ETHIC

We have already had to touch upon the psychology of the Stoics in

connection with the first principles of logic. It is no less

necessary to do so now in dealing with the foundation of ethic.

The Stoics we are told reckoned that there were eight parts of the

soul. These were the five senses, the organ of sound, the intellect

and the reproductive principle. The passions, it will be observed,

are conspicuous by their absence. For the Stoic theory was that the

passions were simply the intellect in a diseased state owing to the

perversions of falsehood. This is why the Stoics would not parley

with passion, conceiving that if once it were let into the citadel of

the soul it would supplant the rightful ruler. Passion and reason

were not two things which could be kept separate in which case it

might be hoped that reason would control passion, but were two states

of the same thing--a worse and a better.

The unperturbed intellect was the legitimate monarch in the kingdom

of man. Hence the Stoics commonly spoke of it as the leading

principle. This was the part of the soul which received phantasies

and it was also that in which impulses were generated with which we

have now more particularly to do.

Impulse or appetition was the principle in the soul which impelled to

action. In an unperverted state it was directed only to things in

accordance with nature. The negative form of this principle or the

avoidance of things as being contrary to nature, we shall call

repulsion.

Notwithstanding the sublime heights to which Stoic morality rose. It

was professedly based on self-love, wherein the Stoics were at one

with the other schools of thought in the ancient world.

The earliest impulse that appeared in a newly born animal was to

protect itself and its own constitution which were conciliated to it

by nature. What tended to its survival, it sought; what tended to its

destruction, it shunned. Thus self-preservation was the first law of

life.

While man was still in the merely animal stage, and before reason was

developed in him, the things that were in accordance with his nature

were such as health, strength, good bodily condition, soundness of

all the senses, beauty, swiftness--in short all the qualities that

went to make up richness of physical life and that contributed to the

vital harmony. These were called the first things in accordance with

nature. Their opposites were all contrary to nature, such as

sickness, weakness, mutilation. Under the first things in accordance

with nature came also congenial advantages of soul such as quickness

of intelligence, natural ability, industry, application, memory, and

the like. It was a question whether pleasure was to be included among

the number. Some members of the school evidently thought that it might

be, but the orthodox opinion was that pleasure was a sort of

aftergrowth and that the direct pursuit of it was deleterious to the

organism. The after growths of virtue were joy, cheerfulness, and the

like. These were the gambolings of the spirit like the frolicsomeness

of an animal in the full flush of its vitality or like the blooming

of a plant. For one and the same power manifested itself in all ranks

of nature, only at each stage on a higher level. To the vegetative

powers of the plant the animal added sense and Impulse. It was in

accordance therefore with the nature of an animal to obey the

Impulses of sense, but to sense and Impulse man superadded reason so

that when he became conscious of himself as a rational being, it was

in accordance with his nature to let all his Impulses be shaped by

this new and master hand. Virtue was therefore pre-eminently in

accordance with nature. What then we must now ask is the relation of

reason to impulse as conceived by the Stoics? Is reason simply the

guiding, and impulse the motive power? Seneca protests against this

view, when impulse is identified with passion. One of his grounds for

doing so is that reason would be put on a level with passion, if the

two were equally necessary for action. But the question is begged by

the use of the word 'passion,' which was defined by the Stoics as 'an

excessive impulse.' Is it possible then, even on Stoic principles,

for reason to work without something different from itself to help

it? Or must we say that reason is itself a principle of action? Here

Plutarch comes to our aid, who tells us on the authority of

Chrysippus in his work on Law that impulse is 'the reason of man

commanding him to act,' and similarly that repulsion is 'prohibitive

reason.' This renders the Stoic position unmistakable, and we must

accomodate our minds to it in spite of its difficulties. Just as we

have seen already that reason is not something radically different

from sense, so now it appears that reason is not different from

impulse, but itself the perfected form of impulse. Whenever impulse

is not identical with reason--at least in a rational being--it is not

truly impulse, but passion.

The Stoics, it will be observed, were Evolutionists in their

psychology. But, like many Evolutionists at the present day, they did

not believe in the origin of mind out of matter. In all living things

there existed already what they called 'seminal reasons,' which

accounted for the intelligence displayed by plants as well as by

animals. As there were four cardinal virtues, so there were four

primary passions. These were delight, grief, desire and fear. All of

them were excited by the presence or the prospect of fancied good or

ill. What prompted desire by its prospect caused delight by its

presence, and what prompted fear by its prospect caused grief by its

presence. Thus two of the primary passions had to do with good and

two with evil. All were furies which infested the life of fools,

rendering it bitter and grievous to them; and it was the business of

philosophy to fight against them. Nor was this strife a hopeless one,

since the passions were not grounded in nature, but were due to false

opinion. They originated in voluntary judgements, and owed their

birth to a lack of mental sobriety. If men wished to live the span of

life that was allotted to them in quietness and peace, they must by

all means keep clear of the passions.

The four primary passions having been formulated, it became necessary

to justify the division by arranging the specific forms of feeling

under these four heads. In this task the Stoics displayed a subtlety

which is of more interest to the lexicographer than to the student of

philosophy. They laid great stress on the derivation of words as

affording a clue to their meaning; and, as their etymology was bound

by no principles, their ingenuity was free to indulge in the wildest

freaks of fancy.

Though all passion stood self-condemned, there were nevertheless

certain 'eupathies,' or happy affections, which would be experienced

by the ideally good and wise man. These were not perturbations of the

soul, but rather 'constancies'; they were not opposed to reason, but

were rather part of reason. Though the sage would never be

transported with delight, he would still feel an abiding 'joy' in the

presence of the true and only good; he would never indeed be agitated

by desire, but still he would be animated by 'wish,' for that was

directed only to the good; and though he would never feel fear still

he would be actuated in danger by a proper caution.

There was therefore something rational corresponding to three out of

four primary passions--against delight was to be set joy; against

grief there was nothing to be set, for that arose from the presence

of ill which would rather never attach to the sage. Grief was the

irrational conviction that one ought to afflict oneself where there

was no occasion for it. The ideal of the Stoics was the unclouded

serenity of Socrates of whom Xanthippe declared that he had always

the same face whether on leaving the house In the morning or on

returning to it at night.

As the motley crowd of passions followed the banners of their four

leaders so specific forms of feeling sanctioned by reason were

severally assigned to the three eupathies.

Things were divided by Zeno into good, bad, and indifferent. To good

belonged virtue and what partook of virtue; to bad, vice and what

partook of vice. All other things were indifferent.

To the third class then belonged such things as life and death,

health and sickness, pleasure and pain, beauty and ugliness, strength

and weakness, honour and dishonour, wealth and poverty, victory and

defeat, nobility and baseness of birth.

Good was defined as that which benefits. To confer benefit was no

less essential to good than to impart warmth was to heat. If one

asked in what 'to benefit' lay one received the reply that it lay in

producing an act or state in accordance with virtue, and similarly it

was laid down that 'to hurt' lay in producing an act or state in

accordance with vice.

The indifference of things other than virtue and vice was apparent

from the definition of good which made it essentially beneficial.

Such things as health and wealth might be beneficial or not according

to circumstances; they were therefore no more good than bad. Again,

nothing could be really good of which the good or ill depended on the

use made of it, but this was the case with things like health and

wealth.

The true and only good then was identical with what the Greeks called

'the beautiful' and what we call 'the right'. To say that a thing was

right was to say that it was good, and conversely to say that it was

good was to say that it was right; this absolute identity between the

good and the right and, on the other hand, between the bad and wrong,

was the head and front of the Stoic ethics. The right contained in

itself all that was necessary for the happy life, the wrong was the

only evil, and made men miserable whether they knew it or not.

As virtue was itself the end, it was of course choiceworthy in and

for itself, apart from hope or fear with regard to its consequences.

Moreover, as being the highest good, it could admit of no increase

from the addition of things indifferent. It did not even admit of

increase from the prolongation of its own existence, for the question

was not one of quantity, but of quality. Virtue for an eternity was

no more virtue, and therefore no more good, than virtue for a moment.

Even so one circle was no more round than another, whatever you might

choose to make its diameter, nor would it detract from the perfection

of a circle if it were to be obliterated immediately in the same dust

in which it had been drawn.

To say that the good of men lay in virtue was another way of saying

that it lay in reason, since virtue was the perfection of reason.

As reason was the only thing whereby Nature had distinguished man

from other creatures, to live the rational life was to follow Nature.

Nature was at once the law of God and the law for man. For by the

nature of anything was meant, not that which we actually find it to

be, but that which in the eternal fitness of things it was obviously

intended to become.

To be happy then was to be virtuous, to be virtuous was to be

rational, to be rational was to follow Nature, and to follow Nature

was to obey God. Virtue imparted to life that even flow in which Zeno

declared happiness to consist. This was attained when one's own

genius was in harmony with the will that disposed of all things.

Virtue having been purified from all the dross of the emotions, came

out as something purely intellectual, so that the Stoics agreed with

the Socratic conception that virtue is knowledge. They also took on

from Plato the four cardinal virtues of Wisdom, Temperance, Courage,

and Justice, and defined them as so many branches of knowledge.

Against these were set four cardinal vices of Folly, Intemperance,

Cowardice, and Injustice. Under both the virtues and vices there was

an elaborate classification of specific qualities. But

notwithstanding the care with which the Stoics divided and subdivided

the virtues, virtue, according to their doctrine, was all the time

one and indivisible. For virtue was simply reason and reason, if it

were there, must control every department of conduct alike. 'He who

has one virtue has all,' was a paradox with which the Greek thought

was already familiar. But Chrysippus went beyond this, declaring that

he who displayed one virtue did thereby display all. Neither was the

man perfect who did not possess all the virtues, nor was the act

perfect which did not involve them all. Where the virtues differed

from one another was merely in the order in which they put things.

Each was primarily itself, secondarily all the rest. Wisdom had to

determine what it was right to do, but this involved the other

virtues. Temperance had to impart stability to the impulses, but how

could the term 'temperate' be applied to a man who deserted his post

through cowardice, or who failed to return a deposit through avarice,

which is a form of injustice, or yet to one who misconducted affairs

through rashness, which falls under folly? Courage had to face

dangers and difficulties, but it was not courage unless its cause

were just. Indeed one of the ways in which courage was defined was a

virtue fighting on behalf of justice. Similarly justice put first the

assigning to each man his due, but in the act of doing so had to

bring in the other virtues. In short, it was the business of the man

of virtue to know and to do what ought to be done, for what ought to

be done implied wisdom in choice, courage in endurance, justice in

assignment and temperance in abiding by ones conviction. One virtue

never acted by itself, but always on the advice of a committee. The

obverse to this paradox--He who has one vice has all vices--was a

conclusion which the Stoics did not shrink from drawing. One might

lose part of one's Corinthian ware and still retain the rest, but to

lose one virtue--if virtue could be lost--would be to lose all along

with it.

We have now encountered the first paradox of Stoicism, and can

discern its origin in the identification of virtue with pure reason.

In getting forth the novelties in Zeno's teaching, Cicero mentions

that, while his predecessors had recognized virtues due to nature and

habit, he made all dependent upon reason. A natural consequence of

this was the reassertion of the position which Plato held or wished

to hold, namely, that virtue can be taught. But the part played by

nature in virtue cannot be ignored. It was not in the power of Zeno

to alter facts. All he could do was to legislate as to names. And

this he did vigorously. Nothing was to be called virtue which was not

of the nature of reason and knowledge, but still it had to be

admitted that nature supplied the starting points for the four

cardinal virtues--for the discovery of one's impulses, for right

endurances and harmonious distributions.

From things good and bad we now turn to things indifferent. Hitherto

the Stoic doctrine has been stern and uncompromising. We have now to

look at it under a different aspect, and to see how it tried to

conciliate common sense.

By things indifferent were meant such as did not necessarily

contribute to virtue, for instance health, wealth, strength, and

honor. It is possible to have all these and not be virtuous, it is

possible also to be virtuous without them. But we have now to learn

that though these things are neither good nor evil, and are therefore

not matter for choice or avoidance, they are far from being

indifferent in the sense of arousing neither impulse nor repulsion.

There are things indeed that are indifferent in the latter sense,

such as whether you put out your finger this way or that, whether you

stoop to pick up a straw or not, whether the number of hairs on your

head be odd or even. But things of this sort are exceptional. The

bulk of things other than virtue and vice do arouse in us either

impulse or repulsion. Let it be understood then that there are two

senses of the word indifferent--

(1) neither good nor bad

(2) neither awaking impulse nor repulsion

Among things indifferent in the former sense, some were in accordance

with nature, some were contrary to nature and some were neither one

nor the other. Health, strengths and soundness of the senses were in

accordance with nature; sickness weakness and mutilation were

contrary to nature, but such things as the fallibility of the soul

and the vulnerability of the body were neither in accordance with

nature nor yet contrary to nature, but just nature.

All things that were in accordance with nature had 'value' and all

things that were contrary to nature had what we must call 'disvalue'.

In the highest sense indeed of the term 'value'--namely that of

absolute value or worth--things indifferent did not possess any value

at all. But still there might be assigned to them what Antipater

expressed by the term 'a selective value' or what he expressed by its

barbarous privative, 'a disselective disvalue'. If a thing possessed

a selective value you took that thing rather than its contrary,

supposing that circumstances allowed, for instance, health rather

than sickness, wealth rather than poverty, life rather than death.

Hence such things were called takeable and their contraries

untakeable. Things that possessed a high degree of value were called

preferred, those that possessed a high degree of disvalue were called

rejected. Such as possessed no considerable degree of either were

neither preferred nor rejected. Zeno, with whom these names

originated, justified their use about things really indifferent on

the ground that at court "preferment" could not be bestowed upon the

king himself, but only on his ministers.

Things preferred and rejected might belong to mind, body or estate.

Among things preferred in the case of the mind were natural ability,

art, moral progress, and the like, while their contraries were

rejected. In the case of the body, life, health, strength, good

condition, completeness, and beauty were preferred, while death,

sickness, weakness, ill condition, mutilation and ugliness were

rejected. Among things external to soul and body, wealth, reputation,

and nobility were preferred, while poverty, ill repute, and baseness

of birth were rejected.

In this way all mundane and marketable goods, after having been

solemnly refused admittance by the Stoics at the front door, were

smuggled in at a kind of tradesman's entrance under the name of

things indifferent. We must now see how they had, as it were, two

moral codes, one for the sage and the other for the world in general.

The sage alone could act rightly, but other people might perform "the

proprieties." Any one might honor his parents, but the sage alone did

it as the outcome of wisdom, because he alone possessed the art of

life, the peculiar work of which was to do everything that was done

as the result of the best disposition. All the acts of the sage were

"perfect proprieties," which were called "rightnesses." All acts of

all other men were sins or "wrongnesses." At their best they could

only be "intermediate proprieties." The term "propriety," then, is a

generic one. But, as often happens, the generic term got determined

in use to a specific meaning, so that intermediate acts are commonly

spoken of as "proprieties" in opposition to "rightnesses." Instances

of "rightnesses" are displaying wisdom and dealing justly, instances

of proprieties or intermediate acts are marrying, going on an

embassy, and dialectic.

The word "duty" is often employed to translate the Greek term which

we are rendering by "propriety." Any translation is no more than a

choice of evils, since we have no real equivalent for the term. It

was applicable not merely to human conduct, but also to the acting of

the lower animals, and even to the growth of plants. Now, apart from

a craze of generalization we should hardly think of the "stern

daughter of the voice of God" in connection with an amoeba

corresponding successfully to stimulus, yet the creature in its

inchoate way is exhibiting a dim analogy to duty. The term in

question was first used by Zeno, and was explained by him, in

accordance with its etymology, to mean what it came to one to do, so

that as far as this goes, 'becomingness' would be the most

appropriate translation.

The sphere of propriety was confined to things indifferent, so that

there were proprieties which were common to the sage and the fool. It

had to do with taking the things which were in accordance with nature

and rejecting those that were not. Even the propriety of living or

dying was determined, not by reference to virtue or vice, but to the

preponderance or deficiency of things in accordance with nature. It

might thus be a propriety for the sage in spite of his happiness, to

depart from life of his own accord, and for the fool notwithstanding

his misery, to remain in it. Life, being in itself indifferent, the

whole question was one of opportunism. Wisdom might prompt the

leaving herself should occasion seem to call for it.

We pass on now another instance of accommodation. According to the

high Stoic doctrine, there was no mean between virtue and vice. All

men indeed received from nature the starting-points for virtue, but

until perfection had been attained they rested under the condemnation

of vice. It was, to employ an illustration of the poet-philosopher

Cleanthes, as though Nature had begun an iambic line and left men to

finish it. Until that was done they were to wear the fool's cap. The

Peripatetics, on the other hand, recognized an intermediate state

between virtue and vice, to which they gave the name of progress and

proficience. Yet so entirely had the Stoics, for practical purposes,

to accept this lower level, that the word "proficience" has come to

be spoken of as though it were of Stoic origin.

Seneca is fond of contrasting the sage with the proficient. The sage

is like a man in the enjoyment of perfect health. But the proficient

is like a man recovering from a severe illness, with whom an

abatement of the paroxysm is equivalent to health, and who is always

in danger of a relapse. It is the business of philosophy to provide

for the needs of these weaker brethren. The proficient is still

called a fool, but it is pointed out that he is a very different kind

of fool from the rest. Further, proficients are arranged into three

classes, in a way that reminds one of the technicalities of

Calvinistic theology. First of all, there are those who are near

wisdom, but, however near they may be to the door of Heaven, they are

still on the wrong side of it. According to some doctors, these were

already safe from backsliding, differing from the sage only in not

having yet realized that they had attained to knowledge; other

authorities, however, refused to admit this, and regarded the first

class as being exempt only from settled diseases of the soul, but not

from passing attacks of passion. Thus did the Stoics differ among

themselves as to the doctrine of "final assurance". The second class

consisted of those who had laid aside the worst diseases and passions

of the soul, but might at any moment relapse into them. The third

class was of those who had escaped one mental malady but not another;

who had conquered lust, let us say, but not ambition; who disregarded

death, but dreaded pain, This third class, adds Seneca, is by no

means to be despised.

From these concessions to the weakness of humanity we now pass to the

Stoic paradoxes, where we shall see their doctrine in its full rigor.

It is perhaps these very paradoxes which account for the puzzled

fascination with which Stoicism affected the mind of antiquity, just

as obscurity in a poet may prove a surer passport to fame than more

strictly poetical merits.

The root of Stoicism being a paradox, it is not surprising that the

offshoots should be so too. To say that "Virtue is the highest good"

is a proposition to which every one who aspires to the spiritual life

must yield assent with his lips, even if he has not yet learned to

believe it in his heart. But alter it into "Virtue is the only good"

and by that slight change it becomes at once the teeming mother of

paradoxes. By a paradox is meant that which runs counter to general

opinion. Now it is quite certain that men have regarded, do regard,

and, we may safely add will regard things as good which are not

virtue. But if we grant this initial paradox, a great many others

will follow along with it--as for instance that "Virtue is sufficient

of itself for happiness". The fifth book of Cicero's _Tusculan

Disputations_ is an eloquent defense of this thesis, in which the

orator combats the suggestion that a good man is not happy when he is

being broken on the wheel.

Another glaring paradox of the Stoics is that "All faults are equal".

They took their stand upon a mathematical conception of rectitude. An

angle must be either a right angle or not, a line must be either

straight or crooked, so an act must be either right or wrong. There

is no mean between the two and there are no degrees of either. To sin

is to cross the line. When once that has been done it makes no

difference to the offense how far you go. Trespassing at all is

forbidden. This doctrine was defended by the Stoics on account of its

bracing moral effect as showing the heinousness of sin. Horace gives

the judgment of the world in saying that common sense and morality,

to say nothing of utility, revolt against it.

Here are some other specimens of the Stoic paradoxes. "Every fool is

mad". "Only the sage is free and every fool is a slave". "The sage

alone is wealthy". "Good men are always happy and bad men always

miserable". "All goods are equal". "No one is wiser or happier than

another". But may not one man we ask be more nearly wise or more

nearly happy than another? "That may be", the Stoics would reply,

"but the man who is only one stade from Canopus is as much not in

Canopus as the man who is a hundred stades off; and the eight day old

puppy is still as blind as on the day of its birth; nor can a man who

is near the surface of the sea breathe any more than if he were full

five hundred fathom down".

It is only fair to the Stoics to add that paradoxes were quite the

order of the day in Greece, though they greatly outdid other schools

in producing them. Socrates himself was the father of paradox.

Epicurus maintained as staunchly as any Stoic that "No wise man is

unhappy", and, if he be not belied, went the length of declaring that

the wise man, if put into the bull of Phalaris would exclaim: "How

delightful! How little I mind this!"

It is out of keeping with common sense to draw a hard and fast

distinction between good and bad. Yet this was what the Stoics did.

They insisted on effecting here and now that separation between the

sheep and the goats, which Christ postponed to the Day of Judgment.

Unfortunately, when it came to practice, all were found to be goats,

so that the division was a merely formal one.

The good man of the Stoics was variously known as 'the sage', or,

'the serious man', the latter name being inherited from the

Peripatetics. We used to hear it said among ourselves that a person

had become serious, when he or she had taken to religion. Another

appellation which the Stoics had for the sage was 'the urbane man',

while the fool in contradistinction was called 'a boor'. Boorishness

was defined as an inexperience of the customs and laws of the state.

By the state was meant, not Athens or Sparta, as would have been the

case in a former age, but the society of all rational beings into

which the Stoics spiritualised the state. The sage alone had the

freedom of this city and the fool was therefore not only a boor, but

an alien or an exile. In this city, Justice was natural and not

conventional, for the law by which it was governed was the law of

right reason. The law then was spiritualised by the Stoics, just as

the state was. It no longer meant the enactments of this or that

community, but the mandates of the eternal reason which ruled the

world and which would prevail in the ideal state. Law was defined as

right reason commanding what was to be done and forbidding what was

not to be done. As such, it in no way differed from the impulse of

the sage himself.

As a member of a state and by nature subject to law, man was

essentially a social being. Between all the wise there existed

"unanimity," which was "a knowledge of the common good," because

their views of life were harmonious. Fools, on the other hand, whose

views of life were discordant, were enemies to one another and bent

on mutual injury.

As a member of society the sage would play his part in public life.

Theoretically this was always true, and practically he would do so,

wherever the actual constitution made any tolerable approach to the

ideal type. But, if the circumstances were such as to make it certain

that his embarking on politics would be of no service to his country,

and only a source of danger to himself, then he would refrain. The

kind of constitution of which the Stoics most approved was a mixed

government containing democratic, aristocratic, and monarchical

elements. Where circumstances allowed the sage would act as

legislator, and would educate mankind, one way of doing which was by

writing books which would prove of profit to the reader.

As a member of existing society the sage would marry and beget

children, both for his own sake and for that of his country, on

behalf of which, if it were good, he would be ready to suffer and

die. Still he would look forward to a better time when, in Zeno's as

in Plato's republic, the wise would have women and children in

common, when the elders would love all the rising generation equally

with parental fondness, and when marital jealousy would be no more.

As being essentially a social being, the sage was endowed not only

with the graver political virtues, but also with the graces of life.

He was sociable, tactful and stimulating, using conversation as a

means for promoting good will and friendship; so far as might be, he

was all things to all men, which made him fascinating and charming,

insinuating and even wily; he know how to hit the point and to choose

the right moment, yet with it all he was plain and unostentatious and

simple and unaffected; in particular he never delighted in irony much

less in sarcasm.

From the social characteristics of the sage we turn now to a side of

his character which appears eminently anti-social. One of his most

highly vaunted characteristics was his self-sufficingness. He was to

be able to step out of a burning city, coming from the wreck not only

of his fortunes, but of his friends and family, and to declare with a

smile that he has lost nothing. All that he truly cared for was to be

centered in himself. Only thus could he be sure that Fortune would

not wrest it from him.

The apathy or passionlessness of the sage is another of his most

salient features. The passions being, on Zeno's showing, not natural,

but forms of disease, the sage, as being the perfect man, would of

course be wholly free from them. They were so many disturbances of

the even flow in which his bliss lay. The sage therefore would never

be moved by a feeling of favour towards any one; he would never

pardon a fault; he would never feel pity; he would never be prevailed

upon by entreaty; he would never be stirred to anger.

As to the absence of pity in the sage, the Stoics themselves must

have felt some difficulty there since we find Epictetus recommending

his hearers to show grief out of sympathy for another, but to be

careful not to feel it. The inexorability of the sage was a mere

consequence of his calm reasonableness, which would lead him to take

the right view from the first. Lastly, the sage would never be

stirred to anger. For why should it stir his anger to see another in

his ignorance injuring himself?

One more touch has yet to be added to the apathy of the sage. He was

impervious to wonder. No miracle of nature could excite his

astonishment--no mephitic caverns, which men deemed the mouths of

hell, no deep-drawn ebb tides--the standing marvel of the

Mediterranean dweller, no hot springs, no spouting jets of fire.

From the absence of passion it is but a step to the absence of error.

So we pass now to the infallibility of the sage--a monstrous doctrine

which was never broached in the schools before Zeno. The sage, it was

maintained, held no opinions, he never repented of his conduct, he

was never deceived in anything. Between the daylight of knowledge and

darkness of nescience Plato had interposed the twilight of opinion

wherein men walked for the most part. Not so however the Stoic sage.

Of him it might be said, as Charles Lamb said of the Scotchman with

whom he so imperfectly sympathized: "His understanding is always at

its meridian--you never see the first dawn, the early streaks." He

has no falterings of self suspicion. Surmises, guesses, misgivings,

half intuitions, semiconsciousness, partial illuminations, dim

instincts, embryo conceptions, have no place in his brain or

vocabulary. The twilight of dubiety never falls upon him. Opinion,

whether in the form of an ungripped assent, or a weak supposition,

was alien from the mental disposition of the serious man. With him

there was no hasty or premature assent of the understanding, no

forgetfulness, no distrust. He never allowed himself to be

overreached or deluded, never had need of an arbiter, never was out

in his reckoning nor put out by another. No urbane man ever wandered

from his way, or missed his mark, or saw wrong, or heard amiss, or

erred in any of his senses; he never conjectured nor thought of a

better thing, for the one was a form of imperfect assent, and the

other a sign of previous precipitancy. There was with him no change,

no retraction, and no tripping. These things were for those whose

dogmas could alter. After this it is almost superfluous for us to be

assured that the sage never got drunk. Drunkenness, as Zeno pointed

out, involved babbling, and of that the sage would never be guilty.

He would not, however, altogether eschew banquets. Indeed, the Stoics

recognized a virtue under the name of 'conviviality,' which consisted

in the proper conduct of them. It was said of Chrysippus that his

demeanor was always quiet, even if his gait were unsteady, so that

his housekeeper declared that only his legs were drunk.

There were pleasantries even within the school on this subject of

infallibility of the sage. Aristo of Chios, while seceding on some

other matters, held fast to the dogma that the sage never opined.

Whereupon Persaeus played a trick upon him. He made one of two twin

brothers deposit a sum of money with him and the other call to

reclaim it. The success of the trick however only went to establish

that Aristo was not the sage, an admission which each of the Stoics

seems to have been ready enough to make on his own part, as the

responsibilities of the position were so fatiguing.

There remains one more leading characteristic of the sage, the most

striking of them all, and the most important from the ethical point

of view. This was his innocence or harmlessness. He would not harm

others and was not to be harmed by them. For the Stoics believed with

Socrates that it was not permissible by the divine law for a better

man to be harmed by a worse. You could not harm the sage any more

than you could harm the sunlight; he was in our world, but not of it.

There was no possibility of evil for him, save in his own will, and

that you could not touch. And as the sage was beyond harm, so also

was he above insult. Men might disgrace themselves by their insolent

attitude towards his mild majesty, but it was not in their power to

disgrace him.

As the Stoics had their analogue to the tenet of final assurance, so

had they also to that of sudden conversion. They held that a man

might become a sage without being at first aware of it. The

abruptness of the transition from folly to wisdom was in keeping with

their principle that there was no medium between the two, but it was

naturally a point which attracted the strictures of their opponents.

That a man should be at one moment stupid and ignorant and unjust and

intemperate, a slave and poor, and destitute, at the next a king,

rich, and prosperous, temperate, and just, secure in his judgements

and exempt from error, was a transformation, they declared, which

smacked more of the fairy tales of the nursery than of the doctrines

of a sober philosophy.