_Corbiana_ of geography. Near _Shiraz_ is a _Bolouk_ of eighteen
villages, called _Fasa_, from its chief place, which itself is about
five or six _menzils_ or thirty-five _fursungs_ from _Shiraz_, and
about nineteen from _Persepolis_. From _Fasa_ to _Firouzabad_ is four
_menzils_; perhaps twenty _fursungs_. The ruins at both, and indeed in
the line between them are great.
A native of _Fasa_, whom I questioned on the subject, told me that
the remains at his city were considered more wonderful than any thing
at _Persepolis_, except the columns. There are great stones with
_Persepolitan_ inscriptions. There is a large mound of earth, which,
according to the people of his country, was transported by Turks from
Turkish territory. The _thaubet_ or government of this place is the
most lucrative and respectable about the region.
JAFFIER ALI, Resident for the English nation at _Shiraz_, informed
me that the number of the _Guebres_ (worshippers of fire) decrease
annually in Persia. They are so reviled and distressed by the
government that either they become converts to Mahomedanism, or
emigrate to their brethren in India. Their _Atech-gau_, or chief
fire-temple, a large excavation in the ground, in which the sacred
element was preserved, was at _Firouzabad_, seventeen _fursungs_ South
East of _Shiraz_. The orifice is now closed; and the fire indeed,
according to a Mahomedan doctor, was extinguished on the day of the
birth of his prophet. The remains at _Firouzabad_ attest the former
importance of that city. _Yezd_ is now the great seat of the _Guebres_
and of their religion; but they are more poor and more contemned in
Persia, than the most miserable of the Jews in Turkey. The works of
ZOROASTER were collected by his disciple JAMAZ, into a book thence
called the _Jamaz Namah_, which is now most scarce.
II. The only hereditary title in Persia is _Mirza_ or _Meerza_. The
derivation of which word is from _Emir_ (_Ameer_ a nobleman) and _Zadé_
a son, &c. This species of nobility is traced very far, and is not
creative. The title descends to all the sons of the family, without
exception. In the Royal family it is placed after the name instead
of before it, thus, ABBAS MIRZA and HOSSEIN ALI MIRZA. _Mirza_ is a
civil title, and _Khan_ is a military one. The title of _Khan_ is
creative, but not hereditary: the sons of _Khans_ are called _Aga_ or
Esquire, which is a _Tartar_ title, and more common to Turkey than to
Persia. The creation of _Khan_ is attended with few ceremonies, and
those very simple. The King sends a _kalaat_ or dress of honour to the
person so created, and on his investiture the King gives him a _firman_
announcing to all persons that the bearer of it is forthwith a _Khan_;
and this _firman_ is worn three days on the top of the turban. Any
person who derides this patent or who refuses to call the bearer of it
by his title, is liable to the penalty of death.
The title of _Mirza_ does not hinder the possessor from receiving
that of _Khan_ also; and then the name runs, for example, thus, MIRZA
HOSSEIN ALI KHAN.
The different ranks of civil governors are--1st. The _Beglerbeg_, who
generally resides in the large cities, and controuls the province
around: 2d. The _Hakim_; and 3d. the _Thaubet_, who severally govern a
city or a town: 4th. The _Kelounter_, who, besides the real governor,
resides in every city, town and village, and superintends the
collection of the tribute: 5th. The _Ket Khoda_, who is the chief of
a village: 6th. The _Pak-kar_, who is servant or _Hommes d’Affaires_
to the _Ket Khoda_, and who transacts the business with the _Rayat_ or
peasant. The _Pak-kar_ accounts with the _Ket Khoda_, and he again with
the _Kelounter_.
The _Kelounter_ is a man of consequence wherever he presides; he is
an officer of the crown, and once a-year appears before the Royal
presence, an honour which is not permitted to the _Ket Khoda_. He
also receives wages from the King’s treasury, which the _Ket Khoda_
does not. The _Kelounter_ is the medium through which the wishes and
wants of the people are made known to the King: he is their chief and
representative on all occasions, and brings forward the complaints of
the _Rayats_, whenever they feel oppressed. He also knows the riches
of every _Rayat_, and his means of rendering the annual tribute: he
therefore regulates the quota that every man must pay; and if his seal
be not affixed to the documents which the _Rayat_ brings forward in
the time of the levy, the assessment is not valid, and the sum cannot
be received.
The three principal branches of the tribute which the people pay are
1st. _Maleeat_; 2d. _Sader_; and 3d. _Peish-Kesh_.
The _Maleeat_ is the hereditary original right of the crown, and
consists in produce and money. The King gets in kind one-fifth of the
produce of the land, i. e. of wheat, barley, silk, tobacco, indigo,
&c. and articles of that description: and one-fifth in money of all
the vegetables, fruit, and lesser produce of the earth, which the
proprietor may sell. Though the proportion be paid in kind, yet it is
assessed, not by the actual levy of every fifth sheaf, &c. but by an
indirect criterion of produce, deduced from the number of oxen kept by
the landholder; and this part of the revenue is collected accordingly
by a corresponding rate imposed upon the growth of the land. Thus the
possessor of twelve oxen is supposed to possess also an extent of land,
the cultivation of which may require that number, and is therefore
assessed to pay a quantity of corn proportioned to the assumed amount
of his gross receipt.
The King collects one-fifth also in money of all the vegetables,
fruits, and lesser produce of the earth, which the proprietor may
sell. Formerly these tributes, either in kind or in money, were only
one-tenth: but their amount has been doubled by the present King.
The inhabitants of towns pay according to an assessment imposed on
the place, and founded on the number of houses which it may contain,
and not according to their individual means. And this levy on any
particular town is but a part only of that charged on the district
which contains it; thus _Ispahan_, which for instance has _Koom_ and
_Kashan_ within its administration, is required to furnish a specified
sum, of which it pays part, and divides the rest among the secondrate
towns, which again subdivide their own proportions among the villages
around; and collect, each in their gradations, the appointed amount
of the tribute, and transfer the whole to the Royal treasury. The
government requires that the collector of any given district should
supply a stated sum, but it permits him likewise to add, as his own
profit, whatever he can further exact. Most of these offices are bought
and sold. By the amount therefore of the purchase is regulated the rate
of oppression. The scale descends; every minor agent is expected to
accomplish an appointed task; but is left to choose his own means, and
to have no other controul but his own conscience. This is the practice,
whatever may be the theory of the administration of the revenue.
The _Sader_ is an arbitrary tax, and is the most grievous to the
_Rayat_. It admits every species of extortion, and renders the
situation of the peasant extremely precarious. This impost is levied on
particular occasions, such as the passage of any great man through the
country, the local expences of a district, or on other opportunities
which are continually recurring; so that the _Rayat_ is never certain
of a respite. It is assessed in the same manner upon the number of oxen
which he may keep. Thus, if sheep are wanted, he who keeps one ox is
obliged to give a sheep, and so on with every other demand which may be
made.
The _Peish-Kesh_. This is called indeed a voluntary gift, but it must
be offered every year at the festival of the _Norooz_; and like the
regular taxes, is required in the same proportion, according to the
means of the people.
By these taxations the condition of the cultivators is rendered
more particularly wretched. On the contrary, the merchants are
less oppressed than any class in Persia. The shop-keeper indeed
(_dukiandar_) pays tribute; but the proper merchant, (_sodager_) a
distinct order, pays nothing at all to the state, except the duties of
the customs, which are comparatively very small, being about one-tenth
on the imports; and as they are not affected by any other imposition,
they are the most wealthy part of the community.
Landed property in Persia is hereditary, and is known by the name of
_waky_. But on the delinquency of its proprietor, it may be seized by
the King, and is then called _Zapté Shah_. It remains annexed to the
crown, until the family are again restored, when the estate, according
to the pleasure of the Sovereign, may be returned. The King, while
he retains such property, generally allows a portion of its produce
to the relatives of the former owner, and this allowance is called
_Moustemeree_. Besides the _Zapté Shah_ there are the _Halissé_ or
crown lands, that from time immemorial have belonged to the Kings of
Persia. They are cultivated by tenants, who defray all the expences,
cattle, implements of agriculture, &c. and divide the net profits with
the King.
At the death of KERIM KHAN, the Royal treasury was nearly empty; but
at the death of the late King AGA MAHOMED KHAN, it is said to have
contained fifteen _crore_ of _tomauns_. Since the times of KERIM KHAN
the value of bullion has increased greatly; the _miscal_ of gold was
then five piastres, it is now eight and a half; that of silver was
three hundred _dinars_, it is now five hundred; and every year the
price increases in some small degree. Provisions and labour have of
course corresponded in proportion. There is no prohibition against
the melting, or the exportation of the precious metals. Every one may
convert his own bullion into any use. If he wishes to have his gold
coined, he can send it to the mint to be struck into any piece of
money; paying the value of a pea’s weight of gold for every _tomaun_.
The right of coinage is secured to particular towns by _firmans_ from
the King. Most of the gold is clipped, as every Jew pares a little
off. The shopkeepers also contrive to rub the coin on a black stone
to try the purity of the metal; by this operation small particles
remain on the stone, which are extracted with care, and reserved till
a sufficient quantity for a coin be collected. Most of the silver in
circulation comes originally from a very fine silver mine in _Bokhara_.
There is another also in _Aderbigian_, and another near _Shiraz_, the
latter of which is neglected, as the expences have been found to exceed
the produce. The King’s treasure is reported, probably with much truth,
to be immense. The Persians indeed affirm, that all the money, which
is received into the Royal coffers, remains there and never again gets
into circulation. In a country so poor as Persia, in which there are
so few people of any capital, the absorption of a million or a much
smaller sum would be immediately felt. If therefore all the sums,
which are annually poured into the King’s treasure, had remained a
dead stock in his hands, there would not now have been a single piece
of gold in Persia. There is no corresponding influx of bullion. Persia
exports yearly three hundred and fifty thousand _tomauns_ in specie to
India; to meet this drain there is indeed an inadequate supply from
their trade with Russia, which purchases with gold all the silk of
_Ghilan_; and again with Turkey, which pays in gold for all the shawls
and the little silk which it exports from Persia. Yet it is possible
that the King may reserve two-thirds of his receipts; and expend the
remainder only, perhaps half a _crore_ of _tomauns_. This supposition
derives some probability, as well from the increase in the value of
bullion as from the accounts of the treasures of AGA MAHOMED; and
further from the common belief of Persia, that a large proportion of
the regular expences of the royal establishment are defrayed by the
_Ameen-ed-Doulah_, from sources connected with his office and power.
Thus he pays the household, and clothes the servants; he supplies a
part of the _kalaats_ at the _Norooz_; he furnishes the maintenance
of the King’s children, and clothes for the new-born infants, and
necessaries for the mother. In Persia, when a woman is five months in
her pregnancy, she provides clothes for her expected offspring: in
this situation the King’s wives send to the _Ameen-ed-Doulah_ a list
of all the articles which they may want; and which, frequently at a
large cost, he is obliged to produce on the spot. For this purpose he
keeps in his house a magazine stored with every description of dress
for every age. Every year he is obliged to build new rooms in the
King’s Seraglio for the women whom his Majesty may chance to add to his
numbers; and for each of these rooms he provides a silver _manzal_ or
fire-pan, a lamp and two candlesticks of silver, basins, ewers, dishes,
plates, &c. and all of silver. To answer these immense demands, the
range of his exactions may well be believed to be unbounded.
The aggregate of the population of Persia is divided into tribes, part
of which live in fixed habitations, and others (the larger proportion
indeed, and all the Arabs) live in tents. These tribes never emigrate
from their own districts, but all have their winter and summer regions;
in the former pitching their tents in the plain, in the latter on
the summits and declivities of their mountains. To these districts
they adhere strictly, as the line of demarcation for the pasturage of
their flocks has been observed from ages the most remote. Each has its
records, and can trace its genealogy to the first generation. The most
considerable and renowned are the _Baktiar_, that spread themselves
over the province of _Irauk_; the _Failee_, that live about the
mountains of _Shooster_ or _Susa_, and extend their frontiers to those
of the _Baktiars_; the _Affshars_, that live near the lake of _Shahee_;
the _Lacs_, that are near _Casvin_.
All the tribes pay tribute. When the King calls upon them for purposes
of war, all (excepting the Arabs and the _Failee_ tribe) are obliged to
send a proportion of men, who are always ready at his summons.
The names of every one of such men, the names of their fathers, and
other particulars of their family, are all registered in the _Defter
Khona_ at the seat of government; and at the feast of the _Norooz_,
they attend the King to inquire whether their services for that year
are required: if required, they wait the encampment of his Majesty; if
not, they are permitted to return, but in either case they receive a
stated pay. This is one of the oldest customs in Persia, recorded in
their histories from time immemorial. Each tribe has its chief, who is
always a _Khan_, and one of their own race. He generally remains with
his people, and has a _Vakeel_ at the capital, who attends daily at
the _Der-a-Khonéh_, and transacts all the business of his principal.
He would be the Baron of feudal times, if he were not liable to lose
his post at the will of the King. Mr. BRUCE informed me that there
still exists in Persia an ancient custom, in cases of emergency, of
requiring from every mill (the wheel of which is turned by water) a
man and horse armed and accoutred for the field; and of these they
reckon one hundred thousand. The reason assigned for the King’s never
requiring the attendance of the _Failees_ on his military expeditions
is, that in time of old (some say the reign of the famous King CAIOUM)
the _Failees_ fled and lost the battle; and incurred upon themselves
and their posterity this interdiction of military service for ever. The
people of _Ispahan_ and of _Kashan_, who either urged or joined the
flight of the _Failees_, were included in the same prohibition; and to
this day bear the epithet of arrant cowards, more happy perhaps to live
a quiet life at home, than to attempt to regain the reputation of brave
men by fighting abroad.
The supplies which are sent receive pay from the King, as well as arms
and horses; and when in actual service are fed at the King’s expence.
When he no longer wants them they are dismissed to their own homes.
The tribes compose the whole military force of the kingdom, except the
King’s body-guards, who are never disbanded, and form the standing army
of the country. Each Prince Governor of the provinces has also his
body-guard, which, in like manner, is never disbanded.
The provinces of _Aderbigian_, _Khorassan_, _Fars_, _Kerman_, part of
_Irauk_ towards _Irauk Arabi_, are all governed by the King’s sons.
The Prince of _Aderbigian_, it is said, can raise from his different
tribes fifty thousand horse and foot, over which the King has no
direct controul; but which, in case of war, He can call into action by
requiring the attendance of his son with all his forces.
In the same manner the Prince Governor of _Khorassan_ can raise from
his tribes twenty thousand horse and foot. The Prince of _Fars_ has
likewise a similar command; but his troops have never been summoned to
assist the King in his wars, as they are always left for the protection
of the Southern parts of Persia. The province of _Mazanderan_ sends
twenty thousand horse and foot to the King. As the _Qujars_ or
_Cadjars_, the King’s own tribe, are resident in this province, He
looks upon this force as his particular safeguard. This tribe is
considered the most ancient and honoured in Persia: they reckon among
themselves four Kings--FATH ALI SHAH, who was killed by SHAH THAMAS;
HASSAN KHAN, who was killed by KERIM KHAN; AGA MAHOMED; and the present
King, his nephew and successor. Of this tribe there are two races; the
first is the _Yokaree Bash_, of which the King’s family and that of the
mother of the Heir apparent are both sprung; the second is the _Asheea
Bash_. The nobility of the King’s progeny varies much according to that
of the mothers.
The two great tribes are the _Baktiari_ and the _Failee_. They
consist of one hundred thousand families each, which, at five persons
in a family, makes two totals of five hundred thousand souls. The
_Baktiars_, of all the tribes, send the most troops to the King’s
service. The King’s body-guard consists of twelve thousand men, half of
whom are disciplined in the European manner, and are called _Jan-baz_,
in contra-distinction to those raised and disciplined by the Princes,
(and particularly ABBAS MIRZA, Governor of _Aderbigian_,) who are
called _Ser-baz_. “_Jan-baz_” means one who plays away his soul;
“_Ser-baz_” means one who plays away his head only.
The Twelve thousand who form the King’s body-guard are taken
indiscriminately from the tribes, or from the population of the cities,
but principally from _Mazanderan_ and the tribes connected with the
King’s own race. They have their families and homes at _Teheran_, and
in the neighbouring villages, and are ready at every call. They are
divided into bodies of three thousand men and do duty by turns in the
King’s palace, called the _Ark_. They are called _Kechekchees_ or
Guards, and every such body has a _Ser Kechekchee_, or Head of the
Guard, who always attends when his corps is on duty; and on the relief
of the guard a _Mirza_ belonging to the corps reads over every man’s
name, and in case of non-attendance the defaulter receives punishment.
These _Ser Kechekchees_ are men of so much family and distinction, that
one of the King’s own sons enjoys the dignity. The _Kechekchees_ are
distributed in all parts of the palace, and are always seen on guard on
the the towers of the _Ark_. Their watch-word is “_hazir_, or ready,”
which they continually pass from one to the other. They are a distinct
body from the _Kechekchees of the city_, who are solely attached to the
police office, and do the duty of our watchmen, with this difference,
that they have a right to ascend the tops of the houses in their
midnight rounds.
Besides this body-guard of twelve thousand, the King has three thousand
_Goulams_ or slaves, who are horsemen and always attend him when he
makes an excursion. All these people, both horse and foot, are paid,
fed, clothed, armed and mounted at the King’s expence. _Goulam_ (slave)
is here figuratively used to express their devotion to the King’s
service; for they are not in reality entered into a state of servitude
by actual purchase: on the contrary, they are particularly honoured by
the King, and his own favourite ISMAEL BEG is their commander. This
chief is one of those who still exercise the _noose_ with great skill;
it is called _kummund_, and there are some instances of its being still
used in their engagements.
DRESS.
The dress of the Persians is much changed since the time of CHARDIN.
It never possessed the dignity and solidity of the Turkish dress, and
much less now than ever. So materially indeed have their fashions
altered, that in comparing with the modes of the present day, the
pictures and descriptions in CHARDIN and LE BRUN, we can recognize no
longer the same people. It is extraordinary that an Asiatic nation, so
much charmed by show and brilliancy, (as the Persians have always been
supposed to be), should have adopted for their apparel the dark and
sombre colours, which are now universal among all ranks. In the reign
of the _Zund_ Family indeed, light colours were much in vogue; but the
present Race, perhaps from a spirit of opposition, cherish dark ones. A
Persian therefore looks a most melancholy personage, and resembles much
some of the Armenian Priests and Holy Men, whom I have seen in Turkey.
Browns, dark olives, bottle greens, and dark blues, are the colours
mostly worn. Red they dislike; and it is singular that this is a hue,
which fashion seems to have discarded even in the countries far beyond
the Northern and Eastern confines of Persia; for the merchants of
_Bokhara_, who come down annually to _Bushire_ to buy cloths, totally
disregard scarlets, and for that colour will not give any thing like
the price, which they will pay for others.
Although the climate requires full as much clothing as that of Turkey,
I did not find in my stay among them, that the Persians clothed
themselves by any means so warmly as the Turks. As the cold increases,
the Turk increases the number of his pelisses, till in the progress of
the winter I have frequently seen a small and puny man expand into a
very robust and athletic figure: but the Persian’s wardrobe does not
thus extend over him as the season advances.