaul (north of the Loire, and west of the Rhine),
Helvetia, and the Agri Decumates(?). The Cimbri[187] and
Teutones.
_Physical conformation._--Preeminently (according to Retzius)
dolikhokephalic. Cheek-bones, prominent; complexion, referable
to--
_a._ _The Silurian type._--Eyes and hair, black; complexion,
dark, with a ruddy tinge; chiefly found in South Wales.
_b._ _The Hibernian type._--Eyes, grey; hair, yellowish, red,
or sandy; complexion, light.
_Pantheon._--Teutates, Taranis, Hesus, Belenus (Belis),
Abellio, Belatucadrus, Attis, Aufaniæ (Goddesses), Aventia,
Bacurdus, Camulus, Onuava, Ogmius, Nehalunnia, Dusius (the
Deuce), Salivæ (Sylphs)--_Mithridates_ vol. iii.
To this, add the phænomena involved in the system of _a._ The
Druids. _b._ The Bards. _c._ The monumental remains of the
character of Stonehenge=_Máenhír_=_long stones_.
_Antiquities._--Coins, images, tumuli, and their contents,
_Máenhír_.
_Habits._--In southern and central Gaul, and in southern and
central England, at least, agricultural and industrial. On the
coast, maritime.
_Probable line of population._--To Ireland from the nearest
part of Scotland, to Scotland from England, to England from the
parts about Calais and Dunkirk.
This last observation has been made in order to guard against any false
impression arising from the statement of Bede that the Scots came from
Ireland. The evidence of this is, at best, but a tradition, apparently
founded upon an inaccurate etymology. Even if true, it would apply only
to some secondary migration, and be subject to the criticism applied
to the relations between the Island of Sumatra, and the Peninsula of
Malacca, as Malay areas.
FOOTNOTES:
[187] Reasons in favour of the Cimbri and Teutones, being simply
Gauls of Gallia, have been published by the present writer in the
Transactions of the Philological Society.
B.
INDO-GERMANIC IAPETIDÆ.
_Languages._--Separated from the common mother-tongue
subsequent to the evolution of the cases of nouns. Less
evidently agglutinate than the Keltic.
The previous and the forthcoming groups are generally placed in one and
the same class--that class being called Indo-European. The material
fact of the Kelts having broken-off from the mother-stock at an
appreciably early stage in the evolution of the common language, has
led the present writer to refine upon the usual arrangement. To prove
that the Kelts and Goths are related, is a very different matter from
proving that their relationship is within a certain degree.
The Indo-Germanic Iapetidæ fall into two classes--
1. The European; 2. The Iranian Indo-Germans.
I.
EUROPEAN INDO-GERMANS.
Of this class the sub-divisions are three--1. The Gothic. 2. The
Sarmatian. 3. The Mediterranean Indo-Germans.
1.
GOTHS.
_Physical conformation._--_a._ Blue eyes, flaxen hair, ruddy
complexion, smooth skin, fleshy limbs.
_b._ Eyes, gray, dark, or hazel; hair, brown or black;
complexion, sallow or swarthy; bulk, varied.
_Area._--Preeminently encroaching.
_a._ _Original._--Western Germany, Denmark(?), southern part of
Scandinavia(?).
_b._ _Present._--Germany and Scandinavia in general,
Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain and Ireland, the
United States of America, Canada, Australia.
_Descent._--From the Germans of that part of the ancient
_Germania_ which lay (there or thereabouts) between the rivers
Rhine and Elbe.--Batavi, Chamavi, Caninifates, Frisii, Chauci,
Angrivarii, Bructeri, Catti, Cherusci, Fosi, Marcomanni, &c.
_Primary Divisions._--_a._ Teutons. _b._ Scandinavians.
_a._
TEUTONS.
_Area._--Germany.
_Language._--Without a middle (or passive voice) and with the
definite article separate from and preceding its noun.
_Primary divisions._--α. Mœso-Goths. β. High Germans, γ. Low
Germans.
α.
MŒSO-GOTHS.
_Original area._--The water-system of the Upper Danube,
probably parts of Bavaria and Thuringian Saxony.
_Area in the third and fourth centuries._--The Roman province
of Mœsia.
_Language._--Partially preserved in the Translation of the
Scriptures, by Ulphilas, in the reign of Valens.
_Divisions._--1. Ostrogoths (=_East_-Goths), of which the royal
line was that of the Amalungs. 2. Visi-Goths (=_West_-Goths);
of which the royal line was that of the Baltungs.
_Current names._--Probably not given till after the occupation
of the country by the Getæ.
_Native names._--Probably Grutungs and Tervings (Thuringians).
Reasons for believing that the so-called Goths of the Lower Danube were
_not_ indigenous to the country in which we find them in the reign of
Valens, that they were in no wise descendants of the Getæ, and that
they were not known by the name _Goth_ until they took possession of
the country of the Getæ, are given in the Transactions of the British
Association for 1849, and in The English Language of the present writer.
He now arrives at their probable home in Germany by the _method of
exclusion_, _i.e._ by determining what portions of Germany were most
certainly occupied by _non_-Mœso-Gothic populations.
These he places in the country, drained by the northern feeders of the
Upper Danube, believing that from this point the migration took place
by the waters of the Danube rather than by land.
The two following facts are the chief reasons for this latter view:--
1. Their subsequent maritime career on the Euxine.
2. Their _non_-occurrence at intermediate points.--The first place
whereat we hear of them is Marcianopolis, as far east as the vicinity
of the Euxine. From this they afterwards move westward, _i.e._ towards
Rome and Spain.
β.
HIGH GERMANS.
_Area._--Hesse and parts of Thuringia and Bavaria; conterminous
(though by frontiers hitherto imperfectly investigated) with
the Kelts of the Upper Rhine, the Slavonians of the Upper Elbe,
and the original area of the Mœso-Goths.
_Language._--Forming the plurals of nouns in _-n_ rather than
in _-s_, and those of verbs in _-n_, _-m_, or _-nt_, rather
than in _-th_ (_dh_).
_High Germans of the Roman period._--Alemanni, Suevi(?),
Burgundians(?).
The spread of the Teutonic populations, as contrasted with the
Keltic, Slavonic, and Roman, in general, combined with the numerous
displacements of particular portions of the German tribes themselves,
makes the question of _descent_ excessively complicated. Perhaps the
best present representatives of the High-Germanic division are the
modern--
HESSIANS.
_Locality._--Hesse, conterminous with the Franks, Saxons, and
Thuringians.
_Descent._--The Catti.
And after these the--
THURINGIANS.
_Area._--Bounded, east and west, by the rivers Werra and
Saal, the latter a Slavono-Germanic limit. In its southern
extension, probably, passing into some language representing
the Mœso-Gothic.
Conterminous with the Hessians on the west, either a nation, or a
confederacy, and transitional between the High and Low Germans; the--
FRANKS.
_Language._--More Dutch than Saxon or Frisian, and (perhaps)
more High German than Dutch.
_Area._--Indeterminate, but ethnologically bounded by those of
the Batavians, Old Saxons, and High Germans. _Encroaching_;
being that of the population which either displaced or
incorporated the Old and the Hanoverian Saxons, as well as the
greater part of the Slavonians of the Elbe.
_Descent._--Usipetes, Ripuarii, Sicambri.
γ.
LOW GERMANS.
_Languages._--With the plural forms generally ending in _-a_,
or _-s_ rather than _-n_.
_Area._--The Lower Rhine, Ems, Weser; the Elbe near its mouth.
_Divisions._--1. Batavians. 2. Saxons, 3. Frisians.
BATAVIANS.
_Locality._--Holland _minus_ Friesland.
_Language._--Low German, with the plurals ending in _-n_,
rather than _-s_, _-a_, or _-r_.
_Descent._--From the Batavi, Chamavi, Tubantes, Salii(?),
Caninifates.
SAXONS.
_Language._--Forming the infinitive mood in _-an_ (not in
_-a_), certain plurals in _-as_ (not in _-n_), and the plural
of the present tense in _-þ_ (not in _-n_, or _-a_).
_Divisions._--1. _Nordalbingians_ (=north of the Elbe) of
Holstein. Most probably Saxons. Extinct, or incorporated.
2. _Saxons of Hanover._--Extinct, or incorporated in Germany.
The Anglo-Saxons of England.
3. _Saxons of Osnaburg and Westphalia._--Extinct or
incorporated. Descendants of the Cherusci.
FRISIANS.
_Language._--Low German, with the infinitives ending in _-a_.
_Physical appearance._--Preeminently of the first type.
_Divisions and localities._--1. West Frisians, of Friesland
and Groningen; the latter speaking the Dutch of Holland.
Descendants of the Frisii.
2. East Frisians of East Friesland, Oldenburg, and Hanover.
_Language._--Except in Saterland, replaced by the German.
Descent from the Chauci.
3. North Frisians of Heligoland, and the parts about Husum and
Bredsted, in Sleswick.
The date of the occupancy of the North Frisians is uncertain. Probably,
they are emigrants from Hanoverian Friesland rather than aborigines.
The Frisian is the most unmixed, and typical portion of the Gothic
population. It is also transitional between the Teutons and the--
_b._
SCANDINAVIANS.
_Area._--Denmark and Scandinavia.
_Languages._--With a middle voice, and with the definite
article incorporated with, and appended to, its noun.
(Thus, whilst _sol_=_sun_ and _bord_=_table_, _hin_=_the_
for the masculine, and _hitt_=_the_ for the neuter gender,
_sol-en_=_the sun_, and _bord-et_=_the table_.)
_Divisions more or less artificial._--1. Icelander. 2. Feroe
Islanders. 3. Norwegians. 4. Swedes. 5. Danes.
What is the import of the differences just indicated between the
Scandinavian tongues and the Teutonic; are they of such slow growth
as to denote a very early separation of the Dane and Swede from the
Northern German, or might they be evolved in a comparatively short
space of time? The answer to this involves the question as to date of
the Scandinavian migration into the parts north of the Eyder.
My own opinion is that a common mother-tongue might, _within the space
of a few centuries_, develop itself into the languages represented by
the present Frisian on the South, and the Scandinavian dialects on the
North respectively. If so, the Gothic occupation of the Scandinavian
area need not amount to any very remote antiquity. Probably, I am
singular in this opinion. It will be noticed again within a few
pages.[188]
2.
SARMATIANS.
As this class comprises the Lithuanic as well as Slavonic members
of the so-called Indo-European class, the term _Sarmatian_ has been
preferred to either of the more sectional denominations.
_Physical conformation._--According to Retzius, brakhykephalic
rather than dolikhokephalic, Indo-Germans. In many cases
approaching the Turanian type.
_Intermixture._--Turanian, arising from the so-called Tartar
invasions. How far the Tartar intermixture coincides with the
brakhykephalic formation of the cranium requires investigation.
_Extent of area._--West and east from (about) 10° to (about)
40° west latitude. From (about) 40° north latitude to (about)
60° north latitude.
_Primary divisions._--1. Lithuanians. 2. Slavonians (Slaves).
The point most open to objection in the present section is extent, to
which the _original_ area of the Sarmatians is brought westwards.
_a._
LITHUANIANS.
_Philological Divisions._--1. _Prussian_ (or _Old_
Prussian).--Dialects of Samland, Nattangen, Tolkemir--Extinct,
and known only through a pater-noster and a vocabulary of
A.D. 1521, a catechism of A.D. 1545, and a pater-noster of
A.D. 1561. Spoken in West and East Prussia from (there or
thereabouts) the Vistula to the Pregel.
2. _Lithuanic._--Spoken from the Pregel to the frontier of
Courland.--Dialects of Insterburg and Nadrau in Prussia, and
the Shamaitic dialect in Polish Lithuania.
3. _Lettish._--Courland, Southern Livonia, parts of Wilna,
and Witepsk.--_Dialects_--numerous, _i.e._ for the parts
about Liebau (corrupt), Mittau (pure), Riga (pure), Dunaburg
(corrupt).
_Descent._--A. From nations of tribes of the Middle Ages--
_a._ The Galanditæ, Sudowitæ, Pomerani, Pogesani, Warmienses
(Hermini, Jarmenses), Nattangi, Barthi, Nadrovitæ, Sambitæ,
Scalovitæ.
_b._ Jaswingi, Pollexiani.
_c._ Lettones, Samogitæ, Semgalli, Carsowitæ.
_d._ Curi (Curanii), Lami (Lamonii), Lettgalli (Letti), Ydumei,
Selones,--_Zeuss_, pp. 674--683.
B. From the nations or tribes of classical antiquity.--The
Ὠστίωνες of Stephanus Byzantinus=the Ὠστίαιοι of Artemidorus=
the Κόσσινοι of Pytheas=the Gothones (Guttones) of Tacitus; the
Lemovii.
_Pantheon._--Perkunos, Potrimpos, Picollos.
_Native name of a certain section._--Guddon (=Guttones).
The main points connected with the Lithuanian branch of the Sarmatian
stock are the following:--
1. Of all the Iapetidæ they preserved their original paganism the
longest.
2. Of all the Iapetidæ they have had the least influence on the history
of mankind.
3. Of all the Iapetidæ they speak a language nearest in structure to
the Sanskrit. It is the latter fact which has given prominence to the
_Philological Divisions_ of so important a tongue.
Prominence, too, has been given to their relations in the way of
descent, since the denial of the existence of any nations, other
than Sarmatian, as occupants of the water-systems of either the
Vistula or the Oder, anterior to the tenth century, notwithstanding
the numerous statements as to the occurrence of Gothic tribes in the
present countries of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Courland, and
even Esthonia, is a point to which I have no hesitation in committing
myself; a series of papers upon the subject being in the course of
delivery and publication, for the Philological Society.
Furthermore, whoever will so far divest himself of his prepossessions
as to admit the possibility of the _Jute_ of _Jut_land, and the _Goth_
of _Goth_land being something other than _Gothic_ in the usual sense of
the term, will find that no provisional hypothesis will explain so many
of the difficulties created by the conflicting evidence involved in the
terms _Jute_, _Eote_, _Goth_, _Reid-Goth_, _Gaut_, &c., as that of an
_extension of the Lithuanian Vitæ, or Guttones, to the southern parts
of Sweden and to Jutland_.
I say, Lithuanian _Vitæ_ and _Guttones_, because whatever may be the
value of other supposed applications of the roots _Goth-_, _Jut-_, and
_Vit-_, the only families to which any of them have undeniably been
brought home as a native name are the Lithuanic.
Besides this, I am so far from attributing either an over-high
antiquity, or a preeminent independence of origin to the Scandinavian
mythology, that I see in the God _Ymer_, the Finnic _Yumala_, and in
the _Fiorgyn_, the Lithuanic _Perkunos_.
Lastly, the combination _k-l-m_ (as in Kalmar) is not the only
geographical root common to the two sides of the Baltic, Lithuanic and
Swedish.
Still, the hypothesis is, at present, little beyond a mere suggestion.
_b._
SLAVONIANS.
_Divisions._--A. _Extent._--Chiefly philological. α. Russians.
β. Servians, γ. Illyrians. δ. Tsheks. ε. Poles. ϛ. Serbs. ζ.
Polabi.
B. _Extinct or incorporate, but undoubtedly Slavonic._--The
Slavonians of Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Uckermark, Altmark,
Luneburg, Holstein, &c.
C.--_Extinct or incorporate, but not undoubted Slavonic._--The
following nations of antiquity.--1. Scoloti (Σκόλοτοι), Getæ,
Daci, Thracians, Pannonians, original inhabitants of Noricum
and Dalmatia, Crobyzi (whence _Chrobati_ and _Croatian_), &c.
_Descent._--_a._ From nations _and tribes mentioned by the
authors of Classical Antiquity._--Thracians (?), Getæ(?),
Daci(?), Pannonii(?), Iazyges, Limigantes, Quadi, Ligii
(Lekhs=Poles), Silingæ, Bastarnæ, Suardones, Rugii, Buri,
Sciri, Turcilingi, Venedæ, &c.
_b._ _From nations and tribes mentioned by Slavonic
authors._--Morawa (Moravians), Czeczi (Bohemians), Chorwati
bjelii (= White Croatians), Serb', Chorutane (Carantanians),
Ljachowe (Lekhs=Poles), Luticzi, Masowszane (Masovians),
Pomoranje (Pomeranians), Derewljane, Poloczane (probably
Lithuanians), Sjewera, Radimeczi, Wjaticzi.--_Zeuss._
_Earliest introduction of Christianity._--The eighth century.
_Pagan Pantheon._--_a._ _Of the Middle Age
writers._--Veli-bog=White God, Czerne-bog (Tshernibog)=Black
God, Perown, Sviatowit (Swantevit), Radegast, Vitislav,
Krasopani, Pogwist, Jessa, Laicon, Nia, Marzana, Zievonia,
Lelus, Potetus, Liadu, Djedijielia, Pogoda.
_b._ _Of the Classical writers._--Zamolxis, Gebeleixis(?).
α.
RUSSIANS.
_Original area._---Roughly speaking, the eastern part of the
water-system of the Dnieper.
_Conterminous with_--_a._ Lithuanians on the Middle Pripet,
and Upper Duna (_i.e._ in Mensk and Viteskp). _b._ Ugrians
along the Valdai range, and on the Oka. _c._ Ugrians, Turks, or
Caucasian, south-east.
_Dialects._--_a._ Russian Proper, _b._ Susdalian, spoken in
the government of Moscow. _c._ Olonetz. _d._ Malo-Russian
(Little Russian) of the Ukraine, probably passing into the _e._
Russniak of Bukowina, Lodomir, and Gallicia and _f._ the White
Russian of Volhynia.
_Alphabets._--Derived directly from the Old Slavonic,
indirectly from the Greek.
_Christianity._--Greek Church. Introduced between A.D. 980, and
A.D. 1015.
β.
SERVIANS.
_Divisions._--1. Servians of Servia, Slavonia, Transylvania,
and New Servia (a Russian colony on the Dnieper, settled
A.D. 1754).[189] 2. Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(Mahometans). 3. Dalmatians, Ragusans, and Montenegriners of
Monte Negro, conterminous with the Albanians.
_Alphabet._--Old Slavonic, of Cyrillus and Methodius for
Servia. Glagolitic for Dalmatia. Both of Greek origin.
_Christianity._--Greek Church. Introduced anterior to 800 A.D.
Old Slavonic, the church language.
γ.
ILLYRIANS.
_Divisions._--_a._ Croatian. _b._ Slovenzi of Carinthia,
Carniola, Steyermark, South-western Hungary.
_Alphabet._--Originally of Greek origin, or Glagolitic.
Replaced by the Roman.
_Christianity._--Originally of the Greek Church; replaced by
Romanism.
δ.
TSHEKS.
_Native name._--Tshekh (Czech)=_foremost_(?).
_Descent._--The Western _Daci_ (=_Czech_?).
_Divisions._--_a._ The Czesky Gazyk=Tshekh language of Bohemia.
_b._ The Morawsky Gazyk=Moravian language of Moravia. _c._
Slovac, Upper Hungary, _i.e._ the water-systems of the rivers
Waag and Gran.
_Alphabet._--Roman.
_Christianity._--Roman Catholic, introduced in the ninth
century.
ε.
POLES.
_Philological divisions._--1. Of Poland, Posen, and parts of
Lithuania and Gallicia.
2. _Kassubic._--_a._ Of West Prussia. _b._ Pomerania.
_Descent._--From the Lygii of Tacitus.
_Alphabets._--Roman.
_Christianity._--Roman Catholic and Protestant.
Native name of at least one tribe--_Lekh_, the term Pole, being
the geographical rather than ethnological, and=_level plains_.
ϛ.
SERBS.
_Localities and divisions._--_a._ The Sserske (a native name)
of Lower, _b._ The Srbie (do) of Upper, Lusatia.
_Partial descent._--The Silingi.
ζ
POLABIC SLAVONIANS.
The word _po_=_on_, and _Labe_=_Elbe_, so that the Polabic Slavonians
means the Slavonians on the Elbe. The importance of this section arises
from the fact that at the time of Charlemagne they were, with the
exception of the tract occupied by the Saxons of Holstein, and the
north-west part of Hanover, not only the occupants of Mecklenburg, and
the parts _east_ of that river, but of Lauenburg, Luneburg, Altmark,
and a vast section of Germany to the _west_ of it.
To suppose that the Slavonic frontier was not equally extended
westwards, in the eighth, seventh, sixth, fifth, fourth, third, second,
or first centuries, is, in the first instance, to admit the accuracy of
an author like Tacitus.
On the other hand, however, it involves the assumption of so vast an
amount of migration, displacement, and other unlikely ethnological
processes, that a writer who weighs conflicting probabilities is led
to the conclusion that a great historian is more likely to be wrong in
the ethnology of countries like Prussia and Poland--countries which
could be known to Tacitus only as the interior of Africa can be known
to Mr. Hallam or Macaulay--than that, between A.D. 100, and 900, a
whole Gothic population, extending from the Niemen to the Elbe, should
have been replaced by a Slavonic one, without leaving a single trace
of its existence in any intermediate locality; the same encroaching
Slavonians, when we first find them mentioned by cotemporary
historians, being themselves in a state of displacement by the same
previously-displaced Germans.
This, however, is but a very general and superficial view of the
difficulties that attend the belief that the Oder and Vistula were
originally German. Nevertheless, it is all that room can be found for
here.
As to the tribes themselves the chief were--
_The Wagrians._--Occupants of the country between the Trave and the
upper portion of the southern branch of the Eyder.
_The Polabi._--Conterminal with the Wagrians and the Saxons of
Sturmar, from whom they were separated by the river Bille.
_The Obodriti._--This is a generic rather than a specific term. It
means, however, the tribes between the Trave and the Warnow; chiefly
along the coast. Zeuss makes Schwerin their most inland locality.
_Varnahi._--This is the form which the name takes in Adam of Bremen. It
is also that of the Varni, Varini and Veruni of the classical writers;
as well as the Werini of the Introduction to the _Leges Anglorum et
Werinorum, hoc est Thuringorum_.
_Linones._--Luneburg. Language spoken during the last century. Known
through a pater-noster. Slavonic, modified by German.
Such are the chief western Slavonians of the time of Charlemagne. If
they were not also the western Slavonians of the first and second
centuries, they must have emigrated between the two periods;[190] "must
have done so, not in parts but for the whole frontier; must have, for
the first and last time, displaced a population which has ever been
the conqueror rather than the conquered; must have displaced it during
one of the strongest periods of its history; must have displaced
it everywhere, and wholly; and (what is stranger still) that not
permanently--since, from the time in question, these same Germans, who,
between A.D. 200 and A.D. 800, always retreated before the Slavonians,
have from A.D. 800 to A.D. 1800, always reversed the process, and
encroached upon their former dispossessors."
3.
MEDITERRANEAN INDO-GERMANS.
_Physical conformation._--Dolikhokephalic, high facial angle;
hair, eyes, and complexion, dark; frame, more slender than
bulky.
When we consider that the aborigines of Spain were Iberic, that they
probably extended as far as the Rhone, and that the ancient Ligurians
of the Gulf of Genoa are not absolutely known in respect to their
ethnological relations, the apparent impropriety of restricting the
term _Mediterranean_ to the classical nations of Greece and Italy
becomes diminished; to which it may be added that the undoubted
civilizational influence of the land-and-water conditions of these two
peninsulas requires some term to suggest it. The term, nevertheless, is
open to amendment.
So much of what belongs to Greece and Italy is historical, that the
brevity of the preceding and following notices may be excused.
MEDITERRANEAN FAMILIES AND NATIONS.
_Localities._--Greece and Italy.
_Area._--Discontinuous.
_Divisions._--1. The Hellenic branch. 2. The Italian (Ausonian)
branch.
_Historical Influence._--Preeminently moral. Material as well.
The discontinuity of the Greek and Italian areas is a difficulty which
requires more investigation than it has met with, and is a purely
ethnological question.
So is the archæological part of both the Greek and Roman ethnology,
_i.e._ the relations of the Hellenes and Latins to the early
inhabitants of their respective peninsulas.
So is the analysis of their present representatives, _e. g._ the
question as to the amount of Slavonic, Italian, or Albanian blood in
the modern Greek, or the determination of the Keltic, Roman, and Gothic
elements amongst the French.
Of the sub-divisions of the--
ITALIAN BRANCH
the following classification is, perhaps, the most convenient; to which
the previous arrangement of the ethnological elements into _a_, the
Original; _b_, the Roman; and _c_, the Superadded, gives precision.
1. _Italians._--_Original Elements_--_a_, Samnite, Etruscan, Keltic(?),
Ligurian, &c.; _b_, Roman of Rome; _c_, German.
2. _Hesperians. (Spanish and Portuguese)._--_a_, Iberian, Celtic(?);
_b_, Roman of the time of the second Punic war; _c_, Gothic, Arabian.
3. _French._--_a_, Celtic for the North, Iberian for the South; _b_,
Roman, chiefly from the time of Cæsar; _c_, German.
4. _Swiss of Graubündten._--_a_, Undetermined; _b_, Roman of an
uncertain, though probably late, period; _c_, German.
5. _Wallachians._--_a_, Undetermined; probably Slavonic; _b_, Roman of
the time of Trajan; _c_, Turk (Hun, Comanian, and Bulgarian), Slavonic,
German, Ottoman, Turk.
II.
IRANIAN INDO-GERMANS.
The whole of this class is hypothetical. Such as it is, however,
it comprises the populations of Kurdistan, Persia, Beloochistan,
Affghanistan, and Kafferistan.
In order to understand the complications which leave so large a section
of the human species in an unsatisfactory ethnological position, a
notice of the Sanskrit language, and of the _history of opinion_
concerning it, is necessary.
The language called Sanskrit has a grammar of the same copiousness
and complexity as the Greek, and a vocabulary which places it in the
Indo-European class of tongues.
It is the language of the religious and literary writings of the
_Brahminical_ Hindus; the Ramayana and Mahabharata (epic poems) being
referred by Sanskrit scholars to the second century B.C.
A more archaic form of it is the language of the Vedas, referred by
some Sanskrit scholars to 1400 B.C.
A form said to approach the archaic character of the Veda. Sanskrit
is the language of the arrow-headed inscriptions--so far as they are
Persian; the date of these being the reign of Darius.
A form (the Pali) _less_ archaic than the Sanskrit of the Mahabharata
has been found upon inscriptions of the æra of the Seleucidæ in
Babylon, and as such in records older than that of the Non-Vedaic
Sanskrit literature.
The same Pali is the language of the _Buddhist_ religion and literature
in India, in Ceylon, in the Trans-Gangetic Peninsula, in Tibet, and in
the Sub-Himalayan range.
The Zend, a form closely allied to the proper Sanskrit is the language
of the oldest Parsi religious books, the Zendavesta.
Lastly--The inscriptions upon the Indo-Bactrian coins of the successors
of Alexander are either Sanskrit or nearly Sanskrit.
It is convenient in speaking of these several forms of speech _as a
class_, to designate them by the term Iranian.
It is convenient, also, to indicate the extent to which the approach
made by the Persepolitan of a period so late as the reign of Darius,
to the Vedaic dialect, _said_ to be about one thousand years older,
subtracts from the value of a common argument in favour of the
antiquity of the Vedas, _viz._ the extent to which the language is more
archaic than the Sanskrit of the Epics.
It is well too, to indicate as a further disturbance to the current
opinions, the bearing of the _Pali_ character of the inscriptions;
whereby the _oldest_ records are embodied in the _newest_ form of
language.
All these, however, are subordinate questions; the main point being the
enumeration of the Iranian Indo-Germans.
The Iranian Indo-Germans are those nations and tribes, whatever
they may be, who are descended from the speakers of the Iranian
languages--be they Sanskrit Proper, the Sanskrit of the Vedas, Pali,
Zend, or Persepolitan; languages, which, it must be observed, are, in
the present state of our inquiry, _dead_ languages.
What, then, are these tribes and nations? The answer to this gives us
the Iranian Indo-Germans.
When the Sanskrit literature of India first commanded attention, the
answer to this question was--_all_ the nations of Hindostan.
The first researches (those of Ellis and others) upon the languages of
southern India showed that the Tamul tongues, at least, were not in
this category.
Further researches (those of Dr. Stevenson and others) gave reasons for
making the Mahratta language Tamul rather than Iranian--not that the
_vocabulary_ was not Sanskritic, but that the _grammar_ was such as
could never have been evolved out of the grammar of that tongue.
Prominence being thus given to the non-Sanskritic character of the
grammar of one Indo-Gangetic language, the undeniable fact of a vast
per-centage of the vocables being Sanskrit, fell in value, as a sign of
philological relation.
Thence came an application of the criticism which had unfixed the
Mahratta language to the other (apparently) more undoubtedly Iranian
dialects of Northern India--the Udiya, the Gujerati, the Hindi, and the
Bengali.
The present writer believes that it unfixes these also; an opinion
to which he has been led quite as much by what has been said by the
defenders as by what has been said by the impugners of their Sanskritic
origin. It is not likely any better case will be made out for this,
than the one contained in a very able Dissertation of Dr. Max
Müllers.[191] Yet it is so unsatisfactory, that it almost proves the
question the other way.
Now all this goes to show that Iranian Indo-Germans are not to be
looked for in India; except, of course, as a foreign element to the
originally Tamul population.
Whether they are to be looked for elsewhere, and (if anywhere) in what
quarters, follows the notice of the--
PERSIAN STOCK.
_Physical conformation._--Cranium, dolikhokephalic; complexion,
varied, fair with the mountaineer tribes, dark with those of
the sandy deserts of the south; features, sometimes regular
and delicate, sometimes bold and prominent; in the one case
approaching the character of the high-caste Indians, in the
other Semitic or sub-Semitic.
_Area._--Persia, Beloochistan, Affghanistan, Bokhara,
Kafferistan.
_Languages._--Undeniably Sanskrit in respect to a great per
centage of the vocables. _Not_ undeniably Sanskrit in respect
to their grammatical structure.
The last sentence contains the reason for the provisional character
of the present classification. The criticism, or rather scepticism,
which has been extended by others to the Indo-Gangetic languages of
Hindostan, is extended by the present writer to the Persian.
If so--the nation that is at one and the same time Asiatic and
Indo-Germanic, remains to be discovered; it being remembered that it
is only Indo-Germanic through its relations with the speakers of the
Sanskrit.
The divisions (more or less artificial) of the Persian family are--
1. _The Persians of Northern and Western Persia._--Mahometans.
Occupants of elevated plateaux, the alluvial banks of great rivers
being exceptional.
2. _The Kurds of Kurdistan._--Mountaineers. Mahometans.
3. _The Beluchi of Beloochistan._--Dark-complexioned, occupants of
sandy steppes.
4. _The Patans (Affghans)._--Physiognomy frequently Semitic or
sub-Semitic.
5. _The Tajiks of Bokhara._--Here the dominant population is that of
the Uzbek Tartars.
6. _The Siaposh._--Fair-complexioned; pagan mountaineers, speaking a
language with a great per centage of slightly-altered Sanskrit words.
I have no wish to undervalue the import of this last fact--a fact to
which great prominence has been given.
Unaccompanied, however, with any proof that the _grammar_ is
Sanskritic, it leaves the question but little altered.
Kafferistan the Siaposh locality, is (roughly speaking) the watershed
between the rivers Cabúl and Oxus. In these parts we find conterminous
with the Siaposh, and doubtless in the same category--
1. _The Lughmani._--Conterminous with the Affghans.
2. _The Dardoh._--Conterminous with the Cashmirians.
3. _The natives of Wokhan._--On the sources of the Oxus, conterminous
with the Turks of Pamer.
More desirous of directing attention to the numerous ethnological
difficulties which have arisen, and must yet arise from the adoption
of the current opinion respecting the relations between the undoubted
Indo-Germans of Europe, and the equivocal Indo-Germans of Asia
(meaning thereby a native and aboriginal population), I abstain from
any positive expression of opinion as to the quarter from which the
Sanskrit language originated. That the language which stands in the
same relation to it, as the Italian does to the Latin, has yet to be
discovered I firmly believe; to which I may add that, except in Asia
Minor or Europe, I do not know where to look for it.
* * * * *
In justice to the classification of the so-called Indian Mongolidæ,
I must here remark that the position of the Indo-Gangetic portion of
it as Tamulian by no means stands or falls with the relation of its
languages to the Sanskrit; since, even if an undeniably Sanskrit origin
were proved for them, the evidence of physical form would still justify
the inquirer in asking whether they might not still be Tamulians whose
language had been replaced by an imported one.
[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
The term quasi-Pulinda now finds an explanation. The key to half the
complexities of the ethnology of Hindostan lies in the fact of the
Brahminical portion of the population being an invading one, whilst the
degree to which it altered the physical and moral character of those
who were invaded, has a great range of variation, from a general change
to an inappreciable modification.
[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
Now--where the invaded have been so little changed as to preserve
both their original habits and their original language, they are
full or true Pulindas; whilst, where they have lost their language,
but retained enough of their habits to show their probable Pulinda
relations, they are called _quasi_-Pulindas.
* * * * *
The "original[192] population of the country which now separates the
nearest point of the Dioscurian area from the Seriform" must, in its
earliest epoch, have been intermediate or transitional between the two
stocks. However, long before the dawn of history, this was displaced.
By what nations? Most probably, by one of the two following--The Turks,
by means of a southern, the Persians by means of a northern extension.
* * * * *
UNPLACED STOCKS.
In the present state of our knowledge it is safest to leave the
following stocks unplaced.
1.
ARMENIANS.
That the Armenian language has Indo-Germanic elements is undoubted.
Whether, however, they are sufficient to make it Indo-Germanic is
questionable.
Sub-Semitic in appearance, and conterminous with the Semitic area,
the Armenian has much in common with the tribes with which he is so
often and so naturally associated, the Dioscurian Georgians; and it
is through the Armenian that the transition from the Mongolidæ to the
Atlantidæ is most likely to be recognized.
2.
IBERIANS.
_Native Name._--Euscaldunac.
_Localities._--The provinces of Biscay and Navarre, in Spain;
the department of the Basses Pyrenees in France. Conterminous
with the _French and Spanish_.
Compared with the Spanish and Portuguese of the Peninsula, and (to a
certain extent) with the French of France, the Basque language has the
same relation as the Welsh has to the English. It is the remains of the
ancient language of the whole country.
Considering its mountain locality and its position at the north-western
extremity of the country, on the one hand, and the undeniably recent
origin of the present Spanish and Portuguese, on the other, this is no
more than is expected _à priori_.
Further proof, however, has been supplied by the researches of
ethnographical philologists, most especially by those of W. Humboldt.
In an elaborate essay, first published in Vater's Appendix to the
_Mithridates_, that writer analyzes the names of the ancient Spanish
rivers, mountains, and tribes, and shows that, whenever they have a
meaning at all, that meaning is to be found in the Basque.
He shows more, _viz._ that not only Spain and Portugal, but that the
Aquitanian province of Southern Gaul was Basque as well; in other
words, that the present language of Bilbao and Navarre was extended
southwards, and that of Les Basses Pyrenees northwards. Thus far the
views of Humboldt have been generally received.
The extension of the Basque to Sardinia and Corsica, to Sicily and part
of Italy, is more problematic. Nevertheless, it has been suggested;
and, _in the way of colonization_, although _not as an aboriginal
language_, it is probable.
A geographical extension, however, is not necessary to create an
interest in the Basque language. Its antiquity is that of the oldest
tongues of Europe. Before Rome, before Greece, before Tyre or Carthage
had been attracted by the mineral wealth of the far west, the
mother-tongue of the Basque was spoken on the Douro, the Tagus, the
Ebro, and the Guadalquiver. Afterwards it was the language of those who
defended Numantia and Saguntum; of those who dealt with the Greeks at
Emporiæ, and of those who bought and sold with the Phœnicians at Gades
and Tartessus. The Lusitani, the Turdetani, the indomitable Cantabri,
were Euskaldunac. It is better, however, when speaking of the Basque in
its oldest form to call it _Iberic_ or _Iberian_.
That the general ethnological relations of the Basque are undetermined
is denoted by the place it takes in the present volume. The principle,
however, which is most likely to determine it deserves to be noticed.
It arises out of a bold conception of (I believe) Arndt's, adopted in
its fullest extent by Rask, and, serving, at the present moment, as one
of the best _methods_ which honourably characterize the Scandinavian
school of ethnology.
Just as, in geology, the great primary strata underlie the more
recent super-imposed formations, so does an older and more primitive
population represent the original occupancy of Europe and Asia,
previous to the extension of newer, and (so to say) secondary--the
Indo-Germans.
And just as, in geology, the secondary and tertiary strata are not so
continuous but that the primary formations may, at intervals, show
themselves through them, so also do fragments of the primary population
still exist--discontinuous, indeed, but still capable of being
recognized.
With such a view--the earliest European population was once
comparatively homogeneous, from Lapland to Grenada, from Tornea to
Gibraltar. But it has been overlaid and displaced; the only remnants
extant being the Finns and Lapplanders, protected by their arctic
climate, the Basques by their Pyrenæan fastnesses, and, perhaps the
nation next in order of notice.
The Euskaldune is only one of the isolated languages of Europe. There
is another--the Albanian.
The notion that the Albanian is a mere mixture of Greek and Turkish,
has long been superseded by the conviction that, although mixed, it is
essentially a separate substantive language. The doctrine, also, that
it is of recent introduction into Europe has been similarly abandoned.
There is every reason for believing that, as Thunmann suggested, it
was, at dawn of history, spoken in the countries where it is spoken at
the present moment.
If so, it is easily identified with either the ancient Illyrian, or
the ancient Epirote; and, as it is by no means certain that these two
languages were essentially different, it is possible that the Albanian
may represent both. Hence, it would certainly be spoken by a portion
of the soldiers of Pyrrhus, and, most probably, by the whole army of
Teuta and Gentius. At present, however, it is enough to insist upon its
independent character as a separate substantive language.
ALBANIANS.
_Native Name._--Skipetar=Mountaineer.
_Turkish._--Arnaout.
_Locality._--The ancient Illyria and Epirus. Albanian settlers
in Greece, Turkey, and Calabria.
_Conterminous_ with the Greek, Turk, Slavonic, and Italian
languages; and containing numerous words borrowed from each of
them.
_Religion._--Imperfect Christianity and Mahometanism.
_Social Constitution._--Division and sub-division into tribes
and families.
EXTINCT STOCKS.
Is there reason to believe that any definite stock, or division of our
species has become either _wholly_ extinct, or so incorporated as to
be virtually beyond the recognition and analysis of the investigator?
With the vast majority of the _so-called extinct_ stocks this is not
the case--_e. g._ it is not the case with the old Gauls of Gallia; who,
though no longer extant, have extant congeners--the Welsh and Gaels.
To an extinction of this kind amongst the better-known historical
nations of Europe and Asia--for in America such extinction, or the
tendency towards it, is the normal condition of the majority of the
aboriginal populations--the nearest approach is to be found in the
history of--
1.
THE PELASGI.
_Æra._--In the time of Herodotus, known only in two--
_Localities._--Chreston and Plakiæ.
_Area._--As then known, discontinuous.
_Language._--Unintelligible to an Hellenic Greek.
I follow Mr. Grote, in his masterly separation of the wheat of
contemporary evidence from the chaff of tradition in respect to the
Pelasgi; but do not follow him in the inference from the dissimilarity
between their language and that of the Hellenes. The two sections might
still be as closely allied as the Greek and Roman. On the other hand,
the difference might be as great as that of the Hebrew and English.
The point of most importance is the nature of their two unconnected
points of occupancy at the time of Herodotus.
1. If these represented _parts of the original area_, the intermediate
portions whereof had been overlaid by a permanent invasion, the
evidence would be in favour of the Pelasgi having been in the same
category with the Thracians; and, as such, _perhaps_ Slavonic.
2. On the other hand--if they represented two separate _colonizations_
such a distribution would indicate an origin in _a._ Asia Minor; _b._
the Ægean Islands; or _c._ Continental Greece.
A sanguine scholar may, perhaps, hope that an investigation of the
present dialects of the two Herodotean localities may reward the minute
analyst with some Pelasgic glosses.--_Optandum magis quam sperandum._
2.
THE ETRUSCANS.
_Æra of their maximum development._--The earlier centuries of
the Roman Republic. Veii taken 360 A.U.C.
_Historical Influences._--Upon early Rome.
_Social Development._--Agricultural, architectural, religious,
commercial, artistic. Partially self-developed. Probably,
chiefly of Greek origin.
_Alphabet._--Derived from the Greek.
_Language._--Extant, only in hitherto untranslated (or
imperfectly translated) fragments. Considered, by Lipsius, as
Indo-Germanic.
The reason in favour of the descent of the Etruscans from the Rhætian
Alps has not been put, even by Niebuhr, so strongly as it might have
been.
What we find in Livy is something more than an _opinion_ to that
effect. It is an express statement that the Rhætian and Etrurian
languages were alike.
If so, we have a discontinuous area; an area which--considering that
the Cisalpine Kelts were preeminently the tribes of an encroaching
frontier--was, most likely, originally continuous.
I believe, then, that the Etrurians represented the _maximum_
civilization, and the Rhætian mountaineers the _maximum_ rudeness
of one and the same stock--a stock originally indigenous to
Northern Italy, but subsequently broken-up by Keltic and other
permanent invasions. Such, at least, is the ethnological view of the
question--based upon the general phænomena of ethnological distribution.
3.
POPULATIONS OF ASIA MINOR.
How numerous these may once have been is difficult to determine. Thus
much, however, may safely be assumed;--
1. That the languages represented by the western dialects of the
Georgian had _some_ extension beyond their present frontier--possibly
as far as Bithynia.
2. That the languages represented by the Lycian of the Lycian
inscriptions had _some_ extension beyond Lycia--possibly (though there
are several difficulties to be reconciled) as far as the Hellespont.
3. That on some portion of the coast, a language intelligible to some
portion of the Thracians on the one hand, and the Armenians on the
other, was spoken.
Such are a few of the details of an important section of our
subject.--They are given, however, more for illustrating the nature of
the difficult question of _Descent_ than for exhausting the subject.
The same applies to the complex subject of--
HYBRIDISM (EXTREME INTERMIXTURE).
Of this just enough will be said to illustrate the form which the
present classification of the primary divisions of mankind renders
necessary.
I.
IAPETIDÆ AND MONGOLIDÆ.
A. _Kelts with Mongolidæ._--The infusion of Keltic blood takes place
when the Welsh, Irish, or Scotch of England, like the--
B. _Goths with Mongolidæ_, come as 1. _English or Americans_, in
contact with--_a_, Chinese; _b_, Malays; _c_, Polynesians; _d_,
Australians; _e_, Eskimo; _f_, American Indians; _g_, East Indians.
2. _High-Germans with_--_a_, American Indians; _b_, Finns.
3. _Dutch with_--_a_, Chinese; _b_, Malays; _c_, East Indians; _d_,
South Americans (Guiana).
4. _Scandinavians with_--_a_, Eskimo; _b_, Ugrians.
C. _Slavonians with Mongolidæ_--chiefly Russians with--_a_, Siberians;
_b_, Eskimo; _c_, North-east Americans; _d_, Turanians; _e_,
Dioscurians.
D. _Mediterranean Indo-Germans with Mongolidæ_--chiefly with--
1. _French with_--_a_, North Americans; _b_, South Americans (Guiana).
2. _Spaniards with_--_a_, Malays (the Philippines); _b_, North
Americans (Mexico, &c.); _c_, South Americans (Peru, Buenos Ayres,
Guiana, Venezuela, &c.)
3. _Portuguese with_--_a_, Chinese; _b_, East Indians; _c_, Brazilian
Americans.
II.
IAPETIDÆ AND ATLANTIDÆ.
A. _Kelts with Atlantidæ._--Under the same conditions as English Goths.
B. _Goths with Atlantidæ._
1. English and Americans with Africans.
2. Dutch with Hottentots--_Griquas._
C. _Mediterranean Indo-Germans with Atlantidæ._ Spanish and Portuguese
with Africans.
III.
ATLANTIDÆ AND MONGOLIDÆ.
1. North American Negroes with Native Indians--_Zambos_.
2. South American Negroes with Native Indians--_Mamelucos_.
It is only when two extreme sections of two of the primary divisions
meet that there is true Hybridism. With intermediate and transitional
forms, such as the Arab and Indian, and others, there is merely--
SIMPLE INTERMIXTURE.
This is a point of minute ethnology. To take a few of the European
populations as instances, it attempts to determine the amount of
foreign elements in--
1. _The English._--These being Keltic, Roman, Danish, Anglo-Norman,
&c., anterior to, or engrafted on, a Saxon foundation.
2. _The French._--Foundation, Roman; other elements, Keltic, German, &c.
3. _The Spanish._--Foundation, Roman; other elements, Iberic, Goth,
Arab.
4. _The Germans._--Foundation, Gothic; other elements, Slavonic, Keltic.
5. _The Slavonians._--Non-Slavonic elements, Ugrian, Turk, Mongol,
Dioscurian, &c.
6. _The Hungarians._--Non-Majiar elements; Roman, Turk, Mongol,
Slavonic, German.
And so on throughout most countries of the world.
Intermediate between simple and extreme intermixture (or Hybridism),
but at points where it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation, are
such half-breeds as those of the Turk and Mongol, Turk and Persian,
Turk and Georgian, Persian and Georgian, &c.--the difference between
the parent stocks lying within a small compass.
FOOTNOTES:
[188] See p. 537.
[189] Mithridates. Vol. iii. p. 639.
[190] Philological Transactions, No. 93.
[191] Transactions of British Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1847.
[192] See page 123.